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PROCEEDINGS

TWENTY-SECOND ANNUAL CONVENTION

American Railway Engineering
Association

HELD AT THE

CONGRESS HOTEL. CHICAGO. ILLINOIS
March 15. 16 and 17. 1921

VOLUME 11

PUBLISHED BY

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CHICAGO

1921

(A)

Chicago, Illinois

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONSTITUTION

Pagk

CONSTITUTION 13 25

Name, Object and Location 13

Membership 13

Admissions and Expnlsions IS

Dues 17

Officers 17

Nomination and Election of Officers 19

Management 21

Meetings 24

Amendments 25

GENERAL INFORMATION

GENERAL INFORMATION 26-30

Appointment of Committees and Outline of Work 26

Preparation of Committee Reports 27

Publication of Committee Reports 29

Consideration of Committee Reports 30

Publication of Abstracts by Technical Journals 30

BUSINESS SESSION

BUSINESS SESSION 33-62

Introductory Remarks by the President 33

President's Address 33

Reports of Secretary and Treasurer 43

Financial Statement 43

Condensed Report of Convention 51

Report of Tellers 60

COMMITTEE REPORTS

REPORT ON SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING 65

Revision of Manual 69

Automatic Train Control 70

Display of Signals for the Protection of Track Workers 72

Time Releases Applied to Signal or Switch Apparatus 7i

4 Table of Contents.

Page
REPORT ON BALLAST 75

Revision of Manual 11

Instructions to Govern Ballasting on an Operated Line 89

Specifications for Stone Ballast Material 93

Specification for Washed Gravel Ballast 98

Standardization of Ballast Tools ' 100

PROGRESS REPORT ON STRESSES IN RAILROAD TRACK. 107

REPORT ON ELECTRICITY 109

Electrolysis and Insulation 113

Water Power 116

Specifications lor Insulated Wires and Cables 127

Electrical Interference 128

Underground Conduit Construction 140

Cooperation with the Bureau of Standards 143

Standards 144

Tungsten Lamp Standards — 1920 146

Railroad Specifications for Electric Wires and Cables 150

Railroad Specifications for Underground Conduit Constructi(;n

for Power Cables 1 77

REPORT ON RAIL 197

Rail Record Forms ' 200

The Relation of Shattered Steel in Fissured Rails to the Mill

End of the Rail 216

Residual Ductility Tests in the Bearing Surface from Failed

Rails in Service 222

REPORT ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LABOR 235

Plans and Methods for Obtaining Labor for Railways 235

Methods for Training and Educating Employees in Engineering

and Maintenance Work 231

Table of Contents. 5

Page
PROGRESS REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STAND-
ARDIZATION 243

REPORT ON UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT FORMS.... 247

Revision of Manual 251

License for Wires, Pipes, Conduits and Drains on Railroad

Property 254

Form of Lease Agreement for Industrial Site 256

REPORT ON SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS 267

Revision of Manual 269

Signs 276

Highway Crossings 286

Summary of Requirements and Practice of the Various
States and Canada Pertaining to Highway Grade Cross-
ings 288

Bibliography on Track Elevation and Depression in Cities. . 303

REPORT ON TIES 315

Revision of ^lanual 317

Specification for Cross-Ties 32S

Specification for Switch-Ties 332

Methods of Installing and Keeping Records of Test Sections for

Obtaining Data on the Life of Cross-Ties 336

Report on Economics of the Use of Various Classes of Cross-
ties and Various Kinds of Preservative Treatment 341

Substitute Ties 363

REPORT ON IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES 375

Rules and Unit Stresses for Rating Existing Bridges 379

Principles for Detailed Design of Flashing, Drainage, Rein-
forcement and Protection for Waterproofing Purposes 395

Table of Contents.

Pags

REPORT ON WATER SERVICE 405

Regulations of Federal or State Authorities Relating to Sup-
ply of Drinking Water on Trains or Premises of Rail-
roads 408

Plans and Specifications for Typical Water Station Layouts. 412

Extent and Effect of Incrustation in Pipe Lines 413

After-Precipitation from Treated Water — its Cause and Pre-
vention 419

Cleaning Water Mains ." 421

Methods of Disposing of Waste Water at W^ater Stations

and Keeping Track Free of Ice 427

Effect of Local Deposits on Pollution of Surface or Shal-
low Well Water Supplies 429

Specifications for Substructures of Wood and Steel for

Water Tanks 431

Specifications for Steel Substructures for Water Tanks — 50,000

and 100,000 Gallons Capacity 434

Specifications for Timber Substructures for Water Tanks —

50,000 and 100,000 Gallons Capacity 435

REPORT ON WOOD PRESERVATION 443

Service Test Records 446

Merits of Water-Gas-Tar as a Preservative 468

Availability and Use of Sodium Fluoride as a Preservative

for Cross-Ties 471

Protection of Piles in Water Infested by Marine Borers.... 472

REPORT ON WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES 481

Study of Various Types of Wooden Trestles with a View to
Recommending Two or Three Standards Adaptable for
General Railway Use 485

Specifications and Classification and Grading Rules for Lum-
ber and Timber to be Used in the Construction and
Maintenance of Way Departments of Railroads 494

Table of Contents. ^

Page
REPORT ON AlASONRY 543

Disintegration of Concrete and Corrosion of Reinforcing
Material in Connection with the Use of Concrete in Sea
Water 546

Effect Upon the Strength and Durability of Concrete not
Having a Sufficiency of Moisture Present Throughout
the Period of Hardening 550

REPORT ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LOCATION.... 565

Revision of Manual 567

Resistance of Trains Running Between 35 and 75 Miles per

Hour 569

Economics of Location as Affected by Introduction of Elec-
tric Locomotives 578

REPORT ON SHOPS AND LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS.. 585

Design of Car Shops 587

Ashpits 621

REPORT ON TRACK 649

Revision of Manual 652

Specifications for Switches, Frogs, Crossings and Guard

Rails 654

Frog Designs 660

Solid Manganese Steel Frogs 664

Requisites for Switch Stands, Including Connecting Rods.. 674
Typical Plans of Turnouts, Crossovers, Slip-Switches,

Double Crossovers and Railroad Crossings 676

Gages and Flangeways for Curved Crossings 679

Plans and Specifications for Switch Stands, Switch Lamps

and Switch Locks 686

Plans and Specifications for Tic Plates, Dcrailers and Anti-
Creepers 687

Table of Contents

Report ox Track — Coiitinucd Page

Specifications for High Carbon Open-Hcarlh Steel Tic Plates 689
Specifications and Piece Work Schedules for Contracting

Track Maintenance Work 694

REPORT ON ROADWAY 695

Revision of Manual 697

Subsidence and Shrinkage of Embankment 698

Corrugated Metal Culverts 707

Sealing Bad Cracks in Rock Cuts with Cement Gun 711

Standing Water in Borrow Pits 712

Drainage of Large Cuts 714

REPORT ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY OPERATION.. 723

Methods for Increasing Efficiency of Employees by Furnish-
ing Them with Reports 725

Methods for Increasing the Traffic Capacity of a Railway.. 733

Effect of Speed of Trains on Cost of Operation 760

REPORT ON RULES AND ORGANIZATION 793

Manual of Instructions for the Guidance of Engineering

Field Parties 797

Manual of Rules for the Guidance of Employees of the Main-
tenance of Way Department 802

The Science of Organization 838

REPORT ON BUILDINGS 843

Classification of Buildings on the Basis of "Specification
Types," and upon the Use of the "Cubic Foot," "Square
Foot" and "Bill of Particulars" Methods for Ascertain-
ing Approximate Cost of New Construction 845

Specifications for Buildings for Railroad Purposes 853

Table of Contents.

Pags
REPORT ON YARDS AND TERMINALS 889

Multiple-Storied Freight Houses ■ 892

Passenger Stations 898

Methods of Economic Transfer of Bad-Order Cars in Large

Terminals bj- Mechanical Means or Otherwise 900-a

REPORT ON RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 901

Revision of Manual 904

Recommended Forms for Recording Data for Keeping Up-
to-Date Valuation of Property of Railways as Required

by Valuation Order No. 3, Second Revised Issue 908

Report on the Feasibility of Reporting Engineering Data in
Diagrammatic or Graphic Form, and Submit Recom-
mended Diagrams 913

REPORT ON CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RE-
SOURCES 925

Reclamation of Material 927

Tree Planting from Railway Standpoint 930

Conservation of Human Life and Energy 934

Progress of Conservation in Canada 937

MONOGRAPHS
Part 2

NOTE ON RAIL INCLINATION AND STANDARDIZATION
OF TRACK APPLIANCES ON RAILWAYS OF FRANCE,
by W. C. Cushing, Engineer of Standards, Pennsylvania
System 943

RAIL LAYING WITH LOCOMOTIVE CRANES AS PRAC-
TICED ON THE LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD, by
W. C. Barrett, Trainmaster, Lehigh Valley Railroad 949

10 Table of Contents.

DISCUSSIONS

Page

Signals and Interlocking 956

Ballast : 957

Electricity 967

Stresses in Railroad Track 970

Track , 971

Rail 978

Standardization 990

Uniform General Contract Forms 993

Signs, Fences and Crossings 995

Ties 1003

Iron and Steel Structures 1006

Water Service 1019

Economics of Railway Labor 1022

Economics of Railway Operation 1039

Economics of Railway Location 1041

Shops and Locomotive Terminals 1044

Buildings 1045

Masonry 1046

Roadway 1051

Wood Preservation 1057

Wooden Bridges and Trestles 1062

Yards and Terminals ; 1076

Rules and Organization 1078

Records and Accounts 1082

Conservation of Natural Resources 1084

CONSTITUTION

CONSTITUTION.

REVISED AT THE FIFTH, EIGHTH AND TWELFTH ANNUAL CONVENTIONS.

ARTICLE I.

Name, Object and Location.
Name.

1. The name of this Association is the American Railway Engi-
neering Association.

Object.

2. Its object is the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the
scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance
of railways.

Means to Be Used.

3. The means to be used for this purpose shall be as follows :

(a) Meetings for the reading and discussion of reports and papers
and for social intercourse.

(b) Investigation of matters pertaining to the objects of the Asso-
ciation through Standing and Special Committees.

(d) The maintenance of a library.

Responsibility.

4. Its action shall be recommendatory, and not binding upon its
members.

Location of Office.

5. Its permanent office shall be located in Chicago, 111., and the
annual convention shall be held in that city.

ARTICLE II.

Membership.
Membership Classes.

1. The membership of this Association shall be divided into three

classes, viz. : Members, Honorary Members and Associates.

Membership Qualifications.

(2) A Member shall be:

(a) Either a Civil Engineer, a Mechanical Engineer, an Electrical
Engineer, or an official of a railway corporation, who has had not less

14 Constitution

than five (5) years' experience in the location, construction, maintenance
or operation of railways, and" who, at the time of apphcation for member-
ship, is engaged in railway service in a responsible position in charge of
work connected with the Location, Construction, Operation or Mainte-
nance of a Railway; provided, that all persons who were Active Members
prior to March 20, 1907, shall remain Members except as modified by
Article II, Clause 9.

(b) A Professor of Engineering in a college of recognized standing.

Honorary Membership Qualifications.

3. An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged emi-
nence in railway engineering or management. The number of Honorary
Members shall be limited to ten.

Associate Membership Qualifications.

4. An Associate shall be a person not eligible as a Member, but
whose pursuits, scientific acquirements or practical experience qualify
him to co-operate with Members in the advancement of professional
knowledge, such as Consulting, Inspecting, Contracting, Government or
other Engineers, Instructors of Engineering in Colleges of recognized
standing, and Engineers of Industrial Corporations when their duties are
purely technical.

Membership Rights.

5. (a) Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association.

(b) Honorary Members shall have all the rights of Members, except
that of holding office, and shall be exempt from the payment of dues.

Age Requirement.

6. An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class shall not
be less than twenty-five (25) years of age.

"Railway" Defined.

7. The word "railway" in this Constitution means one operated by
steam or electricity as a common carrier, dependent upon transportation
for its revenue. Engineers of stree't railway systems and of railways
which are used primarily to transport the material or product of an
industry or industries to and from a point on a railway which is a
common carrier, or those which are merely adjuncts to such industries,
are eligible only as Associates.

Constitution. 15

Changes in Classes.

8. A Member, elected after March 20, 1907, who shall leave the
railway service, shall cease to be a Member, but may retain membership
in the Association as an Associate, subject to the provisions of Article II,
Clause 9; provided, however, if he re-enters the railway service, he shall
be restored to the class of Members.

Supply Men.

9. Persons whose principal duties require them to be engaged in
the sale or promotion of railway patents, appliances or supplies, shall
not be eligible for, nor retain membership in any class in this Association,
except that those who were Active Members prior to March 20, 1907,
may retain membership as Associates ; provided, however, that anyone
having held membership in the Association and subsequently having be-
come subject to the operation of this clause, shall, if he again becomes
eligible, be permitted to re-enter the Association, without the payment of
a second entrance fee.

Transfers.

10. The Board of Direction shall transfer members from one class
to another, or remove a member from the membership list, under the
provisions of this Article.

ARTICLE III.

Admissions and Expulsions.
Charter Membership.

1. The Charter Membership consists of all persons who were elected
before March 15, 1900.

Application for Membership.

2. The Charter Membership having been completed, any person
desirous of becoming a member shall make application upon the form
prescribed by the Board of Direction, setting forth in a concise statement
his name, age, residence, technical education and practical experience.
He shall refer to at least three members to whom he is personally known,
each of whom shall be requested by the Secretary to certify to a personal
knowledge of the candidate and his fitness for membership.

Election to Membership.

3. Upon receipt of an application properly endorsed, the Board of
Direction, through its Secretary, or a Membership Committee selected
from its own members, shall make such investigation of the candidate's

16 Constitution

fitness as may be deemed necessary. The Secretary will furnish copies
of the information obtained and of the application to each member of the
Board of Direction. At any time, not less than thirty days after the
filing of the application, the admission of the applicants shall be canvassed
by letter-ballot among the members of the Board, and affirmative votes
by two-thirds of its members shall elect the candidate ; provided, how-
ever, that should an applicant for membership be personally unknown to
three members of the Association, due to residence in a foreign country,
or in such a portion of the United States as precludes him from a suffi-
cient acquaintance with its members, he may refer to well-known men
engaged in railway or allied professional work, upon the form above
described, and such application shall be considered by the Board of
Direction in the manner above set forth, and the applicant may be elected
to membership by a unanimous vote of the Board.

Subscription to Constitution.

4. All persons, after due notice from the Secretary of their elec-
tion, shall subscribe to the Constitution on the form prescribed by the
Board of Direction. If this provision be not complied with within six
months of said notice, the election shall be considered null and void.
Reinstatement.

5. Any person having been a member of this Association, and hav-
ing, while in good standing, resigned such membership, may be reinstated
without the payment of a second entrance fee; provided his application
for reinstatement is signed by five members certifying to his fitness for
same, and such application is passed by a two-thirds majority of the
Board of Direction.

Honorary Membership.

6. Proposals for Honorary Membership shall be submitted by ten or
more Members. Each member of the Board of Direction shall be fur-
nished with a copy of the proposal, and if, after thirty days, the nominee
shall receive the unanimous vote of said Board, he shall be declared an
Honorary Member.

Expulsions.

7. When charges are preferred against a Member in writing by ten
or more Members, the Member complained of shall be served with a copy
of such charges, and he shall be called upon to show cause to the Board
of Direction why he should not be expelled from the Association. Not
less than thirty days thereafter a vote shall be taken on his expulsion,
and he shall be expelled upon a two-thirds vote of the Board of Direction.

Constitution. 17

Resignations.

8. The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in
writing, of any Member whose dues are fully paid up.

ARTICLE IV.

Entrance Fee. ^"^^•

1. An entrance fee of $10.00 shall be payable to the Association
through its Secretary with each application for membership ; and this
sum shall be returned to the applicant if not elected.

Annual Dues.

2. *The annual dues are $10.00, payable during the first three months
of the calendar year.

Arrears.

3. Any person whose dues are not paid before April 1st of the cur-
rent year shall be notified of same by the Secretary. Should the dues
not be paid prior to July 1st, the delinquent Member shall lose his right
to vote. Should the dues remain unpaid October 1st, he shall be notified
on the form prescribed by the Board of Direction, and he shall no longer
receive the publications of the Association. If the dues are not paid by
December 31st, he shall forfeit his membership without further action
or notice, except as provided for in Clause 4 of this Article.
Remission of Dues.

4. The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of
dues, and may remit the dues of any Member who, from ill-health,
advanced age or other good reasons, is unable to pay them.

ARTICLE V.
Officers. Board of Direction.

1. The officers of the Association shall be Members and shall con-
sist of:

A President,

A First Vice-President,

A Second Vice-President,

A Secretary,

A Treasurer,

Nine Directors,

*The annual pavniL-nt of $10.00 made liy each nieaiber is to be .sub-
divided and credited on the books of the Association, as follows: To mem-
ber's subscription to the Bulletin, $5.00; aftnual dues, $5.00.

Constitution.

who, together with the five latest Uving Past-Presidents who are Mem-
bers, shall constitute the Board of Direction in which the government
of the Association shall be vested, and who shall act as Trustees, and
have the custody of all property belonging to the Association.
Vice-Presidents' Priority.

2. The offices of First and Second Vice-Presidents shall be deter-
mined by the priority of their respective dates of election.

Terms of Office.

3. The terms of office of the several officers shall be as follows:

President, one year.
Vice-Presidents, two years.
Secretary, one j-ear.
Treasurer, one year.
Directors, three years.
Officers Elected Annually.

4. (a) There shall be elected at each Annual Convention:

A President,

One Vice-President,

A Secretary,

A Treasurer,

Three Directors,
(b) The candidates for President and for Vice-President shall be
selected from the members of the Board of Direction.
Conditions of Re-election of Officers.

5. The office of President shall not be held twice by the same per-
son. A person who shall have held the office of Vice-President or
Director shall not be eligible for re-election to the same office until at
least one full term shall have elcipsed after the expiration of his previous
term of office.

Term of Officers.

6. The term of each officer shall begin with his election and con-
tinue until his successor is elected.

Vacancies in Offices.

7. (a) A vacancy in the office of President shall be filled by the
First Vice-President.

(b) A vacancy in the office of either of the Vice-Presidents shall
be filled by the Board of Direction by election from the Directors. A
Vice-Presidency shall not be considered vacant when one of the Vice-
Presidents is filling a vacancy in the Presidency.

Constitution. 19

(d) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be
eligible for re-election to the office he is holding; provided, however,
that anyone appointed to fill a vacancy as Director within six months
after the term commences shall be considered as coming within the pro-
vision of Article V, Clause 5.

Vacation of Office.

8. When an officer ceases to be a Member of the Association, as
provided in Article II, his office shall be vacated, and be filled as pro-
vided in Article V, Clause 7.

Disability or Neglect.

9. In case of the disability or neglect in the performance of his
duty, of an officer, the Board of Direction, by a two-thirds majority
vote of the entire Board, shall have power to declare the office vacant>
and fill it as provided in Article V, Clause 7.

ARTICLE VI.
Nomination and Election of Officers.
Nominating Committee.

1. (a) There shall be a Nominating Committee composed of the
five latest living Past-Presidents of the Association, who are Members,
and five Members not officers.

(b) The five Members shall be elec'^ed annually when the officers
of the Association are elected.

Number of Candidates.

2. It shall be the duty of this Committee to nominate candidates to
fill the offices named in Article V, and vacancies in the Nominating Com-
mittee caused by expiration of term of service, for the ensuing year, as

^°^^°^^^- Number of Candi- Number of Candi-
dates to be named dates to be Elected
by Nominating At Annual Election
Office to be Filled. Committee. of Officers.

President 1 1

Vice-President 1 1

Secretary 1 1

Treasurer 1 1

Directors 9 3

Nominating Committee 10 5

20 Constitution

Chairman.

3. The Senior Past-President shall act as permanent chairman of
the Committee, and will issue the call for meetings. In his absence from
meetings, the Past-President next in age of service shall act as Chair-
man pro tem. at the meeting.

Meeting of Committee.

4. Prior to December 1st each year, the Chairman shall call a meeting
of the Committee at a convention place and, at this meeting, nominees
for office shall be agreed upon.

Announcement of Names of Nominees.

5. The names of the nominees shall be announced by the perma-
nent Chairman to the President and Secretary not later than December
15th of the same year, and the Secretary shall report them to the mem-
bers of the Association on a printed slip not later than January 1st
following.

Additional Nominations by Members.

6. At any time between January 1st and February 1st, any ten or
more Members may send to the Secretary additional nominations for the
ensuing year signed by such Members.

Vacancies in List of Nominees.

7. If any person so nominated shall be found by the Board of
Direction to be ineligible for the office for which he is nominated, or
should a nominee decline such nomination, his name shall be re-
moved and the Board may substitute another one therefor; and may
also fill any vacancies that may occur in this list of nominees up to the
time the ballots are sent out.

Ballots Issued.

8. Not less than thirty days prior to each Annual Convention,
the Secretary shall issue ballots to each voting member of record in good
standing, with a list of the several candidates to be voted upon, with
the names arranged in alphabetical order when there is more than one
name for any office.

Substitution of Names.

9. Members may erase names from the printed ballot list and may
substitute the name or names of any other person or persons eligible for
any office, but the number of names voted for each office on the ballot
must not exceed the number to be elected at that time to such office.

Constitution. 21

Ballots.

10. (a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed
with the name of the voter, and mailed or deposited with the Secretary
at any time previous to the closure of the polls.

(b) A voter may withdraw his ballot, and may substitute another,
at any time before the polls close.

Invalid Ballots.

11. Ballots not endorsed or from persons not qualified to vote shall
not be opened; and any others not complying with the above provisions
shall not be counted.

Closure of Polls.

12. The polls shall be closed at twelve o'clock noon on the second
day of the Annual Convention, and the ballots shall be counted by three
tellers appointed by the Presiding Officer. The ballots and envelopes
shall be preserved for not less than ten days after the vote is canvassed.
Requirements for Election.

13. The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for
the offices for which they are candidates shall be declared elected.
Tie Vote.

14. In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same
office, the members present at the Annual Convention shall elect the ofVi
cer by ballot from the candidates so tied.

Announcement.

15. The Presiding Officer shall announce at this convention lUe
names of the officers elected in accordance with this Article.

First Nominating Committee.

16. Except as to the Past-Presidents, the first Nominating Coinmii-
tee and the three additional Directors provided for shall be appointed
by the Board of Direction, one of the Directors for one year, one for
two years and one for three years.

ARTICLE VII.
Duties of President. Management.

1. (a) The President shall have general supervision of the aflfairs
of the Association, shall preside at meetings of the Association and of
the Board of Direction, and shall be ex-officio member of all Commit-
tees, except the Nominating Committee.

Constitution

(b) The Vice-Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at
meetings in the absence of the President and discharge his duties in
case of a vacancy in his office.

Duties of Secretary.

2. The Secretary shall be, under the direction of the President and
Board of Direction, the Executive Officer of the Association. He shall
attend the meetings of the Association and of the Board of Direction,
prepare the business therefor, and duly record the proceedings thereof.
He shall see that the moneys due the Association are collected and without
loss transferred to the custody of the Treasurer. He shall personally
certify to the accuracy of all bills or vouchers on which money is to
be paid. He is to conduct the correspondence of the Association and
keep proper record thereof, and perform such other duties as the Board
of Direction may prescribe.

Duties of Treasurer.

3. The Treasurer shall receive all moneys and deposit same in the
name of the Association, and shall receipt to the Secretary therefor. He
shall invest all funds not needed for current disbursements as shall be
ordered by the Board of Direction. He shall pay all bills, when properly
certified and audited by the Finance Committee, and make such reports
as may be called for by the Board of Direction.

Auditing of Accounts.

4. The accounts of the Treasurer and Secretary shall be audited
annually by a public accountant, under the direction of the Finance
Committee of the Board.

Duties of Board.

5. The Board of Direction shall manage the affairs of the Associa-
tion, and shall have full power to control and regulate all matters not
otherwise provided in the Constitution.

Board IVleetings.

6. The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each
Annual Convention, and at such other times as the President may direct.
Special meetings shall be called on request, in writing, of five members of
the Board.

Board Quorum.

7. Seven members of the Board shall constitute a quorum.

Board Committees.

8. At the first meeting of the Board after the Annual Convention,
the following committees from its members shall be appointed by the

Constitution. 23

President, and shall report to and perform their duties under the
supervision of the Board of Direction:

a. Finance Committee of three members.

b. Publication Committee of three members.

c. Library Committee of three members.

d. Outline of Work of Standing Committees of five members.
Duties of Finance Committee.

9. The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the
accounts and financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills
before payment, and shall make recommendations to the Board of Direc-
tion as to the investment of moneys and as to other financial matters.
The Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur debts or other
obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of
the Association, except by previous action and authority of the Board
of Direction.

Duties of Publication Committee.

10. The Publication Committee shall have general supervision of
the publications of the Association.

Duties of Library Committee.

11. The Library Committee shall have general supervision of the
Library, the property therein, and the quarters occupied by the Secre-
tary; shall make recommendations to the Board with reference thereto,
and shall direct the expenditure for books and other articles of perma-
nent value, from such sums as may be appropriated for these purposes.
Duties of Committee on Outline of Work of Standing Committees.

12. The Committee on Outline of Work of Standing Committees
shall present a list of subjects for committee work during the ensuing
year at the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the Annual
Convention.

Standing Committees.

13. The Board of Direction may appoint such Standing Committees
as it may deem best, to investigate, consider and report upon questions
pertaining to railway location, construction or maintenance.

Special Committees.

14. Special Committees to examine into and report upon any sub-
ject connected with the objects of this Association may be appointed
from time to time by the Board of Direction.

24 Constitution,

Discussion by Non-Members.

15. The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from
persons not members of the Association.

Sanction of Acts of Board.

16. An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the
expressed or implied sanction of the membership at the next Annual
Convention of the Association shall be deemed to be the act of the
Association, and shall not afterwards be impeached by any Member.

ARTICLE VIII.

A.,K...,i r««v/«^*irt« Meetings.

Annual Convention.

1. The Annual Convention shall begin upon the third Tuesday
in March of each year, and shall be held at such place in the City of
Chicago as the Board of Direction may select.

Special Meetings.

2. Special meetings of the Association may be called by the Board
of Direction, and special meetings shall be so called by the Board upon
request of thirty Members, which request shall state the purpose of
such meeting. The call for such meeting shall be issued not less than
ten days in advance, and shall state the purpose and place thereof, and
no other business shall be taken up at such meeting.

Notification of Annual Convention.

3. The Secretary shall notify all members of the time and place of
the Annual Convention of the Association at least thirty days in advance
thereof.

Association Quorum.

4. Twenty-five Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings
of the Association.

Order of Business.

5. (a) The order of business at annual conventions of the Asso-
ciation shall be as follows:

Reading of minutes of last meeting.
Address of the President.
Reports of the Secretary and Treasurer.
Reports of Standing Committees.
Reports of Special Committees.
Unfinished business.

Constitution. 25

New business.

Election of officers.

Adjournment,
(b) This order of business, however, may be changed by a majority
vote of members present.
Rules of Order.

6. The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order,"
except as otherwise herein provided.

Discussion.

7. Discussion shall be limited to members and to those invited by
the presiding officer to speak.

ARTICLE IX.
Amendments. Amendments.

1. Proposed amendments to this Constitution shall be made in writ-
ing and signed by not less than ten Members, and shall be acted upon in
the following manner :

The amendments shall be presented to the Secretary, who shall send
a copy of same to each member of the Board of Direction as soon as
received. If at the next meeting of the Board of Direction a majority
of the entire Board are in favor of considering the proposed amend-
ments, the matter shall then be submitted to the Association for letter-
ballot, and the result announced by the Secretary at the next Annual
Convention. In case two-thirds of the votes received are affirmative, the
amendments shall be declared adopted and become immediately effective.

GENERAL INFORMATION.

(Subject to change from time to time by Board of Direction.)
GENERAL RULES FOR THE PREPARATION, PUBLICATION

AND CONSIDERATION OF COMMITTEE REPORTS.

(A) Appointment of Committees and Outline of Work.
Standing Committees.

1. The following are Standing Committees:

I. Roadway.

II. Ballast.

III. Ties.

IV. Rail.
V. Track.

VI. Buildings.

VII. Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

VIII. Masonry.

IX. Signs, Fences and Crossings.

X. Signals and Interlocking.

XI. Records and Accounts.

XII. Rules and Organization.

XIII. Water Service.

XIV. Yards and Terminal.
XV. Iron and Steel Structures.

XVI. Economics of Railway Location.
XVII. Wood Preservation.
XVIII. Electricity.
XIX. Ccnservation of Natural Resources.
XX. Uniform General Contract Forms.
XXI. Economics of Railway Operation.
XXII. Economics of Railway Labor.
XXIII. Shops and Locomotive Terminals.
Special Committees.

2. Special Committees will be appointed from time to time, as may
be deemed expedient, in the manner prescribed by Article VII, Clause
14, of the Constitution.

The following are Special Committees :

Stresses in Railroad Track.

Standardization.

Clearance Diagram.

General Information. 27

Personnel of Committees.

3. The personnel of all Committees will continue from year to
year, except when changes are announced by the Board of Direction.
Ten per cent, of the membership of each Committee shall be changed
each year.

Members of committees who do not attend meetings of committees
during the year or render service by correspondence will be relieved and
the vacancies filled by the Board at the succeeding Annual Convention.

Outline of Worl<.

4. As soon as practicable after each Annual Convention the Board
of Direction will assign to each Committee the important questions
which, in its judgment, should preferably be considered during the cur-
rent year. Committees are privileged to present the results of any
special study or investigation they may be engaged upon or that may be
considered of sufficient importance to warrant presentation.

General ^^^ Preparation of Committee Reports.

5. The collection and compilation of data and subsequent analysis
in the form of arguments and criticism is a necessary and valuable pre-
liminary element of committee-work.

Collection of Data.

6. Committees are privileged to obtain data or information in any
proper way. The Secretary will issue circulars of inquiry, which should
be brief and concise. The questions asked should be specific
and pertinent, and not of such general or involved character as to
preclude the possibility of obtaining satisfactory and prompt responses.
They should specify to whom answers are to be sent, and should be in
such form that copies can be retained by persons replying either by
typewriter or blueprint.

Plan of Reports.

7. Committee reports should be prepared as far as practicable to
conform to the following general plan :

(a) It is extremely important that every Committee should examine
its own subject-matter in the "Manual" prior to each Annual Convention,
and revise and supplement it, if deemed desirable, giving the necessary
notice of any recommended changes in accordance with Clause 6 (a) of
the General Rules for the Publication of the "Manual." If no changes
are recommended, statement should be made accordingly.

28 General Information.

(b) When deemed necessary, the previous report should be reviewed.

(c) Subjects presented in previous reports on vv-hich no action
was taken should be resubmitted, stating concisely the action desired. It
may not be necessary to repeat the original text in the report, reference
to former publication being sufficient, unless changes in the previously
published version are extensive. Minor changes can be explained in the
text of the report.

Definitions.

(d) Technical terms used in the report, the meaning of which is
not clearly established, should be defined, but defined only from the
standpoint of railway engineering.

History.

(e) If necessary, a brief history of the subject-matter under dis-
cussion, with an outline of its origin and development, should be given.

Analysis.

(f) An analysis of the most important elements of the subject-
matter should be given.

Argument.

(g) The advantages and disadvantages of the present and recom-
mended practices should be set forth.

Illustrations.

(h) Illustrations accompanying reports should be prepared so that
they can be reproduced on one page. The use of folders should be
avoided as much as possible, on account of the increased expense and in-
convenience in referring to them. Plans showing current practice, or
necessary for illustration, are admissible, but those showing proposed
definite design or practice should be excluded. Recommendations should
be confined to governing principles.

Illustrations should be made on tracing cloth with heavy black lines
and figures, so as to stand a two-thirds reduction; for example: To come
within a type page (4 inches by 7 inches), the illustration should be made
three times the above size.

To insure uniformity, the one-stroke, inclined Gothic lettering is
recommended.

Photographs should be clear and distinct silver prints.
Conclusions.

(i) The conclusions of the Committee which are recommended for
publication in the Manual should be stated in concise language, logical

General Information. 29

sequence, and grouped together, setting forth the principles, specifications,
definitions, forms, tables and formulas included in the recommendation.
Portions of the text of the report which are essential to a clear inter-
pretation and understanding of the conclusions, should be included as
an integral part thereof.

8. (a) Reports will be required from each of the Standing and
Special Committees each year.

(b) Although several subjects may be assigned to each Committee
by the Board of Direction, a full report on only one subject is expected
at each Annual Convention, but "the preliminary work on some of the
remaining subjects should be in progress, and, when deemed advisable,
partial reports of progress should also be presented. This method allows
time for their proper preparation and consideration.
Date of Filing Reports.

9. Committee reports to come before the- succeeding convention for
discussion should be filed with the Secretary not later than November
30th of each year.

10. Committees engaged upon subjects involving an extended investi-
gation and study are privileged to present progress reports, giving a
brief statement of the work accomplished, and, if deemed expedient, a
forecast of the final report to be presented.

Publication of Reports.

11. Committee reports will be published in the Bulletin in such
sequence as the Board of Direction may determine, for consideration at
the succeeding convention. Reports will be published in the form pre-
sented by the respective Committees. Alterations ordered by the conven-
tion will be printed as an appendix to the report.

Written Discussions.

12. Committees should endeavor to secure written discussions of
published reports. Written discussions will be transmitted to the
respective Committees, and if deemed desirable by the Committee, the
discussions will be published prior to the convention and be considered
in connection with the report.

Verbal Discussions.

13. Each speaker's remarks will be submitted to him in writing
before publication in the Proceedings, for the correction of diction and
errors of reporting, but not for the elimination of remarks.

30 General Information.

e -..-,^o«. (D) Consideration of Committee Reports.

Sequence. ^ '

14. The sequence in which Committee reports will be considered by
the convention will be determined by the Board of Direction.

Method.

15. The method of consideration of Committee reports will be one
of the following:

(a) Reading by title.

(b) Reading, discussing and acting upon each conclusion sep-

arately.

Clauses not objected to when read will be considered
as voted upon and adopted.
Final Action.

16. Action by the convention on Committee reports will be one of
the following, after discussion is closed:

(a) Receiving as information.

(b) Receiving as a progress report.

mainder back to Committee.

(d) Adoption as a whole.

(e) Recommittal with or without instructions.

(f) Adoption as a whole.

(g) Recommendation to publish in the Manual.

Note.— An amendment which affects underlying principles, if adopted,
shall of itself constitute a recommittal of such part of the report as
the Committee considers affected.

The Chair will decline to entertain amendments which in his opinion
lie entirely within the duties of the Editor.

(E) Publication by Technical Journals.

The following rules will govern the releasing of matter for publica-
tion in technical journals:

Committee reports, requiring action by the Association at the annual
convention, will not be released until after presentation to the conven-
tion; special articles, contributed by members and others, on which no
action by the Association is necessary, are to be released for publication
by the technical journals after issuance in the Bulletin; provided, appli-
cation therefor is made in writing and proper credit be given the Asso-
ciation, authors or Committees presenting such material.

BUSINESS SESSION

PROCEEDINGS

The Object of this Association is the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the scientific

and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of railways.

Its action is not binding upon its Members.

TUESDAY, MARCH 15, 1921

MORNING SESSION

The Twenty-second Annual Convention of the American Railway
Engineering Association was called to order by the President, Mr. H. R.
Safford, Assistant to the President, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Rail-
road, at 9:15 a. m.

The President: — The Twenty-second Annual Convention of the Asso-
ciation will please come to order.

The first matter of business is the reading of the Minutes of the last
Convention; but inasmuch as the Minutes have been printed and dis-
tributed to the members, unless there is some objection to them, and the
opportunity will be given for making objection, they will stand approved.
Such opportunity is now given. There being no objection to the Minutes
as printed, they will stand approved.

The Chair desires to extend the usual invitation to members of facul-
ties of colleges and universities and to railway officials to the privileges
of the floor in discussion, and you are all cordially invited to take part
therein.

The next order of business is the address of the President.

ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT H. R. SAFFORD

This annual meeting marks the close of the twenty-second year of
the life of the American Railway Engineering Association — practically a
generation as human life is measured.

And, in some ways, it would seem that we have just passed through
a period which will mark a very definite generation in the history of
railroads.

This thought is suggested when we recall that at the end of the
Association's twenty-first year we find the railroad industry, of which
we are a part, at the threshold of a new era.

33 (A)

Business Session

Many things point to this belief, marked primarily by a new Trans-
portation Act expressing a desire on the part of the public for private con-
trol with protective regulation, with expressed support of efficient and
honest management and an earnest desire to restore confidence in the
enterprise and credit to the structure.

The termination of Federal control and the restoration of the prop-
erties to their owners coincident with the passage of the new Transpor-
tation Act seem to mark the close of a period when there was a noticeable
and increasing tendency toward excessive and burdensome regulation, an
increasing failure upon the part of the public to fully understand and ap-
preciate the rail transportation structure and especially a failure to realize
the interdependence and joint responsibility resting upon both the railroad
and the user to create, support and maintain what the public most desires,
namely, good transportation.

These tendencies were the natural result of influences not of a con-
structive character and preaching discontent, unfairness, and discrimina-
tion, appealing to the individual or the territorial group of the public and
shipper who naturally felt interested from a viewpoint of limited scope
and dominated by selfishness rather than a desire to assume any respon-
sibility for maintaining an efficient public service in general.

In two years the test of centralized direction has taught the public
what could not and would not have been learned through any other agency.

A great change and I believe for the better has taken place — new
powers and responsibilities are assumed by lawfully created public bodies
— a different attitude is observed on the part of the shipper and the
traveller and new conditions also surround the details of operation af-
fecting theories of development and expansion of existing properties and
the promotion of new projects, which are vastly diflferent from twenty-one
years ago.

This Association in devoting its entire attention to Railway Con-
struction, Operation and Maintenance will find its efforts and results mea-
sured by the same standards applied to the various phases of railway
service and we must feel the same sense of responsibility in trying to per-
fect the studies of the service which are entrusted to us that is felt by
the executive and financial heads if we are to do our part in making the
business successful and of permanent existence as a private enterprise.

I believe I sense correctly when I say that our responsibilities arc
greater than ever before because the public in expressing preference for
private operation places the responsibility in the owners' hands, but will,

Business Session

through its established lawful representatives, scrutinize our performance
and expect consistent practice along efficient and economic lines — but
wanting at the same time all the initiative and resourcefulness within our
power.

Probably no industry felt as severely the impact and the continued
stresses of war. It seemed sometimes as if the structure would not sur-
vive the eccentric and unexpected strains for which it was not designed,
but it has done so and from the test will be developed new formulae giv-
ing truer results in future study and the structure should be much more
scientifically designed than ever before.

We are now passing through the severe and trying period of read-
justment from the war strain and greater therefore is the need for in-
tensive study of economic problems and renewed efforts to direct con-
trolling influences to a stabilization of t1:e situation so that the industry
may thrive and prosper as intended by the new legislation.

A review of our own activities as an Association for tiie past year
seems quite in order and I turn first to the master of membership.

It has always been the policy to place a high premium upon quality
of membership with the very definite goal of securing the highest degree
of efficiency and the most finished product in the Manual. On the other
hand the restrictions have not been pronounced insofar as departmental
representation is concerned and encouragement has always been given to
applications from officers in the Transportation as well as from the Con-
struction and Maintenance Department ; this because the Association has
endeavored to coordinate Transportation, Construction and Maintenance
of Way in matters which jointly interested these several branches. I be-
lieve that this idea has done much to keep interest in the Association and
accounts for the par excellence of its work.

The encouragement which has always been given by Railway Execu-
tives has made it attractive for members to join and work. We have
probably inclined in the past too much toward the policy of allowing the
individual to seek us and have made too little effort to interest the out-
siders and while it is possible always to go too far in adding members
for numbers only, we, on the other hand, must not sit idly by and fail
to keep apace with the natural growth in general railway organization
and should not hesitate to fully and aggressively show to all interested in
the business the benefit to be derived from membership.

There are a great many officers who are not, but should be, members
and if the practical advantages are indicated to them they might become

36 Business Session.

members. We have always disliked the idea ol a spectacular and exciting
campaign for membership, but last year a dignified but earnest effort was
made to interest new members, with the result that from January 27th,
1920, to March 1st, 1921, there were 514 additions to the membership.

I would take this opportunity to make an appeal to the membership
to augment our numbers by that personal solicitation in trying to show
the benefits which will accrue both to the individual as well as to the
employee. We individually have an obligation to draw to ourselves
continually new men and thus perpetuate and strengthen our Association.

The general character of the work should appeal to the young and
ambitious man. Its varied character is such that it may be said that it
is a continuation of the same educational plan that characterizes Uni-
versity- life. It should be felt that wc are continuing where the Uni-
versity stops, for our work is almost entirely educational in its character
— educational as to the technical field, but this is not all.

It has an educational value from the personal contact in the intensive
committee service — from the exchange of ideas, the spirit of compromise
and the fraternity spirit which has done much to emulate the sense of
equity and I believe these efifects have done much to make railroad
business easier in negotiation and adjustment because they make for a
universal language of business intercourse.

There were also deaths of some members which are recorded with
deep regret, men who gave a great deal of earnest effort to the work and
whose counsel is missed.

O. W. Albee J. W. Wilkinson

Sir James B. Ball Paul L. Wolfel

W. A. Cattell R. C. Sattley

P. S. HiLDRETH E. S. Draper

A. S. Markley W. H. Moore

John G. Shillinger A. T. Tomlinson

T. H. Htckey L. J. Putnam

William Traveus G. W. Vaughan

T. H. Sears E. V. Smith

Financial

The reports of the Secretary and Treasurer show a very satisfactory
situation for the year and reflect great credit upon these officers as well
as the Board Committee in charge of Finance. In the face of continual
increase in costs of printing especially and perhaps to a less extent in
other things we have been able to carrj' on without any increase in dues

Business Session. 37

nor drawing upon our reserves. It is hoped this may continue, although
until prices become more nearly normal, it may not be expected that our
assets will increase as rapidly as in past years.

It has been the polic}- not to try to build up a large investment, but
to invest the surplus in such a manner as to be in position to meet any
emergency which maj" require temporary assistance in meeting annual
expenses from interest-bearing securities.

The time may come when some use may be made of these funds in
their application to research work and this possibility should be kept in
mind, as I believe that should be the ultimate desire.

It is proper here to allude to the several kinds of assistance from
outside agencies in promoting research work. The splendid results which
have come from these special lines of stud}- speak for themselves and this
assistance is appreciated.

I refer particularly to the work of the Committee on Stresses in
Track and the Committee on Rail.

I would especially commend to the members the published result of
the last two years from these committees. It is not a waste of time to
read them and give these committees all the support possible by way of
suggestion.

Committee Service — Personnel

The increasing membership ofifers new problems in arranging the
personnel of committees to obtain broad representation and effective
work. It obviously is impracticable to put all the members on committees
all of the time, but the desirable thing is to encourage all members to
have some committee service. There are always differences in the degree
of support which members will give to committee work and committees
should always be composed of good workers.

During the past year the Committee of the Board on Personnel has
made extraordinary efforts to work out the problem and has made progress
in getting changes in personnel, but they need assistance from you as
individuals both as to offers of service and suggestion of preferential
service.

My opinion is that members should desire to obtain a varied com-
mittee service and occasionally shift from committee to committee to
broaden their experience and to prevent autocracy in committee policy. A
varied committee service is a splendid opportunity for the young man to
grow in his profession beyond the confines or limited activities of his own
particular branch of the service.

38 BusinessScssion

Committees can be too large and fail to function well on that ac-
count, hut they can be too small as well, aHcl can be composed of too
limited a representation geographically and can be so greatly spread as to
fail to obtain good attendance.

Committee organization is a very important matter, probably the
most important of all, because that is the means by which our work is
done.

I would urgently recommend the establishment of joint conference
between the Committee of the Board on Personnel and the various Com-
mittee Chairmen, both at the beginning and end of the year, to perfect
the committee organization. This seems to be the most effective way of
developing the fitness of members for committee service and to coordi-
nate the work of the several committees whose work is related.

The responsibilities upon the Committee on Pcrsoimel are rapidly in-
creasing because of the growth of the Association and the tendency to-
ward the greater technical character of the work and it needs the help of
the working committee chairmen in counsel and suggestion.

To afford opportunities to a larger number of members to have a
share in committee-work, it has been proposed to establish what might be
termed "Corresponding Members" of committees. Many members of the
Association are so situated geographically, or for other reasons, as to
make attendance at committee meetings impracticable. Such members
could nevertheless contribute materially to the value of committee-work by
correspondence. The Board Committee on Personnel is giving the sug-
gestion further thought.

Committee Service — Outline

Here also is an important phase of our work.
Two features of it I would specially mention —

(1) Coordinating the work of different committees
whose subjects are inter-related, and

(2) Character of reports.

The lirst seems to become increasingly important as the subjects ex-
pand and one of the real difficult duties of the Board Committee on Out-
line of Work is to assign the subjects requiring coordination.

I believe one of the most effective ways to assign this work is for
there to be, at the close of the Convention or soon thereafter each year,
a joint conference of the Committee Chairmen and the Board Committee
on Outline of Work and at the joint meeting perfect the plan for the year.

Business Session. 39

Such a method systematizes the work and obtains the benefits from
conference in expression of views and will result in a clearer understand-
ing as to what is wanted, and minimizes duplication of effort and recom-
mendations.

The matter- of character of reports is one which has caused concern
to the Board on account of the rapidly increasing size of committee re-
ports due to the natural expansion of the sulijects and the increasing
costs of reproduction.

The thought I trj- to convey is to consider the material collected dur-
ing the research period and see if there cannot be a curtailment of
volume without sacrificing the value of the report. It is a delicate and
difticult thing to suggest anything that might be considered a plea to
limit the scope of research and investigation and such is the farthest
from our thoughts — I would only ask conservation in the reproduction
of data by printed report until the final report is made and permit the
progress data to remain in the Association files in the interim, but ab-
stracted however in progress reports.

I believe too we have come to the point of doing more experimental
work by sub-committee organization and less dependence be placed upon
personal viewpoint in majority expression without actual supporting data
from organized demonstration or test.

And in this connection I want to suggest that we avoid too great a
speed in trying to conclude research for the purpose of definite recom-
mendation, sometimes at a sacrifice of thoroughness. This is not said in
criticism of past practice but to call attention to the increasing complica-
tion of the many questions before committees.

University Cooperation

-During the year the Association was asked to send to the University
of Illinois and Purdue University, committees to look over their facili-
ties and methods with the ultimate idea that wc might give such assistance
as we could in the further development of their courses.

In accordance with that request such committees were appointed —
did visit the Universities and reported favoralily upon their work and
methods.

These invitations permit the opportunity I have anticipated for some
time to offer the recommendation that the Association should make
systematic effort to establish and extend contact with technical schools.
This is desirable not only for the purposes which have brought about the

^0 Business Session.

relations with those with whom we have had cooperation in committee-
work, such as Impact Tests and Stresses in Track, but for the larger
matters of University work in which w'e as future employers of Engineers
are interested. 1 have no doubt that a definite and permanent contact of
this kind will be of mutual benefit. I believe we can assist the University
in occasionally showing the needs of the professional man for his business
career. I believe we can give freely of the knowledge of our experience
and in turn I believe the University will cheerfully give of their research
facilities and some student help in some of our expermintal work.

Such contact can best be maintained probably by appointing commit-
tees of resident Alumni and charged with the duty of visiting the Uni-
versity once or twice a year and report upon the courses with which we
are desirous of having a contact and let these committees be the means
of developing the things which may be of mutual interest.

We should try to make the University feel that we come to them in a
spirit of helpfulness solely in matters upon which they want practical help.

This I commend to you for serious consideration, feeling that it
opens up a field of fruitful possibilities which will be of mutual benefit.

Offer of Assistance to the Interstate Commerce Commission in
Accounting Matters

Your Board of Direction, realizing the increasing need and importance
of correlating the Engineering and Accounting to the fullest degree in
filling the requirements of the Commission, has tendered to the Interstate
Commerce Commission the services of the Association in any manner or
matter that may be within its power, which offer has been most cordially
and appreciatively received.

The development of the Federal Valuation work has more prominently
shown the interdependence of these Departments in perfecting accounting
accuracy and the securing of proper cost data for the Engineer and
Operating man.

In particular the enforcement of Order No. 3 has advanced and em-
phasized this need and I am hopeful out of this offer of assistance may
come some new and constructive service for our Association committees.
Our work heretofore has been confined mostly to a study of forms; mat-
ters of greater importance are confronting us of joint interest to both
departments, not in trying to re-form the basic principle of Accounting,
but to make them of greater value to lioth the Railroad and the Govern-

v^^

Business Session. 41

ment, which under the new powers granted by Congress call for new data
and measures.

The Interstate Commerce Commission has just asked us, by letter, to
cooperate in the development of methods for charging Depreciation and
their application to existing accounting rules.

I believe all concerned feel that in Accounting classification we have
drifted into a class of detail which has bedimmed the light and caused us
to lose the greater and broader view and that out of the cooperative study
contemplated by our offer we can all be benefited in simplifying but making
more useful the records of such great importance. I would urge that the
oflfer we have made be aggressively followed up.

Coordination of Service with Other Committees

Through the activities of the American Railway Association, for
whom we perform the work of the Engineering Division, there has been
established already contact with the Mechanical Division and with the
Purchases and Stores Division.

The work of correlating the study of Roadway and Track Structure
with Motive Power and Equipment is of increasing interest and import-
ance. The tendency of the past for these two Departments to work
more and more independently has not been the ideal manner of pro-
cedure. Increasing wheel loads and the need for maximum clearances re-
quires careful consideration as to the demands upon track, roadway and
structures and likewise certain track and roadway details require con-
sideration from the standpoint of equipment clearances.

Likewise Transportation conditions, changed as they are by new
regulations as to hours of service, working conditions, the penalty from
idle power, all call for new values to be ascribed to speeds, gradients, train
loads, terminal delays, etc. — requiring greater coordination between the En-
gineering, Mechanical and Operating Divisions.

This coordination is made easier by reason of the present organiza-
tion of the American Railway Association and should be encouraged.

Relations with Other Engineering Bodies

During the year the Association became a member of the Engineering
Council, a federated body composed of the four founder societies and
several other technical bodies, the purpose being to cooperate in matters
affecting the welfare and progress of the profession and of interest to

42 BusinessSession,

all Engineers. The Board felt that such affiliation was desirable and
proper.

In the interim, however, a body of different origin and character has
been proposed to take the place of Engineering Council and has been or-
ganized. The majority of the members of Engineering Council have
voted to become members of the new body and by such action the greater
elements of support were taken away from Engiiiecring Council, rendering
it inoperative.

The American Railway Engineering Association was invited to be-
come a charter member, but having agreed to support Council, your Board
felt it inexpedient to do so because it felt it could not commit your Asso-
ciation to the financial burden at this time and because it felt the plan of
organization to be objectionable and by such action also urged that the
Engineering Council be continued.

The opportunity- to become a charter member was of limited duration
but the way is still open for the Association to become a member and
which action should be by a referendum vote if it appears desirable and
financially possible to consider such connection.

New Problems Confronting the Association

I have briefly referred to new conditions surrounding the construc-
tion, maintenance and operation of railways as a result of the many
changes of the past two or three years.

It is not necessary to discuss causes, but the practical effects — and
their influence upon our work.

The Association has already sensed the need of giving relatively
more attention to Economics and committee assignments for two or three
j'cars past embody prominent references thereto.

This necessity has increased by reason of the existing wage schedules
and working conditions — whercbj- different values are given to the various
operations of railway service.

These changes affect all activities and call for new formulae — new
values and new ideals.

Greater costs of equipment with greater loss from idleness — higher
values for speed against tonnage performance, where overtime is exces-
sive— affecting grade revision economics and designs of terminals, both
locomotive and yard.

Increased Per Diem needing higher average daily car movement —
affecting design of yards and terminals, and track and line capacity.

Business Session. 43

Application of tlic shorter workini;- day and the adverse and wasteful
cfifcct upon that class of work requiring the transportation of employees —
affecting the study of organization and lalior-saving devices as well as
the matter of contracting repair work.

These things all must be related to transportation economics and
developed cooperatively.

I want to take this opportunity to express upon behalf of the Board
the splendid work and loyal support which you have given in the con-
duct of the year's work. The year has been a difficult one in many ways.
The change from Federal control to private control meant a great deal
of confusion in the reorganization of the railway service, particularly
disturbing the work of the Engineering Department and your Associa-
tion work has been done imder hardships, but you have done well and
I commend that service to my successor with a feeling of deep personal
gratitude. [Applause.]

The President : — The next order of business is the reports of the
Secretary and of the Treasurer.

Secretary E. H. Fritch presented the following reports :

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

March 15, 1921.

To THE Members : ♦

Pursuant to the requirements of the Constitution, a report covering
the activities of the Association, in condensed form, is respectfully sub-
mitted :

Financial Statement

The detailed Financial Statement for the calendar year 1920 (Exhibit
A) shows:

Receipts from all sources $37,631.37

Disbursements 38,386.55

Excess of Disbursements over Receipts $ 755.18

Investments and Cash Assets, January 1, 1921 $42,989.22

44 Business Session. . ^__

Publications

Ten numbers of the Bulletin and the annual volume of Proceedings
were issued during the year.

The Proceedings for 1920 contain 1,500 pages, exceeding the volume
of the preceding year by more than 500 pages of printed matter.

The Revised Manual

The republication of the Manual has been deferred until this year in
order to include in the revision the important changes and additions sub-
mitted bj' the several Committees for action at this convention. The
Manual will be issued as promptly as practicable after the annual meet-
ing.

The revised Manual will contain the net results of the Association's
work for the past twenty-two years. It is estimated the new volume will
contain approximately one thousand pages.

Membership

The campaign for increasing the membership has resulted in the
largest addition to the membership roll within a like period in the history
of the Association.

Since the inauguration of the campaign — Januarj' 27, 1920 — 521 ap-
plications have been received. A portion of this increase was included
in the report made last year.

The credit for this gratifying condition is due primarily to the earnest
efforts of Mr. L. A. Downs, Chairman of the Special Committee on In-
crease of Membership; and, secondly, to the hearty cooperation of the
individual members of the several roads.

The following is a report on the present membership of the Associa-
tion :

Membership at last annual meeting 1,638

Deceased members 18

Resignations and dropped 33

Additions during the year 364

Net gain 313

Total membership March 1, 1921 1,951

Business Session. 45

Deceased Members

Eighteen members were lost by death during the year, as follows :

O. W. Albee, Consulting and Inspecting Engineer, Detroit, Mich.

Sir James B. B.\ll, Chief Engineer, London, Brighton & South Coast
Railway, London, England.

M.\jOR W. A. Cattell, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.

P. S. HiLDRETH, Consulting Engineer, New York City.

A. S. Markley, Master Carpenter, Chicago & Eastern Illinois Railroad,
Danville, III. (Charter Member.)

W. H. Moore, Engineer of Structures, New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford Railroad, New Haven, Conn.

John G. Shillinger, Chief Engineer, Rutland Railroad, Rutland, Vt.

Major A. T. Tomlinson, Canadian Military Service, Lindsay, Ont., Can.

William Travers, Division Engineer, Oregon Short Line, Pocatello, Idaho.

J. W. Wilkinson, Office Engineer, New York, Chicago & St. Louis Rail-
road, Cleveland, Ohio.

Paul L. Wolfel, formerly Chief Engineer, American Bridge Company,
Pittsburgh, Pa.

R. C. Sattley, Valuation Engineer, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Rail-
way, Chicago.

E. S. Draper, Principal Assistant Engineer, Boston & Albany Railroad,
Boston, Mass.

T. H. HiCKEY, Inspector Track, Michigan Central Railroad, Detroit, Mich.

L. J. Putnam, Chief Engineer, Chicago & Northwestern Railway, Chi-
cago.

G. W. Vaughan, Engineer Maintenance of Way, New York Central Rail-
road, New York. (Charter Member.)

T. H. Sears, General Superintendent, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail-
way, Amarillo, Texas.

I^. \'. Smith, Superintendent, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Wheeling,
W. \'a.

Approval of Recommendations by American Railv/ay Association

Following the precedent established in 1919, the subjects acted on at
the 1920 convention of your Association were transmitted to the American
Railway Association for endorsement at its annual session in Novem-
ber, 1920.

The subjects receiving the endorsement of the American Railway
Association at that session are as follows :

(a) Proper depth of ballast.

(b) Form for cross-tic statistics.

110-lb.; 120-lb.; 130-11). and 140-lb. ; standard drilling of rails.

46 Business Session.

(d) IMaiis l\)r frogs, switclas and lixliircs; specifications — design
and dimensions of manganese slccl-pointcd switches; cut track
spike ; screw track spike ; steel tic-plates ; wrought-iron tie-
plates; malleable iron tie-plates; relayer rail for various uses.

(c) Lighting of passenger station interiors, surroundings and plat-
forms; toilet facilities at small stations where water supply
and sewers are lacking.

(f) Specifications for plain and reinforced concrete and for steel

reinforcement; methods of depositing concrete under water.

(g) Approach warning sign on public highways.

(h) Forms for reporting progress in construction and maintenance
work; authority for expenditure; monthly report of expendi-
tures ; final record cost of work.

(i) Rules for inspection of bridges, trestles and culverts.

(j) Definitions of terms used in railway water service; water serv-
ice organization ; impounding reservoirs for railway purposes ;
water meters for railway water service ; specifications for
wooden water tanks; specifications for tank hoops.

(k) Rules for the location, maintenance, operation and testing of
railway track scales.

(1) Specifications for steel railway bridges; column formula.

(m) Curve resistance — freight cars.

(n) Specifications for preservative treatment of wood — creosote oil
and zinc-chloride; demarcation line between the use of creo-
soted and zinc-treated tics.

Joint Committee on Automatic Train Control

A joint committee composed of twenty railroad ofificials, representing
the Operating, Engineering, Signal and Mechanical Departments, has
been appointed by the American Railway Association to study and report
on automatic train control devices, and, in cooperation with the Bureau of
Safety of the Interstate Commerce Commission, to work out the details
of a practical plan for carrying out the provisions of the Interstate Com-
merce Act. Ten members of your Association are members of this joint
body.

Business Session. 47

Monographs

A series of valuable and interesting monographs were contributed to
the Bulletin during the past year. It is hoped that members having suit-
able material will favor the Association with the data for publication in
future Bulletins.

Among the special articles published in recent months are the follow-
ing:

"The Standing Committees of the Association" — by J. L. Campbell (Bul-
letin 221, July, 1920).

"Greater Application of Recommended Practice to Individual Railroads" —
by C. A. Morse (Bulletin 227, July, 1920).

"Some Essential Features of Committee Organization" — bj" Hadlcj- Bald-
win (Bulletin 227, July, 1920).

"Increasing the Value of the Work of the Association" — by E. E. R. Trat-
man (Bulletin 227, July, 1920).

"The Relative Merits of Metal Versus Wooden Ties" — Special Report of
Committee on Ties (Bulletin 227, July, 1920).

"The Leaching of Zinc Chloride from Treated Wood" — by Ernest Batc-
man (Bulletin 227, July, 1920).

"Committee Work — Its Value to the Individual" — by E. H. Lee (Bulletin
228, August, 1920).

"Committee Work"— by Edwin F. Wendt (Bulletin 228, August, 1920).

"The Value of Varied Committee Service as an Educational Feature" —
by Edwin F. Wendt (Bulletin 228, August, 1920).

"The Function of the Association in Coordinating the Work of the Trans-
portation and Engineering Departments in the Design and Use of
Facilities"— by J. M. R. Fairbairn (Bulletin 228, August, 1920).

"More General Use of Recommended Standards by Railroad Companies" —
by A. S. Baldwin (Bulletin 228, August, 1920).

"Rules and Unit Stresses for Rating Existing Bridges" — by Warrick R.
Edwards (Bulletin 22^, August, 1920).

"Discussions of Specifications for Movable Bridges" — by Committee on
Iron and Steel Structures (Bulletin 228, August, 1920).

"The Manual"— by Edwin F. Wendt (Bulletin 229, September, 1920).

"Superpower Survey Under Way" — by William S. Murray (Bulletin 229,
September, 1920).

"Manual of Instructions for the Guidance of Engineering Field Parties" —
by H. H. Edgerton (Bulletin 229, September, 1920).

"The Manual"— by C. P. Howard (Bulletin 230, October, 1920).

"Note on Rail Inclination" — by W. C. Gushing (Bulletin 23.^ March,
1921).

"Rail Laying with Locomotive Cranes" — by W. C. Barrett (Bulletin 235,
March, 1921).

48 Business Session.

Cooperation with Other Organizations

Your Association has continued to actively cooperate with other
technical bodies in the study of problems of mutual interest. The extent
and scope of such cooperation has been clearly and comprehensively set
forth in the address of the President.

Committee Reports ■

The reports of the twenty-five Standing and Special Committees
have been printed and distributed to the membership in advance of this
meeting.

The quality of the several reports is fully up to the high standard of
former years. The reports presented for jour consideration form a valu-
able contribution to the common fund of knowledge.

The Chairmen, Vice-Chairmen and members of Committees deserve
credit for their good work.

Respectfully submitted,

E. H. Fritch, Secretary.
Exhibit A

FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR CALENDAR YEAR ENDING
• DECEMBER 31, 1920

Balance on hand January 1, 1920 $43,744.40

RECEIPTS

Membership Account

Entrance Fees $ 4,070.00

Dues 8,168.75

Subscription to Bulletins 8,168.75

Binding Proceedings and Manual 781.45

Badges 41.00

Sale of Publications

Proceedings 2,695.60

Bulletins 1,127.88

Manual 360.95

Specifications 323.00

Leaflets 14.15

General Index 24.75

Advertising

Publications 2.883.10

Interest Account

Investments 1,677.50

Bank Balance 97.38

Annual Meeting

Sales of Dinner Tickets 1,136.00

Miscellaneous 102.31

American Railway Association

Rail Committee 5,958.80

Total $37,631.37

Business Session. | 49

DISBURSEMENTS

Carried forward:

Balance on hand January 1, 1920 $43,744.40

Salaries $ 6,373.75

Proceedings .- 6,621.24

Bulletins '. 10,176-06

Manual 23.80

Stationery and Printing 1,344.56

Rents, Light, etc 850.00

Telegrams and Telephone 27.41

Equipment 89.10

Supplies 126.19

Expressage 579.11

Postage 941.72

Exchange 84.00

Committee Expenses 57.97

Officers' Expenses 48.60

Annual Meeting Expenses 1,726.23

Refunds Dues Account Duplicate Payments, etc. 44.00

Audit 150.00

Engineering Council : 1,099.77

Contribution to Joint Committee on Reinforced

Concrete ; 100.00

Rail Committee 7,681.95

Miscellaneous 241.09

Total $38,386.55

■ Excess of Disbursements over Receipts $ 755.18

Balance on hand, December 31, 1920 $42,989.22

Conissting of:

Bonds : $40,565.6.5

Cash in S. T. & S. Bank 1,752.97

Cash on hand 645.60

Petty Cash 25.00

$42,989.22

Exhibit Al

STRESSES IN TRACK FUND

Balance on hand January 1, 1920 $ 1.036.29

Received from interest during 1920 28.36

$ 1,064.65
Disbursements:

Transportation $ 8.20

Hotel and Meals 2.40

Supplies 99.20 $ 109.80

Balance on hand in Standard Trust and Savings Bank,
December 31, 1920 $ 954.85

Respectfully submitted,

BOARD OF DIRECTION.

50 BusinessSession

REPORT OF THE TREASURER

Biilance on hand January 1, 1920 $43,744.40

Receipts during 1920 $37,631.37

Paid out on audited vouchers, 1920 38,386.55

Excess of disbursements over receipts $ 755.18

Balance on hand December 31, 1920 $42,989.22

Consisting of :

Bonds $40,565.65

Cash in S. T. & S. Bank 1,752.97

Cash on hand 645.60

Petty Cash 25.00

$42,989.22

STRESSES IN TRACK FUND

Balance on hand January 1, 1920 $ 1,036.29

Received from interest during 1920 28.36

Total $ 1,064.65

Paid out on audited vouchers during 1920 109.80

Balance on hand December 31, 1920 $ 954.85

The Securities listed above are in a safety deposit box of the
Merchants' Loan & Trust Safe Deposit Company, Chicago.

Respectfully submitted,

GEO. H. BREMNER,

Treasurer.

I have made an audit of the accounts of the American Railway
Engineering Association for the year ending December 31, 1920, and
find them in accordance with the foregoing financial statements.

CHARLES CAMPBELL,

Auditor.
GENERAL BALANCE SHEET

December 31, 1920

ASSETS 1920 1910

Due from Members $ 3,865.85 $ 3,142.00

Due from Sale of Publications 542.67 542.27

Due from Advertising 495,00 985.00

Due from American Railway Association 2,300.12 575.97

Due from American Railway Express Co., Claim. 250.00 250.00

Furniture and fixtures (cost) .- 997.40 997.40

Gold Badges 49.00 73.50

Publications on hand (estimated) 6,000.00 6,000.00

Extensometers 500.00 500.00

Investments (cost) 40,565.65 40,565.65

Interest on Investments (accrued) 896.84 739.99

Cash in Standard Trust and Savings Bank 1,752.97 2,977.83

Cash in Secretary's Office 645.60 175.92

Petty Cash Fund 25.00 25.00

Total $58,886.09 $57,550.53

LIABILITIES

Members Dues paid in advance $ 1,539.45 $ 2,272.50

Impact Test Fund on Electrified Railways 285.46 285.46

Advertising paid in advance 60.00

Due for Printing 7,679.52 1,845.00

Due for Expressage 270.89 18."?. 67

Due for Miscellaneous 39.00

Surplus 49,050.77 52.924.90

Total $58,886.09 $57.!550.53

Business Session. ^

On motion of Mr. L. A. Downs, the reports of the Secretary and of
the Treasurer were approved.

The President :— We have a large program ahead of us for these
three days, and I would Hke to urge that the members be in their places
promptly at the designated time for convening, that our discussion of the
reports be to the point — I hesitate to say brief, as we do not want to
restrict the discussion in the slightest, but we should confine our discussion
to the relevant features, and continue the practice which has been estab-
lished some years back to avoid discussion of definitions and minor mat-
ters, such as punctuation and things of that kind.

It will help the record of the convention very much, as well as the
other members, if each speaker upon rising will give his name and the
railroad with which he is connected.

The Chair would also call attention to the fact that this meeting is
considered as a concurrent meeting, as far as its work is concerned, of the
Engine(?ring Division of the American Railway Association, and the
results and recommendations as affecting practice will be submitted as
the work of the Division to the Board of Directors of the American
Railway Association.

The first report to be presented is that of the Committee on Signals
and Interlocking, Mr. W. J. Eck, Chairman.
(For report, see pp. 65-74.)

The President : — The Ballast report will be presented by the Chair-
man, Mr. H. L. Ripley.

(For report, see pp. 75-106.)

The President : — The Committee on Entertainment request me to say
they are in a receptive mood for the sale of tickets for the dinner to-
morrow night, and are anxious that reservations should be made as
quickly as possible so that thej^ may give the hotel a proper estimate.
The Committee has made an effort to have an unusually good dinner this
j^ear, with good entertainment, and it is hoped that the subscription list
will be large.

The Chair will call attention, as usual, to the exhibit at the Coliseum,
which we understand to be equal to, if not better than, any other previous
exhibit, and we urge the members some time during their visit here to
spend a little time there. It is expected that the session can be closed
this afternoon a little earlier, so as to give you an opportunity for at-
tendance to-day in the latter part of the afternoon.

52 Business Session

I am asked to announce a special lunclicon of tlie Purdue Alumni
Association in honor oi the Purdue men and members of the faculty
attending the convention, which will he held at the University Club to-
morrow (Tuesday) at 12:45.

The President :- The rcjiort on I'.lectricity will lie submitted by
Mr. Edwin B. Katte, Chairman.

(l*"or report, see pp. 109-196.)

AFTERNOON SESSION

The President: — Prof. A. N. Talbot, Chairman, will present the report
on Stresses in Railroad Track.

(For report, see page 107.)

The President: — The report of the Track Committee will be pre-
sented by the Chairman, Mr. W. P. Wiltsec.

(For report, see pp. 649-694.)

The President : — In the absence of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman
of the Rail Committee, the report will be presented by Mr. J. M. R.
Fairbairn.

(For report, see pp. 197-234.)

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 16, 1921

MORNING SESSION

The President: — The reptirt on Standardization will be presented by
the Chairman, Mr. E. A. I'^rink.

(For report, see pp. 243-246.)

(Vice-President Campbell in the Cliair. ) ^

The Vice-President: — In the a])scncc of the Chairman, the Vicc-
Chairman, Mr. C. A. Wilson, will present the report on Uniform General
Contract Forms.

(For report, see pp. 247-266.)

(President Safford in the Chair.)

The President : — The report on Signs, Fences and Crossings will be
presented bj- the Chairman, Mr. .Arthur Crumpton.

(For report, see pp. 267-314.)

The President : — At this point we will depart from the program for
a few moments to welcome a gentleman I see in the audience who has
honored this meeting and this .'\ssociation by bis acceptance of our invita-

Business Session. 53

tion to attend. He has honored this Association in being here, and also
in being largely instrumental in extending an invitation to us to send
a committee to the Universitj' which he represents and of which j'on
have all been informed. This committee visited the University and spent
a day of extreme interest in looking over the plant and the methods
employed, and were particularly impressed by a number of things which
he has undertaken to do which makes for a broader and better engineer-
ing course and that means a greater asset to a business of this kind. I
have a great deal of pleasure in introducing Prof. A. A. Potter of the
School of Engineering of Purdue University, and will ask him to come to
the platform and make a few remarks on the subject which I may not give
a proper title to, but I believe it may be called "The Humanizing of the
Engineering Profession."

Dean A. A. Potter : — Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, I greatly ap-
preciate this privilege of coming before the members of the American
Railwaj- Engineering Association in order to bring before them in a few
words some of the. ideas which educators in the United States are at
present carrying out in connection with the problem of humanizing en-
gineering education.

The engineering schools of this country can be of greatest service to
the American Railway Engineering Association and to the industries of
the country by constantly improving their methods of instruction and by
carrying on researches and experiments which are of value to the rail-
roads and other industries of the country.

In connection with engineering education, best results are produced
by the teaching of men and not subjects. This means great attention
should be paid to the testing and sorting of students before they are as-
signed to any particular course of study and that their progress must
be very carefully watched.

More attention should be given to the teaching of students how to
study and how improve their personal efficiency. They should be rated
not only on their academic performance, but also on personal traits.
Every effort should be exerted to develop not only their memory, but also
their knowledge of technique, and such traits of personality as initiative,
judgment, leadership and other qualities which are so essential for suc-
cess in engineering and in industry.

At Purdue University we feel that we ought to pay more attention
to the younger students, to the young high school graduates when they
enter the University as freshmen.

54 Business Session. j

It is recognized liy iis that failure on the part of the stud^it to
carr^- a certain suhject may not l)c due entirely to his indifference, but
may be caused by poor teaching or liecausc the student is not interested
in the subjects which he is studying. In order to correct this, engineering
schools at the present time are introducing in the freshmen year certain
subjects which are very closely related to engineering. At Purdue we
are giving to every freshman student a course in engineering problems,
by the medium of which we are trj'ing to acquaint the freshman student
with certain engineering problems of particular interest to his com-
munity. In this course he solves problems dealing with pavements, roads,
water supply, sewage disposal, power generation and transmission, manu-
facturing processes, etc. To teach a student how to use a level and how
to read a topographical map does not require advanced mathematics.

We also find it desirable to make modern languages elective for the
reason that manj' students who decide to study engineering are of the
analytical turn of mind and do not like to substitute memory for thought.
The student has an opportunity to pursue either modern languages or
other subjects which are equally valuable from the educational standpoint,
and which at the same time prove of greater interest to him in his course.

We are greatly interested in stimulating the college student to good
work by giving recognition to his efforts and by rewarding him. We are
all familiar with the effect of publicity upon athletics. We all know the
effect upon athletics bj' having space given to athletic events in the dailies,
by having the pictures of the contestants appear in the paper — we know
what a great stimulus that type of publicity gives to athletics. It seems
to some of us that if a student is relegated to the brain squad, the results
of his studies should be given some publicity. We have found from ex-
perience that the Associated Press will accept articles concerning such
matters as eagerly as they accept articles concerning athletics. If a stu-
dent excels in survejdng, science, mechanics, drawing, mathematics, or in
any other subject, we make it a point to send a little story about it to his
home paper, as well as to the college paper. We find that type of publicity
is of great advantage in keeping the student interested in doing good work.

We are also making a very careful study of the student's character
and personality and are having our students graded on accuracy, applica-
tion, attitude, cooperation, courtesy, efficiency, initiative, judgment, leader-
ship, habits of work, outlook, tact, dependability and other qualities not
only by their teachers, but by their chums, classmates and people in their

' / Business Session. 55

home towns. We are using this information to some extent in advising
the student concerning the selection of the course of study.

We feel that the efforts I have mentioned should tend to stimulate
the student's interest in his work and to better prepare him for the en-
gineering profession. [Applause.]

The President : — I am sure we have all enjoyed and appreciated Dean
Potter's remarks. As 1 said before, whatever is done to develop and
expand the engineering courses in our schools means ultimate value for us.

The report of the Tie Committee will be presented by Mr. F. R.
Layng, Chairman.

(For report, see pp. 315-374.)

The President: — The report on Iron and Steel Structures will be
presented b}- the Chairman, Mr. O. E. Selby.

(For report, see pp. 375-404.)

The President : — The Chair will announce the following appointees
for Tellers for the election of officers. They are asked to meet with
Mr. Fritch immediately after the close of this session: A. M. Van Aukcn,
Walt Dennis, J. J. Baxter, Wm. E. Havvley, C. H. Spencer, Noah Johnson,
H. S. Blake.

AFTERNOON SESSION

(The consideration of the report on Iron and Steel Structures was
resumed.)

The President: — The report of the Water Service Committee will be
submitted by the Chairman, Mr. .\. F. Dorley.

(For report, see pp. 405-441.)

(Vice-President Downs in the Chair.)

The Vice-President : — The report of the Committee on Economics
of Railway Labor will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. C. E. Johnston.

(For report, see pp. 235-242.)

(President Safford in the Chair.)

The President: — The report oF the Committee on Economics of
Railway Operation will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. L. S. Rose.

(For report, see pp. 723-792.)

The President: — The report of the Committee on Economics of Rail-
way Location will be submitted by the Chairman, Mr. C. P. Howard.

(For report, see pp. 565-584. i

56 BusinessSession

The President : — The Tellers appointed at the morning session have
just made their report. The Chair will announce the result of the election
of officers :

President, L. A. Downs.
Vice-President, E. H. Lee.
Secretary, E. H. Fritch.
Treasurer, G. H. Bremncr.

Directors, C. F. W. Felt, G. J. Ray, Col. Geo. H. Webb.
Nominating Comm.ittee, J. R. W. Ambrose, R. H. Ford, E. A.
Hadley, J. V. Neubert, A. F. Robinson.
The President : — The report of the Committee on Shops and Loco-
motive Terminals will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. F. E. Morrow.
(For report, see pp. 585-647.)

THURSDAY, MARCH 17, 1921

MORNING SESSION

The President : — The Chair desires to express very deep regret, and
I know that the members of the Association join in that feeling, in an-
nouncing that Dr. Frank W. Gunsaulus, who was to be at our dinner
last night for the invocation, died this morning at 4:30 o'clock. It was
a matter of great regret that he could not be with us last night, and a
matter of greater regret to know that he has passed away.

The report of the Committee on Buildings will be presented by Mr.
W. T. Dorrance, Chairman.

(For report, see pp. 843-888.)

The President: — The report of the Alasonry Committee will be sub-
mitted by the Chairman, Mr. J. J. Yates.

(For report, see pp. 543-564.)

The President : — The report of the Roadway Committee will be pre-
sented by the Chairman, Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose.

(For report, see pp. 695-722.)

The President : — The report on Wood Preservation will be submitted
by the Chairman, Mr. C. M. Taylor.

(For report, see pp. 443-480.)

The President : — I have asked to take a seat on the platform, so that
he may see the operation of the convention from this side of the room,
the Honourable William Renwick Riddell, who so pleasantly entertained
us last night at dinner. The Justice explained to us last night that he

Business Session. ___^ 57^

intended to be a Civil Engineer, that he graduated as such, and reformed
early in life and took up the law, and thereby I am satisfied from what I
have seen of him that this profession lost a very valued member. He is
a lawyer, but I charge you that you need not be fearful of expressing
yourselves before him, as I understand there is no danger of the evidence
being used against you.

Hon. Mr. Justice William Renwick Riddell : — Mr. President and
Brother Engineers : It has been a very great delight to me to be at this
meeting even for the short time I have been able to attend your sessions.
The subjects of your discussions and the discussions themselves are of
very great interest and value to my country, and of peculiar interest, and
I may say also of peculiar value to myself at the present time. Whether
by reason of the fact that I am supposed to be a mathematician and once
was very nearly an Engineer — only that an inscrutable dispensation of
Providence shoved me off the track, there being no guard rail — for some
reason I was recently appointed the presiding oflficer of a Royal Com-
mission in the Province of Ontario, for the purpose of examining into
our timber resources; and we have found (amongst other things) an
alarming diminution of the available tie timber, with which a great part
of our Province was originally clothed. To come to particulars, we
found that ties are selling for $1.75 and $1.90; though I have known of
hundreds of thousands being sold for 30 cents or less. We have been
and are particularly interested in the subject which you have just been
discussing, and it has been of advantage to me that I had the pleasure
of hearing some of the discussion — I hope to be able to read your trans-
actions, which I have not done in the past, and to avail myself of the great
and exact technical knowledge which your members have and have dis-
played.

The objection of my friend, Mr. Mountain, to certain words in a
particular definition, reminds me of a story; and as last night I was
not permitted to tell stories, being personally conducted to speak on a
serious subject, perhaps I may be permitted to tell you one this morning.

There was a fish dealer who put a magnificent sign over his fish shop,
"Fresh fish sold here" ; a friend came along and lie said to him, "What
do you think of my sign?" He answered, "I do not think mucli of it.
Are you advertising somebody else's shop or your own? Of course thc\-
are sold here. What is the sense of having that word 'here' on the sign?"
The fishman agreed, and "here" was marked out. The next day llie man

58 Business Session

came along and the fisliman asked him, "What do you think of the sign
now?" "Why do you say 'fish are sold'? Of course you are not giving
them away; of course they are sold." So off came the "sold." The next
day the man came along again and .saw the sign, "Fresh fish." He said,
"Nobody supposed they were rotten," and ofif came "fresh." The next day
the man was a.sked, "What about the sign now?" For answer the friend
held his nose, and said : "By heavens ! you don't need to have any sign
at all."

Early in my student career I learned the Latin maxim, "Ne sutor ultra
crcpidom," which translated into English means "Shoemaker, stick to
your last"; and therefore being only a lawyer, and not a practicing En-
gineer, God forbid that I should advise j^ou in any of your proceedings.

Gentlemen, I thank you for listening to me as you have, and thank
you for the invitation to be here, and thank you for the kindly and
courteous manner in which 30U received me last evening. Had it not
been kindly, I should have been disappointed and would have had a new
experience in the United States of America. I cannot help but think, as
I said last night, we are all one people, a little different in our manner of
government, a little dififerent in our international relations and allegiance,
and a little different sometimes in our pronunciation; but after all we all
speak the English language — at least we do, and I know you think you
do, which again reminds me of another story, and this will be the very
last. The second offense maj' be pardoned, but I know a third offense is
always fatal. There was a young lady from Maine visiting in Boston,
who was taken around by her friends to see the beauties of the city,
paintings and otherwise. When, in looking at the mural paintings, she
insisted in calling them mooral paintings, her Boston friends said, "Don't
say mooral; that u sounds 'mu' as in 'cat.'" The difference between
you and us, after all, is just "mu" as in cat. [Applause.]

The President: — The report of the Committee on Wooden Bridges
and Trestles will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. W. H. Hoyt.

(For report, see pp. 481-542.)

AFTERNOON SESSION

(The consideration of the report on W(X)dcn Bridges and Trestles
vvas concluded.)

The President: — The report of the Committee on Yards and Termi-
nals will be presented by the Chairman, Mr. B. IT. Mann.

(For report, see pp. 889-900.)

Business Session. 59^

The President: — The report of the Committee on Rules and Or-
ganization will be submitted by the Chairman, Mr. \V. C. Barrett.

(For report, sec pp. 793-841.)

The President: — Air. H. M. Stout, Chairman of the Committee on
Records and Accounts, will present the report of the Committee.

(For report, see pp. 901-924.)

The President: — The report of the Committee on Conservation of
Xatural Resources will be submitted by the Chairman, Mr. W. F. Ogle.

(For report, see pp. 925-940.)

The President : — In dismissing this Committee, I think it quite proper
to express, on behalf of the Board, appreciation for the character of the
reports that were submitted here this year, the manner in which they
have been presented, and to say that this is the first Convention, I be-
lieve, in the history of the Association where no work was turned back
by the Association. There was one part of a report which was volun-
tarily taken back by a Committee, but I believe this is the first time that
the committee-work has been adopted in entirety.

The Committee on Outline of Work are anxious that the member-
ship should undertake during the coming year to a greater extent than
ever before constructive criticism by letter, as well as in committee
service.

This concludes the work of presenting the Committees' reports, and
the meeting is now open for New Business, if there be any.

Mr. A. S. Baldwin (Illinois Central) :— ]\Ir. President, I have a
resolution that I desire to offer :

"Resolved, That the members of the American Railway
Engineering Association, in convention assembled, desire and
do hereby place on record their appreciation of the admirable
manner in which this Convention has been presided over by Mr.
H. R. Saflford, and for the efficient administration of the affairs
of the Association during his occupancy of the presidential chair.
"^'Resolved, That this resolution be spread upon the Minutes
of this meeting, and an engrossed copy be presented to Mr.
Safford."

(Motion duly seconded, put to a vote by President-Elect Downs, and
adopted by a rising vote.)

The President :— Gentlemen, I greatly appreciate the resolution, but
the success of this meeting rests with the floor, not with the Chair. I
appreciate especially the large attendance that we have had this year, and
I especially appreciate the interest that has been taken in the discussions.

60 BusinessSession

and as I go out of office I can say that every minute this past year will
create a memory of pleasure. Thank you.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals Railway) : — Mr. Presi-
dent, I move you the following resolutions :

"Resoh'cd, By the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion, in convention assembled, that its thanks are hereby extended
to the Honourable William Renwick Riddell,- Doctor David Kin-
ley, and John Findley Wallace, Esq., for their excellent addresses
at the Annual Dinner on the evening of March 16th ;

"To the Chairmen, Vice-Chairmen and members of the sev-
eral committees for their labors during the past year and for
valuable reports presented to the meeting;

"To the Committee on Arrangements for the splendid man-
ner in which all arrangements for the convention have been
carried out ;

"To the Technical Press for courtesies extended during the
year and also during the convention ;

"To the National Railway Appliances Association for the
comprehensive and instructive exhibit of railway devices used in
the construction, operation and maintenance of railways, and for
courtesies extended to the officers and members of the Associa-
tion."

(The resolutions were seconded, put to vote, and carried unani-
mously.) •

The President: — Is there any other new business to be introduced?
The Chair will again announce the officers who were elected yesterday:

REPORT OF THE TELLERS

To THE Members :

We, the Tellers appointed to canvas the ballots for the election of

officers for the ensuing year, report the following result :

President:

L. A. Downs 1,094

E. A. Frink .'.... 1

Vice-President:

E. H. Lee 1,093

C. F. W. Felt 1

J. L. Campbell 1

Secretary:

E. H. Fritch 1,095

Treasurer:

G. H. Bremncr - 1,095

Business Session. 61

Directors (Three to be elected) :

A. M. Burt 388

C. F. W. Felt 598

J. V. Hanna 209

F. G. Jonah 345

B. H. Mann 189

G. J. Ray 556

A. O. Ridgway 133

H. L. Ripley 383

Geo. H. Webb 410

L. L. Beall '. 2

J. R. W. Davis 1

Members Nominating Committee (Five to be elected) :

J. R. W. Ambrose 623

R. H. Ford 563

E. A. Hadley 724

• C. P. Howard 414

R. H. Howard 461

C. E. Johnston 417

A. Montzheimer 444

J. V. Neubert 542

Frank Ringer 360

A. F. Robinson 661

Scattering 14

Respectfully submitted,

A. M. VanAuken, Chairman;

Walt Dennis,

J. J. Baxter,

\Vm. E. Hawi.ev,

C. H. Spencer,

Noah Johnson,

K. S. Br.AK-K,

Tellers.
T will ask Mr. Morse and Mr. Baldwin i i" they will be good enough
to escort the incoming President to the platform.

(President-Elcct L. A. Downs was escorted to the platform.)
The President : — Air. Downs, aou have been unanimously elected by
this Association President for the coming year. You may take that to

be a recognition of good service, and you may take it also to be an ex-

62 Business Session. ■

pression of confidence in your ability to direct the worl< of this body in a
successful manner, about which there could be no doubt. It is a pleasure
to me to turn over to you the symbol of your office, and in doing so I want
to say to you that your success is going to depend a great deal upon your
own efforts, true, but it depends a groat deal upon the support of your
associates, and I can assure you from an experience of one year that
that support is always to be had, and it has been helpful in this, the
most successful meeting we have ever had. I am glad to present you
with the symbol of your office and to say that I am at your service at
any time in any way possible.

(President Downs assumed the chair.)

President Downs : — Mr. Safford and Gentlemen : I appreciate more
than I can tell j'ou the honor conferred upon me in electing me President
of this Association. I cannot let the opportunity go by without mention-
ing how closely Mr. Safford's and my life has been associated. We were
born in the same State, less than a hundred miles apart, less than two
years apart. We were college boys together, we were rodmen together,
transitmen together, Assistant Engineers together. We were Road-
masters together for a number of years on the same railroad, and neither
one of us thought we would ever get away from it.

We finally got to the head of the Maintenance of Way Department
on the Illinois Central Railroad. I say "we." Mr. Safford was Chief
Engineer and I was the Top Sergeant. We then separated in 1910, and
for four years now we have both been Directors of this Association.

I mention all these things from the fact that now we have passed
through the best year the Association has ever had, with its peak in
attendance. I feel that the coming year, with the inspiration of the long
history behind the Association, that I will do nearly as well as my pred-
ecessors. I assure you that I will serve you to the best of my ability.

If there is no further business, the Twenty-second Annual Meeting
of the American Railway Engineering Association has now come to a
close.

(Thereupon the Twenty-second Annual Convention of the American
Railway Engineering Association adjourned sine die.)

The Twenty-third Annual Convention of the American Roilzvay En-
giiieeriiicj Association zvill be held at the Congress Hotel, Chicago, March
14. 15 and 16^ 1922.

E. II. Fritch,
Secretary.

COMMITTEE REPORTS

REPORT OF COMMITTEE X— SIGNALS AND
INTERLOCKING

W. J. EcK, Chairman; W. M. Vandersluis, V ice-Chairman ;

AzEL Ames, J. C. Mock,

H. S. Balliet, F. p. Patenall,

A. M. Burt, J. A. Peabody,

C. E. Denney, a. H. Rudd,

F. L. DoDGSON, A. G. Shaver,
W. H. Elliott, T. S. Stevens,

G. E. Ellis, B. Wheelw^right,
J. G. M. Leisenring, E. E. Worthing,

H. K. LowRY, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association :

The following subjects w^ere assigned the Committee on Signals and
Interlocking for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on colors for signals.

3. Report on the specifications adopted by the Signal Section of
the Engineering Division of the American Railway Association which
warrant endorsement, conferring with Committees on Track, Buildings,
Iron and Steel Structures, and other appropriate committees, on appliances
affecting track or structures.

4. Report on the desirability of providing in connection with an auto-
matic signal system :

(a) An overlap or preliminary section.

(b) Approach restricting speed indications.

5. Report on the various types of light signals for day and night
indications.

6. Make final report, if practicable, on the feasibility of separating
into distinct types of their own signals for train operation and the mark-
ers or signs which indicate the location or position, or both, of informa-
tion signs and switch signs for conveying information to trainmen, and
designs suitable for day and night (if necessary), markers or signs
for switches, derail switches, stop signs, slow signs, resume speed signs,

, water station and trackpan markers, highway crossing signals, etc.

7. Report on requisites of signal locations for automatic block sig-
nals for single-track roads.

8. Report on automatic train control.

9. Report on the extent to which methods are in use for short-circuit-
ing track circuits for the display of signals for the protection of track
workers.

10. (a) Report on application of aspect indicating that train must
take siding at a non-interlocking switch.

(b) Report on application of aspect indicating that "19" or "31"
orders are to be delivered.

(A)

66 Signals and Interlocking.

13. Study and report on the subject of proper time interval for the
release of electrical and mechanical devices, applied to signal or switch
apparatus.

16. Report on the effect of electrical locomotive headlights on signals.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago on April 15th, and
September 16th, with practically the entire personnel of the Committee
present at each meeting.

(1) Revision of Manual
In Appendix A proposed changes in the Manual are given.

(8) Automatic Train Control

In Appendix B Committee submits extracts from the report of the
Automatic Train Control Committee of the United States Railroad Ad-
ministration as information. Its recommendations are given under the
heading of Conclusions.

(9) Methods for Display of Signals for Protection of Track Workers

In Appendix C the Committee submits the results of its study on
the subject of methods for display of signals for protection of track
workers. Its recommendations are given under the heading of Con-
clusions.

(13) Time Releases Applied to Signal or Switch Apparatus

In Appendix D the Committee submits the results of its study on
the proper time interval for releases applied to Signal or Switch Ap-
paratus. Its recommendations are given under the heading of Conclusions.

PROGRESS REPORT

The Committee reports progress on subjects:

(2) Report on colors for signals.

(3) Report on the specifications adopted by the Signal Section of
the Engineering Division of the American Railway Association which
warrant endorsement, conferring with Committees on Track, Buildings,
Iron and Steel Structures, and other appropriate committees, on appliances
affecting track or structures.

(4) Report on the desirability of providing in connection with an
automatic signal system :

(a) An overlap or preliminary section.

(b) Approach restricting speed indications.

(5) Report on the various types of light signals for day and night
indications.

Signals and Interlocking. 67

(6) Make final report, if practicable, on the feasibility of separ-
ating into distinct types of their own signals for train operation and
the markers or signs which indicate the location or position, or both,
of information signs and switch signs for conveying information to
trainmen, and designs suitable for day and night (if necessary), markers
or signs for switches, derail switches, stop signs, slow signs, resume speed
signs, water station and trackpan markers, highway crossing signals, etc.

(7) Report on requisites of signal locations for automatic block sig-
nals for single track roads.

(10) (a) Report on application of aspect indicating that train must
take siding at a non-interlocking switch.

(b) Report on application of aspect indicating that "19" or "31" or-
ders are to be delivered.

(16) Report on the effect of electrical locomotive headlights on sig-
nals.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that the changes in the Manual in
Appendix A be approved and the revised matter be substituted for the
present recommendations in the Alanual.

2. The Committee recommends that the matter shown in Appendix
B be accepted as information.

3. The Committee recommends the following for approval and pub-
lication in the Manual on the subject of methods for display of signals
for protection of track workers:

(1) If temporary protection by signal is desired for track workers
or for dangerous track conditions it should be provided by disconnecting
the signal circuits so that the proper indication will be displayed. Discon-
nections should be made by signal forces.

(2) If permanent arrangements are desired for protection, by signal,
of track workers or for dangerous track conditions, this may be provided by :

(a) Opening track relay through knife switch.

(b) Opening circuit wires through circuit controllers.

(3) Information may be provided by means of indicators to ad>
vise track workers of the approach of trains.

Note. — On an emergency a shunt wire with clips to attach to bond
wires may be used, provided prompt action is taken thereafter to arrange
for proper disconnection as prescribed.

4. The Committee recommends the following for approval and pub-
lication in the Manual on the subject of Time Releases Applied to Signal
or Switch Apparatus :

For average conditions the proper time interval for the release of
electrical and mechanical devices applied to signal and switch apparatus
should be the time required for a train running thirty miles per hour
to travel from a point 1000 feet before reaching the distant signal to
a point 10 feet beyond the home signal.

68 Signals and Interlocking.

In interpreting and applying this recommendation, it should be dis-
tinctly understood that it is only a guide and that the particular local con-
ditions must, in the final analysis, govern the determination of this time
interval.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends the continuation of Subjects 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 16.

Respectfully submitted,

The Committee on Signals and Interlocking,

W. J. EcK, Chairman.

Appendix A
(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

W. M. Vandersluis, Chairinan, Sub-Committee.

1. Definitions, pages 319 to 322. Reprint.

2. Conventional Signs and Symbols for Signals and Interlocking,
pages 322 to 326. Reprint.

3. Indications Conferring or Restricting Rights, page 326. Reprint.

4. Division of Expense of Installation, Renewal and Maintenance
of Joint Interlocking Plants, page 326. Reprint.

5. Signal Indications and Aspects, pages 327 to 329. Reprint.

6. Requisites for Switch Indicators, Including Conveying Informa-
tion or Condition of the Block to Conductors and Enginemen, pages 330
to 331.

Eliminate and substitute the matter entitled "Requisites of Switch
Indicators," on pages 74 and 75 of A.R.E.A. Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 197
of July, 1917.

7. List of the Findings, Conclusions, Standards and Specifications
contained in the Manual of the Railway Signal Association. (Published
for the information of the American Railway Engineering Association.)

Eliminate all matters under this head in 1915 Manual and also in
Bulletins 189, 197, 207 and 217, A.R.E.A., and substitute in lieu thereof
the data furnished the Secretary.

8. For pages 401 to 421 of the 1915 Manual substitute the following
as shown in the R.S.A. Manual :

Symbols, Signal — Plates 1 and 2, Plate 3, revised 1914, Plate 4, re-
vised October, 1917, Plate 5, revised October, 1917, Plate 6 revised Octo-
ber, 1917, Plates 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and Plate 12 revised October, 1917, and
Plate 13, revised October, 1917. This revision is referred to on pages
47 to 52 of Vol. 20, No. 207, A.R.E.A.

Also add drawings 1 to 11 as shown on pages 53 to 63 of Vol. 20,
No. 207, A.R.E.A. These drawings should be headed "Signs or Markers
for Conveying Instructions to Enginemen."

Appendix B

(8) AUTOMATIC TRAIN CONTROL

Sub-Committee: W. H. Ellioit, Chairman; W. J. Eck, F. P. Patenall,
Automatic Train Control Committee, U. S. R. A.

The Automatic Train Control Committee of the Railroad Administra-
tion, appointed January 14, 1919, made its report to the Director Gen-
eral of Railroads on November 29, 1919, and the following extracts from
that report are submitted as information.

The Committee's instructions were :

"The Committee will proceed at once to make a study of, and re-
port upon, the automatic train control devices now undergoing test upon
various lines of railroad or available for test, with their recommenda-
tions for the installation and further practical test of any devices now
or during their investigation made available for that purpose, which they
may consider practicable and reasonably conforming to the purposes to
be accomplished.

"The report of the Committee will include their recommendations
upon the requisites of automatic train control and their conclusions upon
the mechanical or economic features of such of the devices as the
Committee may find available for practical use."

"Classification of Train Control Devices

Character of

Control. Class of Device. Types of Device.

1. Intermittent A. Contact 1. Plain mechanical trip.

Ground or overhead,

2. Electrically controlled
mechanical trip.
Ground or overhead.

3. Intermittent electrical
contact.

B. Track rail contact ...1. Insulated track with

short track circuit
section.

C. Non-contact 1. Induction.

2. Inert roadside ele-
ment.

3. Non-magnetic rail.

2. Continuous A. Contact 1. Third rail or special

conductor.

B. Non-contact 1. Induction.

2. Wireless.

Speed control or cap signals may be applied to most of the above types.

The following are some of the conditions under which speed control
devices may be used :

"1. To prevent a predetermined speed being excessed regardless of
track conditions.

2. To permit a train to proceed at a predetermined low speed after
having been stopped by an automatic brake application.

Signals and Interlocking. 71

3. To permit a train to pass a brake application point at a pre-
determined speed without receiving an automatic brake application.

4. To permit a train to pass an approach indication point without
an automatic brake application providing the engineman properly ob-
serves the approach indication.

5. To permit a train to proceed without an automatic application
of the brakes as long as the speed of the train is controlled in accord-
ance with the signal indications."

The following conclusions are made :.

"1. That the relative merits of the various types of automatic train-
control can not be determined until further tests have been made.

2. That more extended service tests, including complete records of
performance, are necessary before a decision can be reached on the
availability for general practical use of any of the devices that have
been brought to the attention of the Committee.

3. That on a large part of the railroad mileage in the United States
with a given amount of money available for protection purposes, a greater
degree of safety can be obtained by installing block signals than by
installing automatic train control devices.

4. That on lines of heavy traffic, fully equipped with automatic
block signals, the use of train control devices is desirable.

5. That complying with its instructions and without implying en-
dorsement, the Committee finds 17 devices available for further test.

6. That it does not appear necessary to make tests of all the de-
vices of a type to determine the availability of that type for general
practical use.

7. That a committee on automatic train control should be continued.

It is recommended that tests undertaken should be made under the
supervision of the Committee on Automatic Train Control and the fol-
lowing records made of each test :

A. Record of performance.

B. Record of installation cost, separated between roadside and train
apparatus, and into unit costs.

C. Record of cost of modifications of the existing signal system to
accommodate the test installation.

D. Record of direct operation and maintenance costs."

The report includes a list of definitions of terms used and states
that over 300 more or less complete plans or devices were examined and
examinations were made of TH other devices that were in various stages
of development.

Appendix C

(9) DISPLAY OF SIGNALS FOR THE PROTECTION OF
TRACK WORKERS

T. S. Stkvf.ns, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

It is not recommended that temporary protection by signal shall be
provided by means of short circuiting track circuits because of the un-
reliability of such protection. Even v^^hen substantial connections are pro-
vided, they are so easily torn loose that no absolute protection is aflforded.

If temporary protection by signal for track workers or against some
emergency trouble is desired, it should be provided by having the signal
forces disconnect the signal circuits so that the signal will display the
desired indication. After the necessity for protection has ceased, the cir-
cuits should again be connected by signal forces.

Where it is desired to install permanent arrangements for providing
protection for other than purely train operations, any of the following
methods, which are now in use on several railroads, seem to take care of
the situation :

(a) Open track relay connections at the relay.

(b) Open track relay connection by knife switch.

(d) Shunt track by circuit controller operated by switch stand.

(e) Double shunt and break track circuit by knife switch.

(f) Shunt track circuit by circuit controller operated by hand.

(g) Control line circuits by stafif instruments operated by track or
other maintenance of way forces.

(h) Special indicators to give information of the approach of trains.

Conclusions

1. If temporary protection by signal is desired for track workers
or for dangerous track conditions it should be provided by disconnecting
the signal circuits so that the proper indication will be displayed. Dis-
connections should be made by signal forces.

2. If permanent arrangements are desired for protection, by signal,
of track workers or for dangerous track conditions, this may be provided by :

(a) Opening track relay through knife switch.

(b) Opening circuit wires through circuit controllers.

3. Information may be provided by means of indicators to advise
track workers of the approach of trains.

Note. — On an emergency a shunt wire with clips to attach to bond
wires may be used, provided prompt action is taken thereafter to ar-
range for proper disconnection as prescribed.

Appendix D

(13) TIME RELEASES APPLIED TO SIGNAL OR SWITCH

APPARATUS

T. S. Stevens, Chair mau; B. Wheelwright, G. E. Ellis, Sub- Committee.

In considering this question, the important and determining factor is
that of "Safet)^" All electric locking devices are applied to promote
safety in operation and in considering any device for nullifying such fea-
tures, safe operation must still remain the principal consideration.

It is obvious that with a given train, the proper time interval for
the release of electric locking devices should be the time required for
such a train to travel from the point of clear vision of the distant signal
(or sighting distance) to a point just in advance of the track circuit
controlling the derails or switches.

There is difficulty in formulating any one rule that will govern all the
various classes of traffic operating over any one interlocking plant. As
either the speed or weight or both of trains increases, the longer should
be the sighting distance and the longer the distance signal block. The
question then really resolves itself into determining the speed of traffic
upon which the recommended rule should be based.

Your Committee does not recommend that this should be based upon
the speed of the slowest train operating over the plant, for the reason
that this train can stop in a lesser distance than other traffic.

For average conditions your Committee recommends that a speed of
thirty miles per hour and a sighting distance of 1000 feet be assumed.

Upon these assumptions the rule will take the following form :

"For average conditions the proper time interval for the release
of electrical and mechanical devices applied to signal and switch ap-
paratus should be the time required for a train running thirty miles
per hour to travel from a point 1000 feet before reaching the distant
signal to a point 10 feet beyond the home signal."

In interpreting and applying this recommendation, it should be dis-
tinctly understood that it is only a guide and that the particular local
conditions must, in the final analysis, govern the determination of this
time interval.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE II— ON BALLAST

H. L. Ripley, Chairman; F. J. Stimson, Vice-Chairman;

C. VV. Baldridge, G. H. Harris,

O. F. Barnes, A. G. Holt,

J. S. Bassett, F. a. Jones,

W. J. Bergen, J. S. McBride,

F. W. Bettle, S. B. Rice,

Theo. Bloecher, Jr., D. L. Sommerville,

H. E. Boardman, Paul Sterling,

C. J. Coon, D. W. Thrower,

T. \V. Fatherson, R. C. White,

H. E. Hale, W. D. Williams,

Paul Hamilton, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

The Committee on Ballast respectfully presents the following report:

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee on Ballast
for study and report :

(1) Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

(2) (a) Make final report, if practicable, on the instructions to gov-
ern ballasting on an operated line.

(b) Continue time and cost studies relative to the application
of ballast. Urge railroads to collect such data in accordance with forms
presented in Appendix D of Ballast report (see Vol. 21) and furnish the
information to the Committee. Report on methods and comparative cost
of applying ballast, giving special attention to the organization of the bal-
last gang.

(3) Make final report, if practicable, on specifications for stone bal-
last material.

(4) Stud}^ and recommend standards for ballast tools with plans, dia-
grams, sketches or specifications necessary to illustrate the narrative.

(5) Prepare general summary of previous reports made by Ballast
Committee of the A.R.E.A.

The numbers opposite the subjects assigned correspond to the num-
bers of the sub-committees.

Committee Meetings

Three general meetings of the Committee were held in Pittsburgh
on June 17th, October 14th, and November 18th. The names of the
members in attendance at each of the meetings have been furnished to
the Secretary and printed in the Bulletin.

76 Ballast.

CONCLUSIONS

The Committee recommends that the revision and rearrangement of
the subject-matter in the Manual as made in accordance with Appendix
A be approved and the revised matter be substituted for the present
recommendations in the Manual.

The Committee recommends that the instructions to govern ballast-
ing on an operated line, as outlined in Appendix B, be approved and
printed in the Manual as recommended practice.

The Committee recommends that Specifications for Stone Ballast
Material, as outlined in Appendix C, be approved and printed in the
Manual as recommended practice.

The Committee recommends that Specifications for Washed Gravel
Ballast, as outlined in Appendix D, be adopted and printed in the Manual
as recommended practice.

The Committee recommends that the standard ballast tamping bar,
tamping pick, and ballast fork, as outlined in Appendix E, be printed in
the Manual as recommended practice.

It recommends that time and cost studies be reassigned and that
the report on methods and comparative cost of applying ballast be re-
committed, giving special attention to the organization of the ballast
gang and having particular reference to the organization of a small
emergency ballast gang.

It recommends that standards for ballast tools be recommitted, pay-
ing particular attention to the ballast shovel and consulting with the
Committee on Roadway.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that a general review of previous re-
ports be made and important matters not contained in the Manual be
summarized convenient for ready reference.

Respectfully submitted,

The. Committee on Ballast.
H. L. Ripley, Chairman.

Appendix A

REVISION OF MANUAL

C. J. Coon, Chairman; Paul Sterling,

S. B. Rice, O. F. Barnes,

Sub-Committee.

Sub-Committee (1) was instructed to make a comprehensive review
of the Manual, rearranging the contents in logical sequence, adding to
the number of terms defined and restating and reconstructing matter
now appearing in the Manual to make the meaning clear or to state in
better form that which has been developed through the process of amend-
ments and additions.

Several meetings of this sub-committee were held during the year
and with one exception, all members were present.

New definitions were added for Foul Ballast, Dust, Shoulder, Crib,
as these terms were used in various places in the data already in the
Manual.

Under "Kinds of Ballast," Pit Run, Screened, Washed Gravel have
been added.

Under "Choice of Ballast" the recommendations or attempted re-
visions had left the matter obscure and it has been restated to define
more clearly the Committee's intent without changing the substance.

The paragraph appearing in the old Manual under heading "Specifi-
cations for Stone Ballast" has been given a new caption "Characteristics
of Stone Ballast," as this more clearly indicates the subject-matter fol-
lowing the caption, and there has been presented for your consideration
and adoption at this meeting a comprehensive specification for stone
ballast material.

The caption "Specification for Gravel Ballast" has been changed to
read "Specifications for Pit Run Gravel Ballast."

A "Specification for Washed Gravel Ballast" will be presented to
this meeting for adoption.

It is hoped that the "Specifications for Stone Ballast" will be
approved this year and inserted in the Manual and the Committee recom-
mends also that some valuable information, which is in the hands of the
Secretary regarding the matter of Stone Crushing and Gravel Washing
Plants, be inserted in the Manual at some later date.

78 Ballast.

Definitions
General

Ballast. — Selected material placed on the roadbed for the purpose of
holding the track in line and surface.

Sub-Ballast. — Any material of a character superior to that in the adja-
cent cuts, which is spread on the finished sub-grade of the roadbed
and below the top-ballast, to provide better drainage, prevent up-
heaval b}^ frost, and better distribute the load over the roadbed.

Top-Ballast. — Any material of a superior character spread over a sub-
ballast to support the track structure, distribute the load to the sub-
ballast, and provide good initial drainage.

Foul-Ballast. — Ballast which has lost its porosity through the filling up
of the voids by cinders, coal dust, dirt or other foreign matter.

Dust. — Fine particles of sand, clay, loam, or other earthy matter which
will pass through a No. 50 screen.

Shoulder. — That portion of the ballast between the end of the tie and
the toe of the ballast slope.

Crib. — That portion of the ballast between two adjacent ties.

Depth. — The distance from the bottom of the tie to the top of the sub-
grade.

Kinds

Chats. — Tailings from mills in which zinc, lead, silver, and other ores
are separated from the rocks in which they occur.

Chert. — An impure flint or hornstone occurring in natural deposits.

Cinders. — The residue from the coal used in locomotives and other
furnaces.

Clay (Burnt). — A clay or gumbo which has been burned into material
for ballast.

Granite (Disintegrated). — A natural deposit of granite formation, which
on removal from its bed by blasting or otherwise, breaks into par-
ticles of size suitable for ballast.

Gravel.

(a) Pit Run. — Worn fragments of rock and sand occurring in nat-

ural deposits.

(b) Screened. — Worn fragments of rock, occurring in natural de-

posits, that will pass through a 2j/2-inch ring and be retained
upon a No. 10 screen.

washed and the relative proportions of gravel and sand have
been determined.
Gumbo. — A term commonly used for a peculiarly tenacious clay, contain-
ing no sand.

Ballast. 79

Sand. — Any hard, granular, comminuted rock which will pass through a
No. 10 screen and be retained on a No. 50 screen.

Slag. — The waste product, in a more or less vitrified form, of furnaces,
for the reduction of ore; usually the product of a blast furnace.

Stone. — Stone broken by artificial means into small fragments of speci-
fied sizes.

Comparative Merit of Material for Ballast

The following sets forth the relative order of effectiveness of vari-
ous kinds of ballast:

(1) Stone

(a) Trap rock.

(b) Limestone.

(2) Washed Gravel

(3) Broken Slag (not granulated).

(a) Precious metal slag.

(b) Open-hearth slag.

(4) Screened Gravel

(5) Pit Run Gravel

(a) River or stream gravel.

(b) Hill gravel (not cementing).

(6) Chats

(a) Chats from zinc ore, which is coarse.

(b) Chats from lead ore, which is fine.

(7) Burnt Clay or Gumbo

(8) Cinders

(a) Hard coal cinders.

(b) Volcanic cinders.

Choice of Ballast

Natural ballast materials vary greatly in quality, and the choice
must often be determined by availability and expediency under the par-
ticular existing circumstances.

Financial considerations may control the choice or there may be only
one suitable material readily available.

Crushed stone is a manufactured article and the process being under
control, it is practicable to make the product conform to specifications.

In the choice of ballast where gravel is available, it should receive
careful consideration as it has given excellent results, especially when
pioperly screened, crushed and washed.

80 B a U a s t ■

Proper Depth of Ballast

(a) On a roadbed material such as clay, loam, etc., subject to de-
formation by the application of live load, the proper depth of ballast
under the tie to produce approximately uniform pressure on the road-
bed would be not less than the spacing center to center of the ties. For
Class A Track, see Ballast Sections, adopted March, 1918.

(b) On material that approximates the character of good sub-bal-
last (which will not be deformed by the application of live load), the
minimum depth of ballast under the bottom of the tie should be twelve
(12) inches.

(c) These depths are required, under the conditions named, to sup-
port the track structure; to provide good initial drainage; to provide
against upheaval by frost; to serve as a cushion for the track.

(d) A combination of a good Sub-Ballast eighteen (18) to four-
teen (14) inches, and Top-Ballast six (6) to ten (10) inches, making a
total of approximately twenty-four (24) inches under the tie in the
aggregate, will produce nearly the same result as though the superior
material was used for the full depth.

(e) Until sufificient tests are made under normal traffic conditions,
the proper depth of ballast under the tie must rest on opinion, based on
experience and supported by such tests as are available, notably the test
made by Director Schubert of the German Railways and the "Altoona
Test" made by the Pennsylvania Railroad.

(f) Proper drainage of the sub-grade is essential to success with
any kind of ballast.

Characteristics of Stone Ballast

(1) Stone ballast should be sufficiently durable not to disintegrate
in the cHmate where used, hard enough to prevent pulverizing unduly
under the action of tools or traffic, and should break with an angular frac-
ture when crushed.

(2) It should be broken into pieces of such size that they will in any
position, pass through a 2j^-inch ring and will not pass through a j4-inch
ring.

(3) It should be free from dirt, dust or rubbish.

Attention is called to the physical test of stone for ballast given below,
which is recommended as a guide in connection with the specifications,
or where a quick test must be substituted for a more complete examina-
tion.

Physical Test of Stone for Ballast

Other things being equal, the maximum or minimum results, as indi-
cated, will govern in selecting stone for ballast :

(a) ■ Weight per cubic foot, maScimum.

(b) Water absorption in pounds per cubic foot, minimum.

Ballast. 81

(d) Hardness, maximum.

(e) Toughness, maximum.

(f) Cementing value, minimum.

(g) Compression test, maximum.

The above physical tests are made uniformly and free of charge by
the Department of Agriculture, U. S. Government, Washington, D. C.
Much valuable information in regard to tests already made and tabulated
can also be obtained from this Department.

(For the description of the physical tests of stone for ballast, as rec-
ommended by the Association and full instructions as to how the samples
should be obtained and shipped to the Government, see Proceedings of
the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
Vol. 11, Part 2, pp. 910-914, and report of the Ballast Committee of 1912.
If blueprints of the machines used in making the tests are desired they
can be obtained from the Department of Agriculture.)

The results of a large number of "Physical Tests of Road Building
Rock," (88 pages), by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, are given in
their Bulletin 370 and contains very valuable data on the study of stone
for ballast.

Specifications for Pit Run Gravel Ballast

For Class A Railways : Bank gravel, which contains more than two

(2) per cent, dust or forty (40) per cent, sand, should be washed or
screened.

For Class B Railways : Bank gravel, which contains more than three

(3) per cent, dust or sixty (60) per cent, sand, should be screened or
washed. Screened gravel should not contain less than twenty-five (25)
per cent, nor more than fifty (50) per cent. sand.

For Class C Railways : Any material which makes better track than
the natural roadbed may be economically used.

Method of Testing Quality of Pit Run Gravel for Ballast

(1) The size of the sample to be tested should be approximately
1 cubic foot.

(2) Five average samples of about 1 cubic foot each should be
selected from various parts of the pit which is to be- tested. The five
samples should then be thoroughly mixed and about 1 cubic foot of the
mixture selected for testing.

(3) To separate the gravel from the sand and dust, use a No. 10
screen, ten (10) meshes to the inch, made of No. 24 wire, B. & S. gage. To
separate the sand from the dust, use a No. 50 screen, fifty (50) meshes
to the inch, made of No. 31 wire, B. & S. gage.

82 Ballast.

(4) Measure the percentage of gravel, sand and dust taken from the
sample by volume, giving the percentage of each ingredient compared to
the volume of the sum of the ingredients, as follows:

Per cent of sand

G + S + D

Where S = Volume of sand
G = Volume of gravel
Z) = Volume of dust-

(5) When sample is shipped for test it should be carefully and
securely marked with name and location of the pit from which it was
taken.

Cinder Ballast

The use of cinder as ballast is recommended for the following condi-
tions : On branch lines with light traffic ; on sidings and yard tracks near
point of production; as sub-ballast in wet, spongy places; as sub-ballast
on new work where embankments are settling, and at places where the
track heaves from frost. It is recommended that provision be made for
wetting down cinders immediately after being drawn.

A sub-ballast blanket of cinders not less than 12 inches thick is eflfect-
ive in most cases in preventing mud and similar material working up into
the top-ballast.

Specifications for Burnt Clay Ballast
Kind of Material

1. Good ballast clay is heavy and plastic, free from sand, gypsum or
other impurities. It must not crumble when exposed to air or when
brought in contact with heat.

Location

2. The pit should be located on level or moderately sloping ground,
not subject to overflow. A water supply is desirable and it should be borne
in mind that the sulphurous and carbonaceous gases liberated during the
burning period, damage the surrounding vegetation and make habitation
in the near vicinity very disagreeable.

Test

3. The location site should be ihorouKlily tested to determine quality
of clay, depth and uniform consistency of deposit, and small quantities
should be burned in test kilns to show the quality of ballast to be secured
Burning

4. Fuel should be fresh, clean slack, and arrangements should be
made to secure constant supply. One ton of slack coal is generally suffi-
cient for the perfect burning of four cubic yards of acceptable ballast.
From one to one and one-half-inch layer of slack is alternated with from
ten to twelve-inch layer of clay, a new layer of slack and clay being ap-
plied to the fire every five or six days.

Ballast. 83

Fires once started must be kept steadily and uniformly burning.

To insure thorough and proper burning of the clay, the top and face of
the fire should be frequently raked' down, to avoid clinker or black spots,
caused by too much or too little air.

When fullj' burnt a proper ballast clay becomes red in color, when the
clay contains iron ; when under-burnt, the clay will show a yellow color.

Size

5. Burnt clay ballast should be crushed or broken, if necessary, so that
the largest piece will pass through a 4-inch ring.

Density

6. The finished product should absorb not to exceed 15 per cent, of
moisture by weight.

Cleaning Foul Ballast

Under usual conditions no ballast, except stone or hard slag, should
be cleaned.

Ballast should be cleaned when foul enough to prevent proper
drainage.

Clean with ballast forks or screens.

Clean shoulder down to sub-grade.

Clean crib to bottom of ties.

Clean space between tracks to depth of six (6) in. or more below
the bottom of ties.

Clean the berme to bottom of ballast, preferably not less than twelve
(12) in. below bottom of tie.

Clean cross ditches between tics approximately every rail length or
thirty-three (33) ft. Cross ditches should not be under rail joints.

Return ballast when cleaned and apply sufficient new ballast to pro-
duce the standard section.

Tests, fully described in the report of the Committee on Ballast for
1914, indicate stone ballast can be cleaned by use of screens for approxi-
mately one-half cost of cleaning stone ballast with forks. (For diagram
showing details of collapsible screens, see 1914 report.)

Stone ballast should be cleaned : In terminals, at intervals of one
(1) to three (3) years. Heavy traffic, at intervals of three (3) to five
(5) years. Light traffic lines, at intervals of five (5) to eight (8) years.

Per cent, of new stone ballast to be applied: Fifteen (15) to twenty-
five (25) per cent.

Use and Limitation of Mechanical Tools

Mechanical devices used to save labor and expense and to expedite
the work fall naturally into sequence from the pit, quarry or ballast pile
to the finished track.

84 Ballast.

Cars for transporting ballast should be carefully chosen with regard
to the work to be done — whether it is to be on track already laid or for
an additional parallel track.

If for raising track, hopper cars should be used with the ballast
plow or tie drag. If for parallel track, side dumps are to be preferred,
especially when air operated. Convertible cars where the sides swing
out and up, when used with the side plow and unloading engine-drum
and cable, are fairly satisfactory when dump cars are not available, which
is usually the case when stone ballast is furnished from a private quarry.

Anchoring the train and pulling the plow through the train by cable
from the locomotive is a poor substitute for the unloading engine. It
does beat unloading by hand.

The spreader car, especially when air-operated, is effective and
should be in general use. With this car, ballast for new second track
work previously dumped alongside the running track from side dump
cars or unloaded by side plows, can be spread out to a grade two inches
below the bottom of tie and to the outside shoulder at a speed of eight
miles per hour. When not in use on ballast work the spreader can be
used on a grading dump and in wet clay or rock, will do the work of
fifty men and remain idle most of the time at that.

The mechanical tamper has passed the stage where its usefulness
under favorable circumstances needs further defense.

Around terminals and yards where there is a large amount of frog
and switch work, so far as this Committee knows there is no disposition
to question the expediency of its use based on its merits alone, entirely
•apart from any question of scarcity of labor.

Ballasting by Contract

The consensus of opinion is strongly against ballasting by contract
in normal times and especially so on operated track.

Advocates of ballasting by contract do so largely as an emergency
measure because of the greater flexibility of a contractor's organization
in changing the rates of pay and so securing labor in times of stress.

Reinforcement Under Ballast

Concrete slabs placed under the ballast on soft roadbed where traffic
is heavy, and at times under other exceptional circumstances, indicate
that a considerable degree of success may be expected from their use,
and at reasonable expense. (See Vol. 21, pp. 447 to 465.)

Diagram for Organization and Distribution of a Ballast Raising

Force of 77 Men

IO<)

,ft. -

.--^-

7oo" k. 4*-

Linint

Spades
Rora or Jacks

BoisingBora
erJocK&

® ®

« €)

30
flora or Lc%»To tn«ur«

if«t:

Head Jocka
® ® © ®

®®(

® ®

® ®g® <s>
®

force

Z 2 PigqincfHole^forJocWi

3 A Head Jocks

4 <* 3pader6

5 I \_evelfnan

A & Raikinqbara or Jocks

7 A Tampers

8 2 rorK«r» ftilcdge*

9 2&Tomp«ra

Bo. nen force

10 « ForWera

11 ft Lininoai rillirig lo
I Woter Carrier

I Tool rion

1 Time* Moterial clerk
V I roremonSupervi&inqWork

§2 Aast. fbre»T»«oRaisingTrock
1 Aaat rorcmonTompinoTrock
® I A»*t roremonLinintjTrotk

Number of Men Tt
To to I force 77

Ho>t<ft'. Th« Pioqrom pr«»uppo»a6 thot

OtdTiock ha& been Mwlctoni^ed an^ that o
roll<Mv.up6onq *»ill da Hie rinished Lirnnq
and CVe»»in« oftcrlhe Track ho* been '
poundeo do<vo underTroffic.

The Sheletoni jino Sanq should precede
tbe Roi&ina 6an£j by obout one day5v«ork

Slow Order \V>ould QOvemTnoinnovement*
over ^fceleto mud Track o*"^^ o»th«1v-ock
be.oa Uftad.

Lifiina Jockfc atiould be let ovMay from the
Joint* prtferobly rft ItaaStTwo Tie»

T.esihe '-L '- '

particulc

Ercrapiv ai DBa»l ivifo iieo

buMW fUaMced if necesaary
arlyottVie Jomtb '

AJR£A.

Pia^ram Showing
Orqaniiation ft distribution

Bolldst RciMn<] Gone)

nov. 1916

.I""'

■■^!'» .7.'

• 1 1

^•■T

■r* I

\ ■'■■ '

.V.

I-::

•

«1 <■:

'0 "•

"-.-i

> 1

■^

lU-'. ■

5 '^

n ■ ■ ' •

;

W i

1 : :■ :■

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^''■■:

*V i

P '^ ■ H,

0 1

: '.' .':

V-:V

■;

> cV

'»

o *>'

Ballast.

CLASS B.

The Sections for Class B track are intended to show minimum depth
under ties and are recommended for use only on the firmest, most sub-
stantial and well-drained suhgrades.

yS/a^e ^"io thefbot.
■3/ope 2to T

Crushed Stone and Slag.

Slope li"to the foot
Slope 3 tot

Radius 4'0 '

Gravel, Cinders and Chats.

Gravel, Cinders and Chats

CLASS C.

S/o/oe ^z'to the foot.
S/ope 3 tot

Cementing Gravel and Chert.

Ballast

Ballast Sections, with Particular Reference to Sub- and Top-Ballast.
Class "A" section should have 24 inches of ballast under the tie.

■4-0

FIG. I

FIG. IE

FiG.m

Appendix B

INSTRUCTIONS TO GOVERN BALLASTING ON AN
OPERATED LINE

C. W. Baldridge, CJiairwau; J. S. Bassett,

G. H. Harris, W. D. Williams,

A. G. Holt. Sub-Committee.

This report was presented as a report of progress in 1920, was
printed in the Bulletin and has been before the Association for a year.
It has received further consideration bj' the general Ballast Committee,
and in accordance with the instructions of the Association has been put
in final form for adoption.

Authority

Decision of the kind and amount of ballast to be applied having
been made by the proper officials, the work should be handled as follows :

Plans

The Division Engineer or Roadmaster, whichever is to have respon-
sible charge, shall lay his plans for work train movements and service
before the Trainmaster and Chief Dispatcher, in order that they may
have a clear understanding of what is desired to be done, and that
they may be able to assist the movements to be made with as little delay
as possible.

Ballast Supply

If the ballast is to be furnished by the Company or from a pit for
which the Companj- is responsible, a careful inspection of the pit tracks
and appurtenances shall be made and everything put into serviceable
condition.

Equipment

All equipment, such as steam shovel, mechanical unloader, unloading
plows, material spreader, ballast plow, or spreader, etc., shall be gone
over and put into working order.

Protection

Speed restrictions shall be arranged for in accordance with operat-
ing rules before the track is disturbed, and shall be maintained until the
track is in safe condition for schedule speed.

Preparation of Roadbed

Preparatory to placing ballast, the roadbed shall be widened, if
necessary, to bring it to the A.R.E.A. standard width, by dumping ma-
terial alongside of the track and spreading it to the required width and
slope, preferably by the use of a material spreader. Where necessary

90 Ballast.

to raise the roadbed level, porous material must be used to avoid the
forming of water pockets by burying in of old ballast.

Bank Widening

All bank widening shall be done far enough in advance of the bal-
lasting work so that there will be no interference between work-trains
or gangs.

Skeletonizing

After the banks have been widened, the track shall be skeletonized.
Where the material is suitable for sub-ballast and the grade will permit,
the track shall be raised and the eld material spread under and between
the ties, and to the proper width, as uniformly as is practicable.

Where conditions do not permit of raising the track, the old material
shall be removed to the required depth and disposed of as directed.

Where not suitable for sub-ballast, the old material shall be removed
to the plane of the bottom of the ties, or deeper, if necessary, to pre-
serve grade line, and shall be placed on the outer shoulder of the road-
bed, preferably at such points as will tend to even up the line of the
shoulder.

Use of Jacks

In using jacks, they must be placed outside the rail and close enough
together to prevent undue bending of the rail or overstrain of the joints.
Where the roadbed material is heavy or holds to the ties tenaciously, it
is sometimes necessary to place three or more jacks per rail length.
Jacks should be worked in pairs directly opposite each other, and a
sufficient number should be used simultaneously, so that no jack will
raise the rail more than four inches above its level at the next succeed-
ing jack or place of support.

Tie Renewals

Following the skeletonizing of the track, such tie renewals shall be
made as the Company's standards require. All ties must be properly
straightened and spaced.

The track must be fully gauged as the new ties are being spiked
up. Old ties must be disposed of as directed.

Grade Stakes

Ballast grade stakes shall preferably be set after the bankwidening,
skeletonizing and re-tieing have been done and before the ballast mate-
rial has been dumped and spread.

It is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, interference with the
Stakes, yet to have them available as a guide for the unloading of
ballast.

Drains

All tile, box or other drains required to take care of water from
between tracks, shall be placed before the ballast material is unloaded.

Ballast. 91

Unloading of Ballast

Ballast shall be unloaded by dumping or plowing as the means pro-
vided permit.

If the ballast be in center dump cars, it shall be unloaded by having
one or more cars opened a little at a time and allowing the required
or desired amount of ballast material to flow out as the train is slowly
moved along. If the material be on flat or open-side cars, it shall be
plowed off by means of an unloading machine while the train is stand-
ing or moving at such a rate of speed as to provide the desired amount
of material as uniformly distributed as possible.

The unloaded materials shall be leveled down by means of a ballast
plow, or of a spreader, consisting of a heavy timber with wheel skids
attached to it, and placed in front of the leading pair of wheels of the
rear truck. Care must be taken not to destroy or disturb the grade
stakes.

Parallel Tracks

Where a new track is being built parallel to an existing track, ballast
material can be advantageously handled in body dump cars which dump
the entire load to the side desired, after which the ballast material may
be spread to the required width and depth by the use of a material
spreader, and the track laid after the ballast is in place.

Preliminary Surfacing

The first lift shall be a filling lift.

The filling, or preliminary surfacing gang, shall follow the unloading
as closely as the regularity of the ballast supply will permit.

The amount which the track should be raised at one lift will depend
upon the depth of ballast to be applied. Usually, track should not be
raised more than six inches at a lift, but if the total lift of the track is
to be be not more than ten inches, a first lift of seven to eight inches
may be made, if traffic conditions will permit, leaving the remainder
of the raise for the finishing lift. A sufficient number of jacks must
be used simultaneously to avoid damage to rails. The raise on any one
jack shall not be greater than four inches above the next jack, or point
of support. Both rails must be raised at one time, and as nearly uni-
formly as is practicable.

The "filling lift" shall be made by jacking the track up to the
required height, and the ballast material then forked or shoveled in and
worked to as uniform a surface as possible by the use of spades. It
shall then be left to be compacted by traffic, but a sinall "lookout" gang
shall go over it after a few trains have passed, and pick up any spots
that show too great an inequality of settlement.

After a few days, depending upon the amount of traffic over the
track, another lift shall be made, either another filling lift or a finishing
lift, according to the depth to which the track is to be ballasted. If
another filling lift, it shall be made in the same manner as the first one.

92 Ballast.

Finishing Lift

When the track has been raised to within two or three inches of the
final grade and properly compacted, a finishing lift shall be made by
jacking up the track to the exact height provided for by the grade stakes
and the necessary ballast forked or shoveled in and then driven to place
by the tamping machines, tamping picks or bars, if rock or heavy ballast
is used. Shovel tamping should be used with gumbo, cinder or light
sandy gravel ballast. In making the finishing lift, the spot board and
level board must be used with care, and the track brought to as true a
surface as possible.

Alinement

The track shall be placed in good alincmciU before the tini^hinti lift
is made, but a lining gang shall follow one or two days' work behind
the finishing lift and shall spot up all places found not to be holding
up to proper surface and shall line the track to as accurate alinement as
possible.

Center stakes shall be set for the alinement before the finishing lift
is made, and the final alinement must conform to the center stakes.

Dressing

Following as closely as possible behind the lining gang, the dress-up
gang shall finish the work by filling the track center to the required
fullness and then dressing it toward the toe of ballast, preserving the
proper clearance under the rail and proper curve and slope of the
shoulder. The toe of ballast shall be made a true line, parallel to the
center line of track, and any surplus material shall be raked far enough
from the toe line to permit of its being forked or shoveled up without
fouling or disturbing the finished ballast.

No ballast material or refuse out of the ballast or roadbed mate-
rial which would interfere with a mowing machine when cutting grass
and weeds shall be cast off of the roadbed or be left where it will inter-
fere with the use of mowing machines or scythes.

Clean-up

When the dress-up gang leaves any part of the track as completed,
it shall be in first-class line and surface. The ballast shall conform to
the ballast sections as adopted by the A.R.E.A. All surplus ballast shall
have been loaded, and all refuse and rubbish shall have been removed,
loaded or destroyed, so as to leave the right-of-w'ay and shoulders of
roadbed in condition to be mowed without interference.

Appendix C

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STONE BALLAST MATERIAL

F. J. Stimson, Chairman; T. W. Fatherson,

H. E. Hale, D. L. Sommerville,

F. W. Bettle, Sub-Committee.

Specifications for Stone Ballast Material were presented in tentative
form to the Association at its meeting in 1920 and were referred back
to the Committee with instructions to put them in final form for
adoption.

For the annual meeting in 1921, the Committee has reconsidered the
specifications and presents them to you in final form for adoption.

In writing specifications for Stone Ballast Material, the Committee
recognizes the fact that while this material is a manufactured product,
and consequently, to a considerable extent, susceptible of definite specifi-
cations, it is not feasible from a practical standpoint in many cases to
obtain ideal stone from which to manufacture the ballast. Consequently,
no such hard and fast mechanical or chemical requirements can be made
as in the case of steel products. The road must depend upon obtaining
the raw stone from quarries with a reasonable limit of haul.

In writing the specifications, actual figures showing the character-
istics of the stone have been left blank and a note has been inserted
showing what characteristic is desirable and the figure which a high
quality of stone for ballast should show. This will permit the road
using the specifications to make its test of the best ballast material avail-
able, insert its own units, and at the same time know how these units
compare with a stone entirely desirable for ballast purposes. In this
way your Committee has endeavored to overcome the difficulty which
the road will meet in being obliged to use available material.

Physical Qualities
General

Stone for use in the manufacture of ballast shall break into angular
fragments which range with fair uniformity between the maximum and
minimum size specified herein ; it shall test high in weight, hardness,
strength and durability, but low in absorption, solubility and cement-
ing qualities.

Tests

Tests shall be made as follows :

Weight. — Not less than one-half cubic foot of the stone accurately
measured, and dried for not less than twelve hours in dry air at a tem-
perature of between 125 and 140 deg. Fahr. shall be weighed. The weight

shall be not less than lb. per cubic foot.

94 Ballast. '_

(Note. — Of the stone available, that having the maximum should be
used; a high quality stone for ballast will weigh 168 lb. per cubic foot.)

(Note. — If approved by the Association, to be inserted in the Manual
preceding Specification for Pit Run Gravel.)

Strength. — Two-inch cubes of the stout- shall be sawed to reason-
ably accurate dimensions and the top and bottom faces made accurately
parallel. For the primary tests, the test specimens shall be dried for two
hours in dry air at a temperature of between 120 and 140 deg. Fahr.
and at the time of test the temperature of the specimen shall be not less
than 50 degrees. Tests shall be made in a testing machine of standard

form and the stone shall have a compressive strength of lb.

per square inch.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that having the maximum compressive
strength should be used ; a high quality stone for ballast will have a
strength of 10,000 lb. per square inch.)

A secondary test shall be made on specimens the same in all respects
as for the primary test except that the blocks shall have completely
immersed in clean water, of a temperature between 35 and 90 degrees,
for 96 hours, the test to be made within 30 minutes of removal from
the water.

If the compressive strength shall have decreased more than

per cent from the primary tests, the rock shall be deemed unsuitable
for ballast purposes.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that showing the least difference be-
tween the results of the primary and secondary test should be used; a high
quality stone for ballast should show not over 1 per cent difference.)

Solubility. — One-fourth cubic foot of the rock shall be crushed and
thoroughly washed. The particles shall then be placed in a glass vessel
and covered with clear water. The vessel shall be thoroughly shaken
for five-minute periods at 12 hour intervals for 48 hours. If any dis-
coloration of the water occurs, the rock shall be deemed soluble and
undesirable for use as ballast.

Wear or Durability. — (Test No. 1). One-half cubic yard of washed
stone, which will pass through the maximum and be retained on the
minimum screen, shall be spread over a wire mesh or iron surface to a
depth of not more than 3 in., and exposed to a dry heat of from 125 to
140 deg. Fahr. for a period of two hours. After the dried stone is care-
fully weighed it shall be given 10,000 revolutions in a tumbler approxi-
mately four feet in diameter, of not less than two cubic yards capacity,
and operating at 25 revolutions per minute.

The sample shall then be passed over a screen of the minimum
dimension provided for sizing the ballast, again washed and dried in
the same manner as before the test, and again carefully weighed.

If the decrease in weight shall be more than per cent of

the original weight of the sample, the stone shall be deemed unfit for
use as ballast.

Ballast. 95

Outside of the breakage, which is exhibited by the small particles
which will pass through a minimum screen but will not pass a sieve of
20 meshes to the inch, the wear should not exceed per cent.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that showing the smallest loss in
weight should be used; a high quality stone for ballast will show a loss of
not more than 1 per cent in fragments which will pass a screen of 20
meshes to the inch, and not more than 3 per cent, in those passing the
minimum sizing screen.)

Test A'o. 2 (Quick U'catheriiig Test). One-half cubic yard of
stone shall be dried and weighed as for Test No. 1. It shall then be
immersed in water for six hours and then while still wet, be placed in
a refrigerating plant and subjected to a temperature of approximately
zero Fahr. for two hours. It shall then be removed and the tem-
perature gradually raised in two hours to 100 degrees and that heat con-
tinued for two hours, when it shall be immersed as before and again
subjected to approximately zero temperature.

The freezing and thawing shall be repeated to a total of ten
exposures. If any tendency to disintegrate is observable the stone should
be considered unsuitable for ballast. Otherwise the material shall again
be subjected to a wear test as provided under Test No. 1. If in this wear

test the maximum decrease in weight shall be in excess of per

cent, it shall be deemed unsuitable for use as ballast.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that showing the minimum average
decrease in weight should be used ; a high quality stone for ballast will
not show a decrease in fragments which will pass the minimum sizing
screen of more than 4 per cent.)

Absorption. — One-half cubic yard of washed stone, which will pass
through the maximum and be retained on the minimum screen, shall be
spread over a wire mesh or iron surface to a depth of not more than
3 inches, and exposed to a dry heat of from 125 to 140 deg. Fahr. for
a period of 6 hours. After the dried stone is carefully weighed it shall
be submerged in clean water for a period of 96 hours. It shall then be
removed from water and exposed to a normal air in the shade and at a
temperature between 40 and 80 degrees, and allowed to drip for 30
minutes, when it shall again be weighed and the difference in weight
shall be used to determine the rate of absorption. Stone showing an

absorption of more than Ih. per cubic foot is unsuitable for

ballast.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that .showing the minimum absorption
should be used ; a high quality stone for ballast will have an absorption of
not more than 0.50 lb. per cu. ft.)

Cementing Quality. — A five-pound sample of the rock thoroughly
washed and dried shall be crushed until it will pass through a screen of
one-fourth inch mesh. This material shall be placed in a ball mill which
contains two steel shot weighing 20 lb. each, and the mill revolved at

96 Ballast.

the rate of 30 revolutions per minute, until it has made 2000 revolutions
for each pound of sample in the mill.

Sufficient clean water shall be added to make a consistent mortar,
which shall then be moulded into one-inch cubical briquettes, formed
under 10 lb. pressure. All of the briquettes shall then be allowed to dry
20 hours in air, when one-third of them shall be tested for compres-
sive strength.

One-third shall be kept for four hours m a steam bath, and the
remainder shall be immersed for four hours in clean water at a tem-
perature between 50 and 60 deg. Fahr. and then tested for compressive
strength.

If in any of these tests a compressive strength greater than

lb. per square inch is developed, the material shall be deemed unsuitable
for ballast.

(Note. — Of the stone available, that from which the briquettes show
the minimum strength should be used ; a high quality stone will show
not to exceed 4 lb. per square inch.)

Requirements

Breaking. — Stone for ballast shall be broken into fragments which
range with fair uniformity between the size which will in any position
pass through a 2^-in. ring and the size which will not pass through a
l4-in. ring.

Test for Size. — (Maximum). A sample weighing not less than 150
lb. shall be taken from the ballast as loaded in the cars and placed in
or on a screen having round holes 2% in- in diameter. If a thorough
iJgitation of the screen fails to pass through the screen 95 per cent of
the fragments, as determined by weight, the output from the plant shall
be rejected until the fault has been corrected.

(Minimum). A sample weighing not less than 150 lb. shall be
taken from the ballast as loaded in the cars; weighed carefully and
placed in or on a suitable screen having round holes 5^-inch in diameter.
The screen shall then be agitated until all fragments which will pass
through the screen have been eliminated. The fragments retained in
the screen shall then be weighed and if the weight is less than 95 per
cent of the original weight of the sample the output of the plant shall
be rejected until the fault is corrected.

Handling. — Broken stone for ballast must be delivered from the
screens directly to the cars or to clean bins provided for the storage
of the output of the crusher. Ballast must be loaded into cars which
are in good order and tight enough to prevent leakage and waste of
material and are clean and free from sand, dirt, rubbish or any other
substance which would foul or damage the ballast material.

Ballast. 97

Inspection. — Inspectors representing the purchaser shall have free
entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while the contract
is being executed, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded them
by the manufacturer to sati'^ly them that the ballast material is pre-
pared and loaded in accordance with the specifications and contracts.

In case the inspection develops that the material which has been
or is being loaded is not according to specifications, the inspector shall
notify the manufacturer to stop further loading and to dispose of all
cars under load with the defective material.

As the quarry deepens or is enlarged, further tests shall be made
of the material whenever conditions indicate a change in the quality
of the stone, or where in the judgment of the Engineer for the Com-
panj-, a further test is advisable. Should such tests show that the stone
fails to meet the provisions of these specifications, it shall not be used
for the manufacture of ballast.

Measurement. — Ballast material may be reckoned in cubic yards or
by tons, as expedient. Where ballast material is handled in cars, the
yardage may be determined by weight, after ascertaining the weight per
cubic yard of the particular stone in question by careful measurement
and weighing of not less than five cars filled with the material, or the
tonnage may be determined for subsequent cars by measurement and
converting the yardage into tonnage by use of the weight per yard as
determined above.

(A)

Appendix D

SPECIFICATION FOR WASHED GRAVEL BALLAST

F. J. Stimson, Chairman; T. W. Fatherson,

H. E. Hale, D. L. Sommervili.e,

F. W. Bettle, Sub-Committee.

Your Committee presents for your consideration and attention,
Specifications for Washed Gravel Ballast. It feels that this subject is
becoming one of increasing importance and several members have had
somewhat extensive experience in connection with the use of this material.

The requirements of the specifications are well within the limits of
tolerance which can be met by a properly constructed commercial plant.

The Committee believes that it is desirable, where practicable, to
combine the preparation of material for commercial use with the prepa-
ration of material for ballast.

It asks for the adoption of these specifications.

Specifications for Washed Gravel for Ballast

1. Gravel for ballast shall be so prepared that dust, loam and dirt
are removed, that all aggregates that will not in any position pass through
a 2^-in. ring are rejected; and that the sand contained in the ballast
shall not, in volume, exceed 20 per cent nor be less than 15 per cent of
the material as loaded for use.

Test No. 1. Dust, Dirt or Loam

2. A sample of the prepared ballast containing one-eighth (%)
cubic foot shall be placed in a watertight receptacle having a capacity
of not less than one (1) cu. ft. Into this receptacle shall then be placed
two quarts of clear water after which the receptacle shall be agitated
until the gravel is thoroughly washed. The water shall be drained of?
immediately and placed in a glass jar and allowed to settle. If the sedi-
ment deposited in the bottom of the jar is more than one-half (1/2) of
one (1) per cent of the volume of sample the output of the plant shall
be rejected until the fault has been corrected.

Test No. 2. Large Aggregate

3. A sample weighing not less than 150 lb. shall be placed in t>r
on a screen having round holes 2^ in. in diameter. If a thorough agita-
tion of the screen fails to pass through the screen 98 per cent of the
material, as determined by weight, the output from the plant shall be
rejected until the fault has been corrected.

f!8

B a 1 ! a -^ t . 99

Test No. 3. Sand

4. One cubic foot of the prepared ballast shall be thoroughh^ dried,
placed in a screen having ten meshes to the inch and the screen agitated
till all particles which will pass have passed through the screen. If
the material which passes through the screen exceeds 20 per cent or is
less than 15 per cent in volume of the original sample the output shall
be rejected until the fault has been corrected.

5. In case inspection develops the fact that the material which has
been or is being loaded is not in accordance with these specifications,
the inspector shall notify the manufacturer to stop further loading until
the fault has been corrected, and to dispose of all defective material that
had been loaded in cars, which shall be done at the expense of the con-
tractor.

6. When ballast is being paid for by the ton, and it is impracticable
to weigh each car, the weight per yard shall be obtained by weighing at
frequent intervals not less than five cars loaded w'ith ballast, the con-
tents of which have been carefully measured. The Aveight per yard
obtained by such a test shall be used in figuring the weight per car
until another test is made.

7. When ballast is paid for by the yard, the amount shall be deter-
mined by weighing each car, Avhere practicable, and applying the weight
per yard as determined by frequent tests. When impracticable to weigh
each car, the contents of each car will be carefully estimated by com-
parison with cars, the contents of which have been actually measured.

(Note. — If approved by the Association, to be inserted in the Manual
following specifications for Pit Run Gravel.)

Appendix E

STANDARDIZATION BALLAST TOOLS

J. S. McBride, Chairman; D. W. Thrower,

F. A. Jones, R. C. White,

Suh-Committee.

Plans and specifications for tamping bars, tamping picks, ballast forks
and ballast shovels were prepared and sent by the Secretary to the car-
riers and manufacturers, with request for discussions, suggestions and
criticisms. A number of replies were received from the carriers, but no
replies were received from the manufacturers.

The Sub-Committee has made some corrections in view of the sug-
gestions received and is submitting herewith specifications and plans for
tamping bars, tamping picks and ballast forks, which are recommended
for insertion in the Manual.

The Committee is not ready to make a recommendation on standard
ballast shovel, and is submitting plan which it requests be considered as
a progress report.

Specifications for Ballast Tools
Scope

1. These specifications cover tamping bars, ballast forks and tamp-
ing picks.

Material

2. These tools, other than straps, shall be high-grade tool steel made
by the Open-Hearth or Crucible process.

3. Straps for forks shall be of soft Open-Hearth steel or wrought-
iron.

4. Handles shall be smooth and well seasoned, of the best grade
straight grained ash or hickory, bent to shape.

Chemical Properties

5. The steel shall conform to the following chemical composition :

Tamping Bars and Picks Forks

Per Cent Per Cent

Carbon 0.55 to 0.75 0.90 to 1.05

Manganese 0.40 to 0.60 Not more than 0.50

Phosphorus Not more than 0.04 Not more than 0.04

Sulphur Not more than 0.04 Not more than 0.04

Design

6. The dimensions of tools shall conform to the plans which are
made a part of these specifications.

100

Ballast. 101

Physical Properties

7. All tools shall be free from defects and finished in a workman-
like manner.

8. Tools must be properly tempered to provide the maximum tough-
ness and strength to perform the service for which they are intended.

9. Tamping bars, picks and tines, head and tongue of ballast forks
shall be of one piece, no welding being permissible.

10. Tools shall be marked as shown on the plans.

Inspection

11. Inspection of tools shall ordinarily be made at the place of

manufacture. The manufacturer shall notify of

the Railroad Company at least days in advance when tools

will be ready for shipm.ent. However, when so directed, in regard to
a particular shipment, the manufacturer shall make shipment on his
own inspection, subject to requirements of Paragraph 15.

12. The manufacturer shall allow the Railroad Company's inspectors
such access to the work as may be necessary to satisfy them that the
provisions of these specifications are carried out.

13. The manufacturer shall furnish, without charge, all necessary
facilities and assistance for making thorough inspection and tests at
the works.

Rejection

14. Individual tools, defective in any respect, and lots of tools not
meeting above requirements, shall be rejected.

15. All tools shipped on manufacturer's inspection, as provided in
Paragraph 11, which on arrival at destination are found defective and
all tools which develop flaws and defects in the usual and necessary
service, shall be rejected and replaced at the entire expense of the manu-
facturer or seller.

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102

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104

Brand kffers s '^f^^

eiiiff

ffe/qfyf /^pjorox. 6i /is.

Nome of Manufacturer w/fh month and year made to be

stamped on strap.
T/?e fottoujtng i^or/at/ons /n drmens/ons s/iotun on ptan w/Jf

Ae permitted
Le/ygfth of tiandte t"
Length of btode §'
0/dlti of blade d' /ess
L/'ft ofbtode i "

BALLAST SHOVEL

Scale.

105

REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON STRESSES

IN TRACK

A. N. TalboTj Chairman; W. M. Dawley, V ice-Chairman;

A. S. Baldwin, Geo. W. Kittredge,

G. H. Bremner, Paul M. LaBach,

John Brunner, C. G. E. Larsson,

W. J. Burton, G. J. Ray,

Chas. S. Churchill, Albert Reich mann,

W. C. Gushing, H. R. Safford,

Dr. p. H. Dudley, Earl Stimson,

H. E. Hale, F. E. Turneaure,

RoBT. \\\ Hunt, J. E. Willoughby,

J. B. Jenkins, Committee.

To the American Railzvay Engineering Associatio)i:

The Special Committee on Stresses in Track, cooperating with a
similar committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the
American Railwa)' Association, presents the following report of progress :

In continuation of the program of the Committee, field tests on rail-
road track were carried on during the summer season. The tests were
conducted on the tracks of the Illinois Central Railroad in Illinois, the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railway in New Jersey, and the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway in New Mexico and Iowa. The
tests were made on tangent track and on curved track, several different
g.irvatures being used. A principal purpose of the tests was to find the
effect of curvature of track upon the stresses in the rail (including
lateral bending stresses) caused by locomotives of different types run
at different speeds, as compared with the stresses developed in straight
track. Several types of locomotives were used — Pacific, Mountain,
Santa Fe, Mikado, Ten-Wheeler, etc. Work of a preliminary nature
was also done to find the effect of the flat spots of wheels upon the
stress in the rail. All the tests were carried on in much the same way
as were the tests described in the reports of the Committee already
presented to the Association. A large amount of data has been accumu-
lated, and it will require several months to reduce these data and a
further time to study the results. Preliminary work on the data indi-
cates that the tests will give important information on stresses developed
in curved track.

The Committee is continuing work on other phases of the subject
assigned to it.

Respectfully submitted,
The Special Committee on Stresses in Track,

By A. N. Talbot, Chairman.
107

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVIII— ON ELECTRICITY

Edwin B. KvrxK, Chairmait; D. T. Brumley, ]' ice-Chairman;

H. M. Bassett, R. Beeuwkes,

R. D. Coombs, J. C. Davidson,

W^ALT Dennis, R. H. Ford,

A.' H. Hor.ELANP. G. W. Kittredge,

C. E. Lindsay, H. K. Lowry,

W. L. Morse, A. E. Owen,

R. S. Parsons, J. R. Savage,

M. Schreiber, E. B. Temple,

\V. M. Vandersi-uis, S. Withington.

Committee.

To the American Railzvay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee on Electricity
for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Continue collecting statistical data relative to the clearance of
third rail and overhead working conductors.

3. Study and report on electrolysis and its effect upon reinforced
concrete; report upon methods of insulation and guarding against electro-
lysis, and cooperate with the American Committee on Electrolysis in the
preparation of its future report.

4. Report on the study of maintenance organization and its rela-
tion to track structures.

5. Report upon the utilization of water power for electric railway
operation, conferring with the Committee on Conservation of Natural
Resources.

6. Submit specifications for insulated wires and cables.

7. Study and report on electrical interference with telephone and
telegraph lines caused by propulsion circuits, enlarged to include a report
recommending practice for eliminating, so far as practicable, interfer-
ence with signal, telephone and telegraph lines caused by propulsion
circuits and adjacent transmission lines.

8. Study and report on underground conduit construction with a
view of preparing plans and specifications for underground conduit and
splicing chamber construction for transmission and power distribution
cables, working in conjunction with appropriate committees from the
Signal Section and the Telegraph and Telephone Section of the Ameri-
can Railway Association.

9. Cooperate with the United States Bureau of Standards in the
revision of the National Electrical Safety Code and other codes of
similar character.

^ 109 ( .\ )

110 Electricity.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago on May 19th and
September 15th, and in New York City on July 13th and October 21st
and 22nd. The names of the members in attendance have been given
in the Minutes of the meetings which have been forwarded to the Sec-
retary.

(1) Revision of Manual

Included in Appendix E are given additional electrical definitions
recommended for the Manual in connection with the Specifications for
Underground Conduit Construction.

(2) Clearances for Third Rail and Overhead Conductors

No revision is recommended in the tables giving Data Regarding
Third Rail Clearances or in tables giving Data Regarding Overhead
Clearances. These tables were revised and brought up to date last year
and it is thought that if similar revision occurs every two years it will
be sufficient.

(3) Electrolysis

In Appendix A the Committee reports on the subject of Electrolysis
and its effect on reinforced concrete, and its recommendations are given
under the conclusions.

(4) Maintenance Organization

The Committee has no report to offer in regard to Maintenance
Organization and its relation to track structures. The matter has been
under consideration and a questionnaire has been prepared but the
re-study has not advanced sufficiently far to warrant at this time revis-
ions in the previous reports.

(5) Water Power

In Appendix B the Committee reports on the subject of Water
Power for electric railway operation, and its recommendations are given
under the conclusions.

(6) Specifications for Insulated Wires and Cables

In Appendix C the Committee submits Railroad Specifications for
Electric Wires and Cables for approval and printing in the Manual as
recommended practice.

(7) Electrical Interference

In Appendix D the Committee reports on the subject of Electrical
Interference, and its recommendations are given under the conclusions.

Electricity. 111

(8) Underground Conduit Construction

In Appendix E the Committee submits Railroad Specifications for
Underground Conduit Construction for Power Cables for approval and
printing in the Manual as recommended practice; also submits definitions
of additional electrical terms for printing in the Manual ; also submits
a memorandum descriptive of "Stone Ducts" for underground con-
duit construction.

(9) National Electrical Safety Code

In Appendix F the Committee reports the results of its work in
collaboration with the United States Bureau of Standards in the revision
of the National Electrical Safety Code.

(10) Standards

In Appendix G the Committee submits a report on Standards and
submits for printing in the Manual as recommended practice a list of
Standard Incandescent Lamps.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends for inclusion in the Manual the
additional electrical definitions enumerated in Appendix E.

2. The Committee recommends that the report on F.lectrolysis and
Insulation, being Appendix A, be accepted as information and published
in the Proceedings, the subject to be continued and the Committee be
authorized to continue its representation on the American Committee
on Electrolysis.

3. The Committee recommends that the report on Water Power,
being Appendix B, be accepted as information and published in the
Proceedings and the subject continued.

4. The Committee recommends that the Railroad Specifications for
Wires and Cables, being Appendix C, be approved and printed in the
Manual as recommended practice.

5. The Committee recommends that the report on Electrical Inter-
ference, being Appendix D, be accepted as information, published in the
Proceedings and the subject continued.

6. The Committee recommends that the Railroad Specifications for
Underground Conduit Construction for Power Cables, being Appendix
E, be approved and printed in the Manual as recommended practice.

7. The Committee recommends that the report on the National
Electrical Safety Code, being Appendix F, be accepted as information, pub-
lished in the Proceedings and that the Committee be authorized to con-
tinue its cooperation with the United States Bureau of Standards.

8. The Committee recommends that the Railroad Specifications for
Incandescent Lamps, being Appendix G. be approved and printed in the
Manual as recommended practice, and that the subject of Standardiza-
tion of Electrical Objects be continued.

112 Electricity,

Recommendations for New Work

The Committee recommends that in addition to continning the present
uncompleted assignments as above enumerated, the following new sub-
jects be added:

1. In addition to the report on the utilization of water power for
electric railway operation, cooperate with the United States Geological
Survey in connection with the "Superpower Survey." Allso with the
"Water Power League of America," with the object of keeping the Asso-
ciation advised with regard thereto.

2. Study and report on overhead transmission and distribution line
construction for railroad use, with the view of preparing plans and
specifications for aerial construction, working in conjunction with appro-
priate committees from the Signal Section and Telegraph and Tele-
phone Section of the American Railway Associatiofi.

Respectfully submitted,

The CoMMiTTEii on Ei.kctricity,
Edwin B. Katte, Chairman.

Appendix A
ITEM (3) ELECTROLYSIS AND INSULATION

M. ScHREiBEK, Chainiian;
E. B. KattEj Vice-Chairman;
W. M. Vandersluis,
A. E. Owen,

Sitb-Coininittee. *

The Committee was instructed to report on the study of Electrolysis
and its effect upon reinforced concrete and to report upon methods of
insulation for guarding against electrolytic action, and, further, to coop-
erate with the American Committee on Electrolysis in the preparation of
its future reports. The Committee reports as follows :

(1) Study of Electrolysis and Its Effect on Reinforced Concrete

Your Committee on Electrolysis of reinforced concrete structures
exposed to sea water suggested in 1919 four methods of prevention of
the electrolytic troubles and disintegration of concrete structures. Since
that time, with the assistance of Doctor Alleman, of Swarthmore Col-
lege, we made a further study of the four suggestions as outlined in the
last year's report, and now wish to submit our conclusions that the three
first methods as proposed are not practical on account of the high cost.
The fourth method, consisting of protecting the concrete structure with
a waterproof shell, is, in our opinion, the most plausible because this
arrangement does not only protect the reinforcing bars from moisture
and later oxidation, but also protects the concrete surrounding the rods
from abrasion and eventually exposure of the iron.

Your Committee also wishes to call attention to the necessity of
using the proper waterproofing material on the inside of the protecting
shell. This waterproofing pitch should be material that would remain
flexible for an indefinite time; it should have a melting point in the
neighborhood of 200 deg. Fahr., and be elastic and stretch at least onc-
lialf inch at a temperature that was freezing or less, and have approxi-
mately an inch stretch at 60 deg. Fahr. If the pull is gradually applied,
the stretch of the pitch should be approximately six or seven inches at
60 deg. Fahr. It is rather a surprising fact that such material has been
manufactured for twelve or fifteen years but has not generally been
used for waterproofing, but used for roofing material and in pavements.
It was made by distillation of an asphalt base and oxidized by blowing
with air. This latter process is what gives the material its stretching
quality.

We have examined samples after twelve years' exposure and find
they are still elastic. Waterproofing material with practically the same
characteristics has also been found in a natural state in asphalt beds in

113

114 Electricity.

France and Texas. Unfortunately, even this asphaltic petroleum pitch
is not stable since the advent of automobiles, because the pitch is soluble
in gasoline, which is liable to be present in modern city sewerage.
Recently experiments have been performed at the Swarthmore College
laboratories that show an elastic waterproofing pilch may be made from
coal tar, with all the characteristics of the asphaltic petroleum pitch, and
it is insoluble in gasoline. So it is anticipated that it will not be so long
before not only the asphalic petroleum pitch will be available in a
commercial way, but also pitch made from coal tar.

The reason this material could not be obtained in this country from
coal tar in the past, is on account of the fact that the ordinary still
causes cracking or burning and a multiple continuing still is required to
get the necessary results.

It is necessary not only to enclose the sides of the reinforced con-
crete structure with a ■^aterproof shell, but also is it necessary to pro-
tect the top or any other portion of the concrete structure that is
exposed with a waterproof pitch, otherwise the salt air or moisture will
penetrate the concrete and sooner or later the rods will oxidize and
burst the structure.

(2) American Committee on Electrolysis

The American Committee on Electrolysis is made up of twenty-seven
engineers, three from each of the following organizations :

American Railway Engineering Association,

American Electric Railway Engineering Association,

American Institute of Electrical Engineers,

American Telephone and Telegraph Company,

American Waterworks Association,

National Electric Light Association,

American Gas Association,

National Gas Association,

United States Bureau of Standards.

The purpose of this Committee is to promote cooperation among the
several component organizations and by studies, investigations, research
and discussion to secure ultimately a reasonable solution of the electro-
lysis problem and to suggest methods of mitigation. A brief description
of the prior Avork of this Committee is contained in last year's report
of the Committee on Electrolysis. This year the Committee on Electro-
lysis held one meeting in New York City on March 5th, the various
sub-committees reporting very little progress in the preparation of the
leport. Since that date, however, the Research Sub-Committee has
been active and has held meetings monthly. . The principal Avork has
been the field investigation of electrolysis at high i-esistance joints in
gas and water mains. Much valuable information has been obtained and
considerable progress is being made.

The Chairman of the Committee on Electrolysis, Mr. Bion J. Arnold,
on June 30, 1920, wrote to the Chairmen of the sub-committees as
follows :

Electricity. 115

"In view of the fact that there is considerable activity on the part
of various municipal and state bodies on the question of electrolysis, and
that some of these bodies are likely to adopt rules or enact laws on the
subject, I deem it important that the work of the sub-committees (with
the exception of the Research Sub-Committee which has been for some
time and is now active) become immediately more active so that their
reports may be presented to the Main Committee in time to enable the
latter to issue a report bj- the end of the present vear, viz., not later than
December 31, 1920."

Your representatives of the Committee on Electricity have drafted
that portion of the report entrusted to them. There have been no recent
meetings of the American Committee on Electrolysis and the subject is
waiting the preparation of text by the various sub-committees.

Appendix B

ITEM (5) WATER POWER

G. W. KiTTREDGE, Chairman; R. D. Coomus,

W. L. Morse, Vice-Chairman; J. C. Davidson,

D. J. Brumley, R. H. Ford,

R. Beeuwkes, Sub-Committee.

In the preparation of the report on Water Power for the generation
of electrical energy for the operation of trains, the Committee this year
selected the electrification of the Norfolk & Western Railway for con-
sideration, since this railway derives a part of its electric energy from
water power, although its main source of supply is a steam operated
^ower station.

Norfolk & Western Railway Electrification

(1) General

In the spring of 1915, the Norfolk & Western Railway Company
put into operation what is known as the "Elkhorn Grade Electrifica-
tion," extending west from Bluefield, West Virginia, to Kimball, West
Virginia. The electrically operated territoiy includes about thirty miles
of main line, in addition to branch lines. The maximum grades against
eastbound tonnage are 2 per cent. The miles of single track electri-
cally equipped are :

Main track and cross-overs 56.98

Yards and sidings 30.58

Branches 18.69

Total 10625

The section electrified forms part of the Pocahontas Division of
the railway in the heart of the Pocahontas coal field, and is essentially
a gathering section where heavy coal or "tonnage" trains are made up
for movement east to tidewater at Norfolk, and west to the industrial
centers in the Middle West and to the Great Lakes, The grades are
heavy and the curvature severe, and movement under steam conditions
was further restricted by the single-track tunnel at the summit of Elk-
horn Mountain. , Electrification was decided upon primarily to secure
greater facility of movement in a given time. It also developed that
the economy of electric operation was an important factor.

The system of electrification in use is 11,000 volt, 25 cycle, single-
phase, using an overhead catenary trolley. In addition to the main
trolley system, there is a duplicate 44,000 volt, single-phase transmis-
sion system feeding power from the power house to the line through
five transformer substations. Power is generated in a steam plant

116

Electricity. 117

located near Bluestone, with an installed generating capacity of 36,000
kilowatts in four generators of 9,000 kilowatts each. There is also in
interchange for emergenc}^ purposes with the Appalachian Power Co.
at Switchback, which provides for a transfer of power when necessary
of about 10,000 kilowatts.

(2) Types and Characteristics of Locomotives

Movement of heavy coal trains being the most important function
of this electrification, the locomotives were designed mainly for this pur-
pose, and twelve engines were built of the double cab, or two-unit
design. Each cab is carried on two trucks, each truck being equipped
with two motors operating through gears, jack shafts and side rods.
The distinctive electrical feature of these locomotives is the provision
of means whereby single-phase 11,000 volt current received from the
trolley is changed by means of a transformer and phase converter in
each cab to three-phase, 750-volt current for use in the motors. The
motors are of the induction type, so designed as to operate with cither
four-pole or eight-pole connection, giving two operating speeds, which
are fourteen and twenty-eight miles per hour, the lower speed being
used for heavy tonnage work while the higher speed handles passenger
and merchandise freight service. The use of induction motors makes
the question of electric braking on grades a simple one and the regener-
ative feature in this operation has been entirely successful. The main
dimensions and characteristics of the locomotives are :

Length between coupler faces 105' 8"

Total wheel base 83' 10"

Rigid wheel base 11' 0"

Total weight in running order 308 tons

HP. maximum, accelerating at 14 m.p.h 4500

HP. " " " 28 m.p.h 6400

HP. 1-hour rating at 14 m.p.h 3300

HP. " " " 28 m.ph 4500

HP. continuous rating at 14 m.p.h 2600

HP. " " " 28 m.p.h. 3000

Tractive effort, maximum accelerating 125,000 lb.

Tractive effort, 1-hr. rating 14 m.p.h 87,000 lb.

Tractive effort, 1-hr. rating 28 m.p.h 44,000 lb.

Tractive effort, continuous at 14 m.p.h 68,000 lb.

Tractive effort, continuous at 28 m.p.h 40,000 lb.

(3) Power House Curves

Two charts marked "A" and "B" are submitted showing power
house output for two particular days, October 11, 1918, and April 21,
1920. The first shows a heavj' day as regards power house conditions
caused by emergency supply of 117,000 K.W.H. to the Appalachian
Power Company. The second shows heavy load caused by freight con-
ditions but without emergency power supply. The following summary
of operating data is submitted :

118 Electricity.

(1) (2)

A.C. K.W.H. Generated Oct. 11, 1918 Apr. 21, 1920

25 cycle 353,500 249,800

60 cycle 936 1,056

Totals 354,436 250,856

Total A.C. load for 5 minutes 18,500 21,000

Average power factor, per cent 70 65

Load factor, per cent— 5 minutes 79.6 49.5

Load factor, per cent — 1 hour ■ 85.6 121

These loads were carried by two generators, the other two being
held in reserve. Note the high load factor on No. 1 due to the fact that
supply of emergency power to the Appalachian Power Company helped
to fill in the low points of the curve.

It is also important to note that these curves are irregular in the
sense that no periodical peaks are shown. This is noticeably different
from operation such as is met with on other heavy traction systems
where regular morning and evening peaks of known amount are encoun-
tered. This will be commented on further. To illustrate the variation
in load, a section of the power house wattmeter curve is submitted cov-
ering a period of three hours from 9 :00 p. m. to 12 midnight on a
lypical day.

(4) Operating Conditions

The outstanding features of the Norfolk & Western Electrification
are the irregular spacing of trains and the ability of the generating
equipment to supply large blocks of power on short notice, this being
made necessary by the fact that all heavy freight trains are run as
extras. These heavy trains are made up in the electrified territory and
may start up on very short notice. There have been instances where
the power house load has increased from 2,000 K.W. to 25,000 K.W.
in less than five minutes, due to this condition.

One of the outstanding results of electrification has been the greatly
reduced round trip time of engine and train crews. Previous to electrifi-
cation, a standard tonnage train of 3250 tons required three Mallet
locomotives up the two per cent grade, making an average speed of
1V2 miles per hour, while with electric locomotives the same train is
handled by two engines at a uniform speed of 14 miles per hour. Under
steam conditions, the round trip time of a crew out of Blueficld averaged
12 hours, while with electric operation, the round trip time averages 7
hours. Another important point is the reduction in time to prepare
engine for its next trip. Under steam conditions, the time required to
prepare a Mallet locomotive, including inspection, light repairs, clean-
ing fires, etc., is from ten to twelve hours, while in the case of the electric
locomotives, forty minutes is allowed. As regards the handling of trains,
with electric locomotives, the acceleration is smoother than with steam
which reduces the number of break-in-twos to a minimum. The regen-

__^ Electricity. 119

eration feature which provides electric braking on downgrades is most
valuable, as it leaves the air brakes in reserve for emergency and pro-
vides for smooth operation in descending long, heavy grades with trains
of empties up to one hundred cars. There have been no failures reported
of the regeneration feature.

Delays to operation through failure of power house transmission,
sub-station, trolley or track bonding have been relatively few. For the
year 1919, the percentage of engine hour delays due to all the foregoing
was 0.3 per cent.

(5) Electrical Interference

(See Appendix D, item (6)).

(6) Purchasing Power

The question has been frequently asked why the railway company
installed a steam-driven plant for power generation when hydro-electric
power was available. At the time when plans for electrification were
being perfected, this subject was studied in detail and the decision to
generate by steam was arrived at after careful consideration. There
were two main factors involved; first, the question of cost; second,
continuity of supply. In 1913 and 1914, power station coal could be
placed in the railway company's bunkers at less than one dollar per ton,
and on this basis power could be produced more cheaply than it could
be purchased. With the present high prices of this coal, the compari-
son is on an entirely different basis. As to continuity of power, hydro-
electric concerns in the vicinity are affected materially by shortage of
water at certain seasons of the year, and at the time electric operation
was decided upon, very little steam reserve power was available. It was
felt that it would be unwise for the railway to rely upon an outside
source of power which was liable to interruption from shortage of
water or other causes. The history of the electrification has justified
the decision. Through the emergency connection with the Appalachian
Power Company, the railway has frequently had to supply power to
enable the hydro-electric company to maintain its service. For instance,
in the month of June, 1920, the railway out of a total output of 8,768,000
kilowatt hours, furnished the power company 2,540,000 kilowatt hours,
or about 27 per cent of the total. However, in the case of future exten-
sion of electrification, the situation will require careful study and con-
sideration as to the possibility of a mutual arrangement whereby either
party to the agreement would benefit from the available installed capa-
city of the other,

(7) Contractual Relation with Power Company

In 1916, a reciprocal agreement was effected between the railway
company* and the Appalachian Power Company whereby, in emergency,
either company would supply the other with power. Under the terms

120 ^ Elect r i city ■

of this agreement, the power company installed at its own cost in its
plant at Switchback, a frequency changer with connections to the rail-
way company's substation at Maybeury. The amount of power which
can be transferred is, of course, limited by the capacity of the frequency
changer, which is 10,000 kilowatts. All power exchanged is metered at
the power company's side of the apparatus and consequently the railway
stands all loss of transmission and conversion. As a partial compensa-
tion, the power company paid for power supplied 33 per cent more
than the railway company paid for power received. Payments originally
were based on a flat rate per kilowatt hour.

Due to the great advance in cost of coal, a supplementary agree-
ment was put into effect in 1918, whereby a sliding scale adjustment
was applied to the price charged the power company to cover increase in
cost of coal. No change was made in the price for hydro-electric power
received from the power companj', but provision was made that in the
event of steam generated power being received from the power com-
pany from their steam reserve plants, the railway company would pay
for this steam power on the same basis as the power company pays the
railway. No adjustments has yet been made to cover increased cost of
labor and material.

Under present conditions, the advantages of this emergency connec-
tion are slight insofar as the railway company is concerned. The amount
of power available at any time is insufficient for traction purposes with-
out keeping the railway company's Bluestone plant in complete opera-
tion. At times, it has been possible to use the power company's supply
and shut down one machine.

There is, however, a distinct advantage due to the fact that the
operation of the frequency changer can be handled so as to improve
the system power factor of the railway. The use of the frequency
changer as a condenser increases the power factor by 10 to IS per cent.

(8) Operation Costs

As the electric service now maintained is on an entirely different
basis from the former steam service, it is impossible to give a direct
comparison of cost. It has therefore been considered advisable to gU'C
the following comparison between steam and electric freight locomotive
operation, using the records and figures compiled for use in the com-
pany's annual report. In this comparison, all costs entering into opera-
tion as well as interest and depreciation have been taken into account
and while the figures are necessarily approximate, it is believed they
are sufficiently close to be representative :

Electricity. ^ 121

Comparative Cost Per Mii.i.ion Tractive Miles
Items Steam lilcctric

Interest and depreciation $4. 36 $12.16

Repairs 7.64 6.40

Fuel of elcc. power at loco 13.00 6.19

Lubricants and waste 16 .05

Supplies 16 .16

Engine house expenses 2.18 .56

Water 51 .00

Wages 1..89 .70

Total per million tractive-miles $29.90 $26.20

Per cent saving 12:5 per cent

Attention is called to the unit of comparison, "Tractive-miks," which
is the product of the maximum tractive power in pounds and total
miles run. This affords a direct comparison.

In explanation of the table given above, it will be noted that the
interest and depreciation figure for electric locomotives is much higher
than that given for steam. This is because all of the electric cost has
been charged against the number of engines in service, i. e., each engine
carries its share of power house transmission, distribution, etc. The
actual electrification installation costs have been increased in this table
over 100 per cent to adjust the values to those prevailing in 1919.

The cost of electric locomotive repairs has been reduced below the
actual figures in order to eliminate charges which have been due to the
development of a new design. In other words, the electric locomotives
now in service have been experimental, and could they be replaced today
by new equipment it is entirely reasonable to expect the figures shown
for repairs would be representative. In this connection it is pointed out
that the power house, substations and transmission lines generally are
designed for considerably larger service than is now given, or in other
words, with the provision of three or four more locomotives and a
relatively small expenditure in the power house the service could be
much increased; consequently, the figure for interest and depreciation
would be considerably reduced.

(9) Conservation of Fuel and Saving in Wages

An important question today in connection with the general move-
ment towards conservation of fuel is how much actual fuel can be saved
by electric operation, and in this connection the Norfolk & Western
Railway has found that with the modern Mallet, compound superheat-
ing steam locomotive, equipped with all improvements excepting feed-
water heater, about 5.4 pounds of fuel are required per drawbar H.P.
hour, taking into account road conditions and allowing for standby losses.
It should be noted that these figures assume the engine to be in thor-
oughly good operating condition. With electric operation, about 3.3
pounds of fuel are required per drawbar HP. hour in the present electric

122 . Electricity.

service, which gives a direct saving in the fuel bill of about 40 per
cent. This amounts to a total saving for the present "Elkhorn Grade"
Electrification of about 60,000 tons of fuel coal per year. Applying the
same ratio of saving to the whole Norfolk & Western System, it is
estimated that with complete electric operation the net saving in amount
of fuel used would be nearly one million tons per year.

In the case of crew wages, it will be noted that on the "Tractive-
mile" basis the saving in crew wages is over 60 per cent. A compari-
son on another basis can be made by comparing the round trip times.
The average round trip time for an electric crew between Bluefield and
the coalfield is somewhat under seven hours, whereas the best average
time under steam conditions formerly was somewhat over twelve hours.
Therefore, to make a direct comparison, the seven crew hours in elec-
tric operation should be compared with fourteen hours in steam opera-
tion, taking into account punitive overtime. This in itself would show
a saving of 50 per cent in the crew cost, but as there is of course a
certain amount of overtime made by electric crews, the net saving is
between 35 and 40 per cent.

One important point is that with the present facilities and volume
of traffic, it is problematical whether the tonnage could be moved at
all with steam. The only possible way to do so would be to increase
the number of engines per train so that a schedule speed could be
maintained equal to the present electric speeds. This would require
probably four Mallet steam engines per train as compared with the
two electrics on the heaviest grades, which would increase the opera-
tion costs much beyond those shown in the table, and if the percentage-
of engine failures were at all unusual, the service would be unreliable.

(10) Mileage of Electric Locomotives

The total electric locomotive mileage made for the six months ending
June, 1920, was 224,974, or an average of 34,162 per month. The average
number of locomotives in service per day is about eight, which estab-
lishes an average figure of 135 miles per locomotive per day. In the
case of individual locomotives, this is considerably exceeded.

(11) Energy Per Locomotive and Per 1000 Ton-Miles

The company's records show that the kilowatt hours at the power
house per locomotive mile are about 160, while the watt hours per trail-
ing 1000 ton-miles are about 165.

(12) The Application of the Electrification of the Norfolk & West-

ern Railway to Other Railways

In a general way the following statements can be made regard-
ing the utilization of electrical energy for the operation of other rail-
ways similarly situated.

Electricity. 123

(1) That 44,000 volts, single phase, 25 cycle transmission of elec-
tric power with 11,000 volts, single phase on the trolley wire are prac-
tical and rehable voltages for electric train service for heavy grades and
heavy tonnage.

(2) The average daily gross tonnage of freight eastbound over
the electrified grade on the Norfolk & Western for 1918 was 47,500
tons as compared with 32,000 tons in 1912, an increase of over 50 per
cent. The ultimate capacity based on the present installation is stated
as 80 per cent over that of 1912.

(3) That such a system of electrification will probably eflfect a
saving of at least 125^ per cent of the total annual expense as compared
with steam operation on a railway with similar characteristics.

(4) That the introduction of electric locomotives with electric
brakes (regenerative braking) has made possible higher speeds on heavy
grades, with greater safety and reliability under all climatic conditions.

Water Power

(1) Hydro-Electric Plants Usually Augmented by Steam

An investigation of the larger hydro-electric installations east of
the Mississippi River covering fifty-three plants discloses the fact that
thirty-three are augmented by steam. In the majority of cases this is to
care for the dry season. In considering future development for railway
electrification, it is therefore reasonable to suppose that steam augmenta-
tion will be necessary.

(2) Water Power League of America

Attention is called to the Water Power League of America, incor-
porated to promote the conservation of water power. The formation of
this League should relieve this Committee from attempting to report
at large on this subject. From time to time your Committee will advise
the Association concerning the activities of this League.

124

Electricity

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Curves Showing Power House Output — Norfolk & Western Railw.ay
Elkhorn Grahe Electrification

Electricity

125

Epiaiiania

126

Electriciiy

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April 21, 1920.

Norfolk & Western Railway.

Appendix C

ITEM (6) SPECIFICATIONS FOR INSULATED WIRES AND

CABLES

E. B. Katte, Chairman; S. Withington,

J. R. Savage^ V ice-Chairman; W. M. Vandersluis,

H. K. LowRY, Sub-Committee.

The Committee has completed the Specification for Electric Wires
and Cables, cooperating with the Committee on Insulated Wires and
Cables of the Signal Section of the American Railway Association.
Copies of the specification have been sent to appropriate committees of
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers ; the American Electric
Railway Engineering Association ; American Engineering Standards Com-
mittee; Committee on Transmission and Distribution, American Institute
Electrical Engineers and the National Electric Light Association, with the
suggestion that they consider the provisions therein contained with a view
of adopting the same or similar requirements to the end that eventually
there may be a uniform joint specification for insulated wires and cables;
and informed these committees that the Committee of this Association
will hold itself in readiness to confer with the purpose of, from time to
time, revising and bringing this specification up to date.

It will be noted that the specification is general in its character and
is intended for file in the office of the Purchasing Agents and Manufac-
turers for their information concerning general requirements. On requi-
sitions for wires and cables should be noted that the general requirements
of the Specification for Wires and Cables will apply, and, written thereon
will be the quantity, dimensions, materials and other characteristics of
the particular wire or cable required. This method has been in vogue
for many years on several railroads and has proved economical and
convenient.

Your Committee recommends the adoption and printing in the Man-
ual, as recommended practice, the Railroad Specification for Electric
Wires and Cables, dated September IS, 1920, copy of which is appended
hereto.

127

Appendix D
ITEM (7) ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE

H. AI. Bassktt, Chairman; E. B. Temple,

\V. M. Vandersluis, Vice-Chairman;\l. Beeuwkes,

J. C. Davidson, S. W'ithinGton,

A. H. HoGELAND, Sub-Committee.

This Sub-Committee .was charged to report "recommended practice
for eliminating, so far as practicable, interference with telephone, tele-
graph and signal lines caused by propulsion circuits and adjacent trans-
mission lines."

The activities of the Committee during the year have been based pri-
marily on the securing of information requested by a questionnaire
framed as follows in order to obtain basic general data from which it is
hoped that the Committee may later draw conclusions which will be
recommended to the Committee on Electricity, and through them to
the Association for approval :

1. Inductive or electrical interference from transmission and dis-
tribution systems on telegraph, telephone and signal circuits,

(a) Under normal conditions,

(b) From short circuits or grounds.

2. Electrical interference as affecting the safety of employees and
the public, with special reference to the kind and extent of trouble
experienced.

3. What electrical interference troubles have 3'ou been able to trace
to electrolytic conditions ?

In connection with the answers to the above questions, it is desired
that complete and detailed data as to interferences, with reference to the
specific kind of trouble experienced, be submitted with a view that the
Committee may analyze and tabulate the answers submitted by the rail-
way company; and in submitting the above data, the Committee desires
that the method employed to overcome these interferences be set out in
detail, both in connection with the power .systems, the railway telegraph
and telephone systems, and the commercial communication systems.

It should be realized that, in order to make an intelligent survey of
the data submitted, each railw^aj' should forward general information as
to the type of installation of electrical apparatus, track construction, local
climatic conditions, nature and amount of traffic, and method of con-
trolling power circuits; and the answers should be accompanied by dia-
grams showing railway circuits and parallel circuits, as far as possible.

The above questionnaire was forwarded to the New York, New
Haven & Hartford Railroad, the Pennsylvania System, the Long Island
Railroad, the Norfolk & Western Railway, the Southern Pacific Com-
pany, the Great Northern Railwaj% the Erie Railroad, the Chicago, Mil-

128

Electricity. 129

waukee & St. Paul Railway, the New York Central Railroad, and the
Public Service Railway (New Jersey).

The information which has been received in answer to the question-
naire to date summarize as follows :

(1) New York, New Haven & Hartford Rau.roau

The electrified zone of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Rail-
road extends between New York and New Haven, a distance of about
seventy-two miles, of four-track and six-track railroad. Both passenger
and freight service is handled electrically, and the traffic is very dense,
especially during the early morning and late afternoon hours.

The installation is single-phase, eleven-thousand volt, twenty-five
cycle, fed from one power plant, at Cos Cob, with an auxiliary feed-in
plant at West Farms.

Auto transformers with a ratio of 1 to 2 at the power stations step
up the voltage from 11,000 volts (at the generator terminals) to 22,000
volts. Th'e center point of these transformers is grounded to the rail ;
one terminal is connected to the trolley wires, and the other to feeders.
The voltage between trolleys and feeders is thus 22,000 volts and between
feeders or trolleys and ground only 11,000 volts.

At various points along the right-of-way, at intervals of approxi-
mately four miles (dependent on the load conditions), auto transformers
are connected between the trolley and feeder phases, the neutral point of
these auto transformers being connected to the rail.

The sj'stem is thus virtually analagous to the common Edison three-
wire system, the load being balanced through the line transformers. The
benefits of 22,000-volt transmission with 11,000-volt distribution are thus
obtained.

In addition to the main line electrification, there is a short stub-end
section of single-track branch line, fed from the main line, which has
been experirnentally equipped with "Boost Transformers." The primaries
are connected around section breaks in the trolley and the secondaries
around insulated joints in the rails. These transformers act to keep the
return current in the rails and have been successful in eliminating inter-
ferences from induction. The system is similar in principle to that ap-
plied in connection with the Pennsylvania Railroad (Philadelphia to
Paoli) and Norfolk & Western Railway electrification.

The communication circuits arc cabled in the Electrified Zone.

In order to conform to the requirements of the commercial com-
panies and thus to allow connection with commercial switchboards, this
cable line was built with a minimum separation of ten feet from any
high tension circuit, and no aerial crossings over or under high tension
lines were allowed.

The cable is made up of 45 pair, paper insulated, lead-covered No. 10,
No. 13 and No. 16 gage conductors. The lead sheath is thoroughly
grounded at frequent intervals which eliminates all trouble from electro-
static induction. The total distance is seventy-two miles, fifty-six miles

130 Electricity.

of which is aerial construction. Where there are physical high-tension
crossings or where the right-of-way is so restricted that the required
clearance is not obtainable, the cable is run in underground conduit. The
aggregate length undergromid is sixteen miles.

In the cable there are the following classes of telephone service :

(1)' Train despatching circuits, equipped with selectors.

(2) Load despatcher (power director) circuits, similarly

equipped.

(3) Tie lines for handling general business between New Haven

and New York, and from each of these points to inter-
mediate private branch exchanges located at Bridge-
port, Stamford and Cos Cob, all connected with com-
mercial outside circuits.

(4) Local telephone circuits connected with all signal bridges

more than 1000 feet distant from towers or stations.

The train despatching circuits between New Haven and New York
are No. 10 non-loaded circuits. Those operating between New York and
South Norwalk and the Load Despatcher's circuits east and west of the
Cos Cob power plant ai"e No. 13 non-loaded circuits. The telephone tie
lines between New York and New Haven, handling connections between
New York and Boston and other points north and east of New Haven,
are medium loaded No. 13 gage.

The tie lines from New York to New Haven and intermediate pri-
vate branch exchanges are No. 16 gage, medium loaded. The local tower
circuits are No. 16 gage non-loaded.

Under normal operating conditions all classes of these telephone cir-
cuits are quiet, and no trouble of any kind is experienced. However, on
occasions of heavy short circuits on the traction system, so-called
"acoustic shocks" have been experienced, and in order to minimize these,
drainage coils have been installed at various points along the line, these
coils consisting of resistance or condensers in series with retardation
coils.

Occasional trouble due to high ground potential is experienced during
especially severe short circuits in the traction system.

Repeating coils have been installed at each of the private branch
exchanges between the cable conductors and the switchboards. The pro-
tection on the line side of the repeating coils is the same as that used at
way stations on the despatching circuits (2000-voIt), while 350-volt pro-
tection is installed on the switchboard side of the repeating coils.

Loud-speaking receivers are being installed in the despatcher's offices
where acoustic shocks present the greatest difficulty.

Active tests are being made in connection with both the new tele-
phone cable and the high tension transmission system, with a view to
obtaining a quantitative analysis, and much valuable data is being collected
in connection with these tests.

No difficulty has been experienced affecting the safety of employee:
or the public, except the above mentioned occasional acoustic shocks.

Electricity. 131

The electrified zone runs through a particularly thickly settled district
with trolley lines paralleling the railroad the entire distance. Some elec-
trolytic trouble has been noted in water pipes and lead-covered cables.
This, however, is due entirely to outside stray currents and no difficulty
has been noticed in connection with the A.C. traction circuit.

No trouble which can be charged to induction has been experienced
in connection with the automatic signals.

Pennsylvania Railroad
(2) Paoli Electrification

The Paoli electrification extends for a distance of 21.3 miles from
Broad Street, Philadelphia. Power for the operation of the system is
obtained from the Philadelphia Electric Company and delivered to the
Arsenal Bridge Substation at 13,200 volts, 25 cycle, three phase. At the
Arsenal Bridge Substation, which is about a mile west of the electrifica-
tion, the power is stepped up to 44,000 volts single phase. Step-up trans-
formers are Scott connected, one phase of the high potential side supply-
ing power for the Paoli electrification and the other side for the Chestnut
Hill Branch.

There are three step-down substations for supplying power to the
Paoli electrification as follows:

West Philadelphia
Brvn Mawr
Paoli

At the above substations the 44,000-volt power is stepped down to 11,000
volts and supplied to the trolley system.

At the Arsenal Bridge substation the middle point of the 44,000-volt
windings on the step-up transformers is grounded through a grid re-
sistance which limits the flow of current in case of grounds on the 44,000-
volt transmission lines.

The trolley system is sectionalized at each substation.

Booster transformers were installed to prevent the leakage of current
from the rails into the earth. The primaries of these transformers are
connected across section breaks in the trolley system and the secondaries
are connected across impedance bonds used in connection with the signal
system. It was found that the booster transformers were of little value
and practically all of them have been removed.

All telephone and telegraph circuits are underground.

Tests made showed that under operating conditions it was desirable
to provide some means for limiting the amount of current which would
flow through relays on the telegraph circuits causing the relays to chatter.
A comparatively simple remedy was found in the use of resonant shunts,
and with them complete protection with induced voltages as high as 120
volts was provided. These shunts operate also successfully with com-
posite and duplex Morse circuits and with printing relays. The reactance

132 Electricity.

and capacities making up the resonant shunt are so selected that the shunt
is resonant to 25-cycle current, thus providing a bypass for current of this
frequency and preventing damage to the relay.

On local or way circuits it was found that anti-resonant shunts lo-
cated at the ends of circuits afforded the desirable protection. This shunt
operates as an impedance to 25-cycle current, thus limiting the flow of
current through the relay.

In order to provide against the receiving of shock by persons
using telephone instruments all metal parts of instruments with which
persons could come in contact are insulated. Wooden platforms are pro-
vided on which persons using telephones may stand. Magnetic telephone
wall sets are used. The protector used on this circuit is reliable between
350 and 700 volts.

Relays are installed in exchanges to balance up circuits to prevent
noise. No electrolytic troubles have been experienced.

(3) Chestnut Hill Electrification

The Chestnut Hill electrification extends for a distance of 13.2 miles
from Broad Street. Power is supplied from the Arsenal Bridge substa-
tion to West Philadelphia substation, 1.1 miles from Broad Street. The
North Philadelphia substation is 4.3 miles from West Philadelphia and
the Allen Lane substation is located 5.34 miles from the North Philadel-
phia substation. These substations are supplied with 44,000-volt single
phase power, the same as the substations on the Paoli electrification.

Before the Chestnut Hill branch was put into operation extensive
tests were made in conjunction with the telephone and telegraph depart-
ment of the railroad and the American Telephone and Telegraph Com-
pany. The result of these tests was that the installation of booster trans-
formers was unnecessary, as sufficient protection against interference
could be obtained by the use of the same apparatus as was used in the
case of the communicating circuits on the Paoli electrification. The
Chestnut Hill branch has been in operation for over two years and no
trouble has been experienced on telephone and telegraph circuits.

The telephone and telegraph service at Philadelphia is excellent and,
in fact, much better than it is in some locations where there is no elec-
trification. It is not considered that the electrifications into Broad Street
are the cause of any interference to the communicating system.

No trouble which can be charged to induction has been experienced
in connection with the automatic signals.

During the last year and a half considerable trouble has been experi-
enced on communicating circuits between Camden and Trenton. The
railroad -between these points is operated by steam, and is paralleled for
the greater part of the way with a Public Utilities transmission line op-
erated at 26,000-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle. Power is supplied to trans-
mission lines from the power station about midway between Camden and
Trenton. In a great many instances grounds on the transmission lines

Electricity. 133

have caused considerable trouble on the railroad company's communicating
circuits. Protectors have been broken down, fuses blown and in some
instances operators have received a bad acoustic shock. Trouble has also
been experienced on the Postal Telegraph Company's lines. The cause
of this trouble is being investigated and it is expected that the installation
of suitable relays to provide a very rapid opening of circuit breakers will
minimize the trouble experienced.

No electrolytic troubles have been experienced.

(4) New York Terminal

The power for the operation of the Pennsylvania system is supplied
from the Power House in Long Island City to four (4) transformer sub-
stations similar to those of the Long Island Railroad. The transmission
lines are cabled to the substation on the Jersey side and Ijcjond this they
are open wires and are not transposed. The telephone and telegraph cir-
cuits are cabled to the same point and be3-ond this they are carried on a
pole line as open wires on the opposite side of the right-of-wqy. No
trouble is experienced on the communicating circuits under normal opera-
tion and in cases of short circuits or grounds on the transmission lines
there has not been any trouble. Considerable trouble has been experi-
enced from electrolysis. Several cables have become defective and it is
necessary to constantly watch the potentials of cable sheaths and under-
ground structures to prevent damage. There has been no interference
with the signal system.

(5) Long Island Railroad

The power system of the Long Island Railroad consists of three-
phase alternating current transmission at 11,000 volts, 25 cycles, rotary
converter substations converting this A.C. power to D.C. power at 675
volts and the distribution SAstems consisting of third rail positive circuits
and track rails bonded for return circuit. Power for the entire system is
supplied by the Power House of the Pennsylvania Railroad in Long Island
City, which Power House also furnishes power for the operation of the
New York terminal of the Pennsylvania Railroad. There are 15 rotary
converter substations at various points about 3 to 8 miles apart, the most
distant substations being located a little over 20 miles from the power
house.

The transmission system consists of three-phase circuits operated at
11,000 volts. The neutral of the system is grounded at the power house
through a resistance, but is not grounded at any other point. The voltage
from each phase to neutral is, therefore, approximately 6,000 volts. The
feeders of the transmission system are both overhead and underground
and for the most part consist of 250,000 c. m. copper conductors. The
underground feeders are three conductor paper insulated lead-covered
cables.

134 Electricity.

The overhead feeders arc not transposed. In some cases, the three
conductors of a feeder are spaced to form an equilateral triangle. In
ether cases, the three conductors are arranged in vertical formation, one
above the other.

The distribution system consists of over-running contact third rail,
the majority- being of high capacity equivalent to 1,600,000 or 2,400,000
cm. The direct current feeders -.wc usually short, being tapped into the
third rail directlj' opposite the substations. The track rails suitably
bonded with copper bonds are used for the return circuit.

The transmission feeders are paralleled by telegraph and telephone
circuits throughout almost their entire length. Where aerial construction
is used, the transmission circuits are carried on a pole line on one side
of the right-of-way and communication circuits on a pole line on the
other side of the right-of-way, the distance between the two lines varying
from 30 feet, with a single or two track right-of-way to 60 or more feet
with a four-track right-of-way. In one section, for a distance of approxi-
mately four miles, the communication circuits are carried on the same
pole line as the transmission circuits. The telephone circuits in this in-
stance are not brought into the main "telephone exchange simpl}' as a mat-
ter of precaution. The open-wire telephone circuits are transposed at
regular intervals, usually about 8 per mile. In some cases telephone and
telegraph cables are routed in the same conduit system as transmission
cables.

Under normal conditions, there is no perceptible interference of an
inductive nature on communication circuits. There are occasional trou-
bles due to circuits becoming imbalanced, due to one cause or another,
but these are usually of short duration. The fact that almost the entire
load connected to the transmission system consists of three-phase rotary
converters tends to keep the transmission system in balance.

Under abnormal conditions, such as short circuits or grounds on
the transmission sj^stem which are of sufficient proportion to trip out
one or more high tension feeders, the unbalanced condition of the trans-
mission line affects the communication circuits to some extent. The chief
cause of this trouble seems to be due to the neutral being grounded at
the power house. When a ground occurs on a phase of the transmission
system, the current seeks a return path through the ground to the power
house. In numerous cases it has been found that the potential of the
ground has been raised near the scene of trouble to such an extent that
the protective devices on the communication circuits are broken down
and ground current takes this means of returning to the power house.
At times of short circuit or ground excessive noise is always manifest
in the telephone circuits caused by induced currents. These currents also
ring bells, throw the drops on the switchboards, cause chattering of tele-
graph relays, etc. When ground is removed through opening of power
circuit breakers, conditions again become normal.

No trouble has been experienced on the communication circuits due
to electrical interference from the distribution system.

Electricity. 135

No troubles have been experienced from electrical interference which
have afifected the safetj^ of employees and equipment.

Considerable trouble has been experienced through failure of paper
insulated telephone cables as a result of electrolytic action. These cables
run in a conduit system which parallels the electrified tracks for a dis-
tance of over eight miles. For part of this distance the conduit system
is also paralleled by large water mains. Other water mains as well as
tracks of trolley roads cross the conduit system at frequent intervals.
Troubles from this source have been reduced through frequent electrolytic
tests and surveys and the installation of drainage bonds, etc., but have
not yet been entirely overcome.

(6) Norfolk & Western Railway

The Norfolk & Western Electrification is 11,000-volt, single-phase, 25-
cycle, using overhead catenary trolley with 44,000-volt duplicate, single-
phase transmission circuits feeding power from a steam power house to
five substations located at intervals from 6 to 8 miles apart. The elec-
trified territory extends from Bluefield west to Vivian, about 30 miles,
with two short branches north and south from Bluestone to Pocahontas
and Clift Yard near Simmons. The main power house is located at
Bluestone. The line generally is double track with stone ballast, and
bonding is maintained in first-class condition. The local climatic condi-
tions are generally favorable as the electrification is located about 2500
feet above sea level where the air is reasonably dry and free from damp,
salt atmosphere.

The traffic handled is mostly heavy coal tonnage, the average being
from 15 to 20 trains eastbound per day. A certain amount of passenger
and merchandise freight movement is assisted by the electric locomotives.
Due to the nature of the traffic, all heavy freight trains being run as
extras, the power house operation is irregular, the maximum load vary-
ing from 2000 or 3000 to 25,000 kw. in a short time. It may be noted
that a standard freight train requires 12,000 hp: to accelerate on heavy
grades.

The company's telephone and telegraph circuits are open wire along
the company right-of-way and form a close parallel to the trolley and
transmission circuits.

Under normal conditions, the inductive interference on telegraph cir-
cuits has been overcome to a very large extent by installation of 25-cycle,
alternating current drainage shunts connected to telegraph relays. This in
conjunction with the special booster transformer installation on traction
circuits has cut down interference to a minimum.

In company telephone operation, the metallic telephone circuits pick
up slight induction from harmonics in the 60-cycle signal transmission
circuit, but no such trouble is experienced from the 25-cycle power used
in traction. Under normal conditions, this induction is not severe and
does not interfere with the operation of telephone circuits. No special

136 Electricity. ■_

provisions arc made to prevent interference other than special trans-
position.

In the case of signal operation it is difficult to separate normal con-
ditions from abnormal conditions, but generally speaking, under normal
conditions, very little trouble is experienced.

Even under abnormal conditions, such as flash-overs, or voltage
surges, no cases are on record of telegraph protectors being burned out.
In telephone circuits, an abnormal condition such as ground or flash-over
on the trolley or transmission circuits usually causes a surge creating an
induced voltage on telephone circuits sufficient to operate protectors. This
surge may rise to a little over 200 volts as compared with a normal in-
duced voltage of 70 or 80.

In signal operation under abnormal conditions, some of the signal
appliances such as track relays, track transformers, fuse holders and re-
action coils are burned up. Such cases are relatively infrequent.

No trouble of any sort has been experienced which can be attributed
to electrolytic conditions.

As previously stated, inductive interference on through telegraph
circuits has been overcome very largely by installation of 25-cyclc, alter-
nating current drainage shunts, consisting of retarding coils with con-
densers. Shunts have not as yet been installed in local stations on way
wires.

The only direct protection on railroad telephone circuits is trans-
position.

As regards protection to signal apparatus, experiments are now bejng
carried out with a section of electrification where the structures have
been bonded to the running rails and this apparently gives protection to
the signal apparatus ; however, the experiments are not yet far enough
advanced to make a definite decision. While it is believed the operation
will be a successful with clean ballast, it is somewhat doubtful whether
the results will be as good with excessively dirty ballast, and it has not
yet been settled whether the arrangement under trial gives complete
broken rail protection.

The general scheme of protection against electrical interference is the
installation of track or booster transformers, which are located on signal
bridges, the purpose of these transformers being to prevent the current
in the rail from flowing into the earth and causing disturbances on adja-
cent telephone and telegraph circuits.

As regards commercial concerns, the lines of the Blucfield Telephone
Company approach within short distances of the truck at various points.

(7) Southern Pacific
No report received.

(8) Grkat Northern
The power required for the Great Northern Railway is developed at
their hydro-electric plant located at Tumwater, Washington. The trans-
mission lines extend from that point to a point a little west of Cascade

Electricity. 137

Tunnel. This transmission line parallels the pole line which supports the
telegraph and signal line circuits, generallj' at a distance of from 80 to
90 feet.

The transmission line consists of two parallel circuits, each having
three conductors operating at 33,000 volts. The trolley is a three-phase
system, using two trolley wires and the rail for the three conductors. The
working potential is 6,600 volts, 25 cycles. Within the Cascade Tunnel
the separation between transmission line and communicating circuits does
not exceed 20 feet, and for some time after the installation of the trans-
mission lines trouble was experienced from inductive interference on the
telegraph circuits. When electric locomotives were first operated it was
found that the interference was so great as to prevent the use of tele-
graph wires whenever a train moved through the tunnel. The trouble
was remedied by installing a new twisted pair, steel armored, communi-
cation cable. After installing the new cable no further inductive inter-
ference was experienced. The cable removed was parallel laid and had
no steel armor.

No inductive interference has been experienced with the electric
train staff system installed in this territory.

(9) Erie Railroad

Interference occurs in a section 19 miles north of a transformer
station located at Avon, N. Y., and 15 miles south thereof. Specifically,
betw-een Rochester, N. Y., and Mt. Morris, N. Y., the railroad is
paralleled for 14 miles north of Avon by a 60,000-volt, three-phase, 25-
cycle transmission line, and the entire 34-mile section mentioned is
equipped with a 11,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase distribution line (trol-
ley wire). The telegraph pole line carrying four telegraph wires and one
or two telephone circuits has a mean separation from the trolley wire
of about 30 feet and from the transmission line of 60 or 70 feet.

Under normal conditions no appreciable disturbance arises from the
transmission line, but induction from the ll.OOO-volt. single-phase line is
heavy on all single telegraph wires which come into the section. Three
of the wires running south from Rochester leave the electrified section at
Avon, one going west 66 miles to Buffalo, and two going southeast 76
miles to Corning, N. Y. All of these carry the induced currents with
slight diminution to their terminals. A fourth wire goes through both
the section north of Avon and that south, unworkable at times, while a
telegraph loop which exists in the southernmost six miles of the section
south of Avon, or from Mt. Morris to Geneseo, is not affected. This
loop .works on a circuit which runs east and west of Mt. Morris on a
foreign railroad.

Under abnormal conditions, such as short circuits and grounds, the
troubles referred to above are accentuated.

No trouble has been experienced from electrolysis.

138 Electricity.

(10) Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul
No report.

(11) Public Service Railroads (N. J.)
No report.

(12) New York Central Railroad

On the West Shore branch of the New York Central line, for ap-
proximately 115 miles, a i60,000-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle, transmission
line parallels the railroad communication circuits, generally on the oppo-
site side of the track with an average separation of about 60 feet. There
is no inductive interference under normal operations. Originally the
transmission line was transposed throughout its length, but recently some
of these transpositions have been removed without bad effect. Under
abnormal conditions, due to grounds, broken wires, etc., severe surges
are induced in railroad communication lines. Communication lines have
standard transpositions.

On the Falls Road Branch a transmission line of 11,000-volt, three-
phase, parallels the telegraph and telephone lines between Albion and
Knowlesville a distance of about 5.6 miles. The two lines are within
conflict at certain points and trouble has only occurred due to contact.

.On the Walkill Valley branch the railroad communication circuits
are paralleled by a 22,000-volt transmission line for a distance of about
20 miles. The power line is on the same side of the railroad right-of-way
as the telegraph and telephone lines for a distance of about 3'/4 miles.
This circuit has interfered with normal operations due to irregular power
circuit inducing hum on the dispatchers circuit.

On the Phoenix branch, between Woodward and Phoenix, a three-wire
transmission line parallels the railroad communication circuits and has
been the source of considerable trouble in connection with the mainte-
nance of the railroad communication circuits on account of high induced
voltages.

In the electric zone of the Grand Central Terminal from New York
to Harmon and from Mott Haven to North White Plains 11,000-volt,
three-phase, 25-cycle, alternating current is transmitted to 9 substations ;
from Bronx Park to North White Plains and from Putnam Crossing to
Ossining in aerial lines and the remainder of the transmission line in
cables. The telephone and telegraph lines are in cables in the same sec-
tions where power line is cabled. In other sections the communication
lines are part cable and part open wire on the opposite side of the track
from the transmission line. There has been no electrical interference
with communication or signal service.

The propulsion circuit, 660-volt D. C, is led through an under-run-
ning third rail. By the sectionalizing of the lead sheaths of communica-
tion cables the effect of electrolysis has been practically eliminated.

(13) Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway

The Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railwaj', an interurban pas-
senger and freight electric railroad, extends from Kensington, Illinois,

Electricity. 139

the junction with the Illinois Central Railroad, to South Bend, Indiana,
a distance of approximately 75 miles. The main power plant is at Michi-
gan City. From this point there is a 33,000-volt, single-phase, 25-cycle
transmission line east to the substation at Terre Coupee. From Michigan
City west there is a 33,000-volt, single-phase, 25-cycle line to the Calum-jt
substation in East Chicago, and on the same pole line as far as the Calu-
met substation, a 33,000-volt, three-phase, 60-cycle line between the Michi-
gan City power house and the Northern Indiana Gas & Electric Com-
pany's power house in East Chicago.

Trolley is energized at 6600 volts, 25 cycles, single-phase, and is fed
from the main power house and the two substations.

The railway company's communication and signal circuits are car-
ried on the same pole line as the transmission circuits, and it is stated
that no trouble on these communication and signal circuits has been
experienced under normal conditions.

The Postal Telegraph & Cable Company's line parallels the Chicago,
Lake Shore & South Bend Railway west of Michigan City between West
Blair Farm and Baileytown, a distance of approximately 13^/2 miles with
a separation of 90 feet to 375 feet, and between Dune Park and Aetna,
a distance of approximately 6 miles with a separation of 75 feet to
600 feet.

Under normal conditions no serious interference is experienced on
the Postal Telegraph duplexes.

Under abnormal conditions, however, due to short circuits and
grounds, momentary troubles are experienced on telegraph circuits. It
is stated that the greatest trouble is experienced when the Chicago, Lake
Shore & South Bend cut out their 33,000 volt line and carry the whole
load on the system from the 6600 volt, single phase trolley. At
such times serious trouble on the telegraph circuits is experienced.
Nothing has been done by the Postal Telegraph Company which elimi-
nates these conditions.

It is stated that no trouble has been experienced affecting the safety
of employees or the public, nor has any trouble been experienced that
could be traced to electrolytic conditions.

(14) Conclusion

The Committee has not completed its examination of the subject and
has in its files detailed data available for tabulation and proposes, after
obtaining additional information from other sources, to prepare a state-
ment showing comparative results, from which conclusions may be drawn.

Appendix E
ITEM (8) UNDERGROUND CONDUIT CONSTRUCTION

D. J. Brumley, Chairm^tn; \ Walt Dennis,

E. B. Temple, J-^ ice-Chairman; H. K. Lowry,
H. M. Bassett, " R. S. Parsons,

Committee.

The Sub-Committee has completed the Specifications for Under-
ground Conduit Construction for Power Cables, a copy of which is hereto
attached. A memorandum is submitted as information descriptive of
"Stone Conduit" construction used to a great extent with satisfactory
results by a large Utility Company. This Memorandum is in the form
of a specification and describes the process of manufacture and the
method of installation.

The Committee suggests three new electrical definitions as follows :

Duct or Conduit: A unit length of pipe suitable for use in the
construction of runways for electric wires or cables.

Manhole: An opening in a splicing chamber through which a
man may enter.

Mandrel: A tool used for aligning and cleaning ducts.

Your Committee recommends the adoption and printing in the
Manual, as recommended practice, of the Railroad Specifications for
Underground Conduit Construction for Power Cables, dated October 22nd,
1920. Also the adoption and printing in the Manual of the three elec-
trical definitions above referred to.

Stone Conduits

One of the large Utility Companies in the Middle West has used
for several years "Stone Conduit," and is now using stone conduit of
their own manufacture, with very satisfactory results.

The specifications describe the processes of manufacture and method
of installation of stone conduit.

1. Material.

Stone conduit shall be made of limestone screenings which will pass
through a screen of one-eighth (J/^) inch mesh and approved make of
Portland cement in the proportion of four and three quarters (4^) to
one (1) properly moistened with water and shall be formed by tamping
in cylindrical moulds.

2. Dimensions.

Conduit shall be made in lengths of five (5) ft. with five-eighths
(5^) inch walls and three and one-half (3^/2) to four and one-half (4'/2)
inch round bore.

140

Electricity. 141

3. Workmanship.

(a) Conduit shall be syinmetiical throughout, straight, true, smooth,
free from cracks, air holes, uneven surfaces or other imperfections which
will injuriously affect it. The ends shall be perpendicular to the bore.

(b) Conduit shall be cured for not less than eight (8) weeks after
removal from the mould. For the first six (6) weeks it shall be kept
wet by sprinkling and then allowed to dry in the air for at least two
(2) weeks.

4. Joints.

(a) Conduit when thoroughly cured shall be turned, for a distance
of three-quarters (^) of an inch on each end, sufficient to secure an
exact diameter concentric with the bore, but which shall not reduce the
thickness of the wall given in Section 2 by more than one-sixteenth
(^) of an inch.

(b) With each conduit there shall be supplied a suitable metal
sleeve which will fit tightly over the ends of adjacent conduits to hold
them in place and to secure perfect alinement.

5. Short Lengths.

Pieces of conduit less than the standard 5 ft. length will be accepted,
not to exceed 10 per cent of the total ordered, provided the ends are
cut square, dressed and turned for metal sleeves, but no conduit will
be accepted less than two and one-half (2^) ft. long.

6. Inspection.

(a) The Railroad may inspect the conduit at any time during the
process of manufacture and shall be furni.shed free of cost the necessary
tools and appliances for making such tests as are necessary to determine
if the requirements of these specifications have been met.

(b) Conduit offered for inspection shall be factory run from which
no conduit of a superior quality has been removed.

7. Tests.

(a) Conduits shall permit the passage from end to end of a man-
drel three (3) ft. long and one-eighth (Ys,) inch less than the nominal
diameter of the bore.

(b) Samples of five (5) foot lengths of conduit shall be selected
at random and after immersion for twenty-four (24) hours in air shall
show an increase in weight of not more than nine-tenths (9/10) of one
per cent.

(c) The presence of cracks shall be determined by sounding each
piece with a steel hammer or its approved equivalent. Pieces which fail
to give a clear metallic ring shall be considered defective.

(A)

142 Electricity.

(d) Conduit which fails to meet all of the requirements of these
specifications shall be rejected.

8. Installation.

(a) Conduit line shall be encased in concrete four (4) in. thick
on top, three (3) in. on the sides and a minimum thickness of
four (4) in. for the full width of the trench, except where ledge rock
is encountered ; in which case the concrete foundation may be omitted
and the bottom of the trench leveled with cement mortar. Conduits
shall be laid with a minimum separation of one (1) inch both hori-
zontally and vertically and the joints shall be staggered so that the joints
of adjacent sections will be separated by at least three (3) inches.

(b) In ending conduits only full lengths shall be used in the lower
tier at the entrance to splicing chambers. Short lengths where necessary
shall be inserted further out in the section.

(c) Where work is suspended leaving incompleted sections the
open ends of the conduits shall be plugged with tapered wood, or other
approved plug conforming accurately to the shape of the bore and so
formed that it cannot be forced entirely within the opening.

(d) During construction work a mandrel three (3) ft. long and
one-eighth (%) inch less than the nominal bore shall be drawn through
the conduits as they are laid.

(e) In other respects the methods of laying stone conduits shall
correspond to the American Railway Engineering Association Specifica-
tions for Fiber Conduits.

Appendix F

ITEM (9) COOPERATION WITH THE BUREAU OF
STANDARDS

E. B. Katte, Chairman; A. H. Hogeland,

D. J. Brumley, Vice-Chainnan; R. D. Coombs,

R. H. Ford, Sub-Committee.

The Committee was directed to cooperate with the United States
Bureau of Standards in the preparation of the National Electrical Safety
Code. The United States Bureau of Standards has held no joint meet-
ings for this purpose since our last report, but has circularized for criti-
cism various proposed revisions. These have been reviewed and com-
mented upon by the members of your Committee and suggestions were
forwarded to Dr. E. B. Rosa, Chief Physicist, Bureau of Standards, under
the following dates : January 8th, 14th, 16th, March 3d, June 8th, 14th, 23d,
July 22d, 23d, 24th and Sept. 13th. Some of these communications have
been answered and some of the suggestions, we have been informed, have
been accepted, but our principal criticisms we understand have not been
adopted, namely :

(1) That the Railroad Standards for structural strength be not
reduced for the purpose of reducing the cost of the structure.

(2) That the Railroad Requirements for clearances be not lessened
for the purpose of reducing the cost of construction to transmission line
crossing companies.

We have been advised that the revised edition of the National Elec-
trical Safety Code is in press and will be issued before the first of the
year : That the code had been divided into two parts containing
respectively the text and the explanations and discussion : That the size
has been reduced to five inches wide and seven and one-half inches long,
which should add much to the convenience of the code as a reference
work.

143

Appendix G

ITEM (10) STANDARDS

S. WiTHiNGTON, Chairman; K. B. Kaitk,

M. ScHREiBER, Vicc-Chairman; H. K. Lowry,

R. Beeuwkes, E. B. Temple,

J. C. Davidson, Sub-Committee.

The Sub-Committcc had assigned to it several electrical objects for
standardization. This year it has concentrated its attention upon incan-
descent lamps and reports as follows :

Many railroads carry in stock a long list of lamps of various kinds,
which involves not only a large amount of storage space and storehouse
expense, but likelihood of errors in the proper placing of lamps.

The following list has been compiled from data obtained both from
railroads and manufacturers, in an effort to obtain a list which should
be as short as is consistent with efficiency of operation, taking into account
both the illumination efficiency and the life of the lamps. Lamps for
signal purposes are not included in this report.

More than 80 per cent of the lamps manufactured are rated at 110,
115 and 120 volts; and the intermediate voltages are being eliminated
as rapidly as possible.

With regard to train lighting circuits, the voltage is standardized
at 32 and 64 volts. It should not be a difficult matter to so adjust the
train circuits as to obtain an average of these potentials and eliminate
all lamps of other voltages. Train lighting circuits of the 60-volt range
are rapidly disappearing.

With regard to the cab lighting, 33 volts appears to have been recom-
mended by the American Railway Association as standard. The voltage
has been standard at 34 volts, but the above recommendation of the
A.R.A. will undoubtedly involve a change to 33 volts.

All lamps in the list can be obtained equally readily with clear bulbs,
or with frosted or enameled bulbs. For "C" lamps of 100 watts or above,
the bulbs, instead of being frosted, should be "bowl enameled."

The "C" lamps are filled with an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon,
while in the "B" lamps the filament operates in a high vacuum.

The diameter of the lamp bulb is measured in eighths of an inch,
the shape is indicated by the following letters:

S — Straight side.

G — Round (globular).

P. S.— Pear Shape.

It is realized that the list is not complete, and that probably most
railroads will have local requirements which are not met by the list. It
is the thought, however, that if the demand can be concentrated on this
comparatively small number of styles and sizes of lamps, deliveries will

144

Electricity. 145

be facilitated, the labor of handling reduced, and manufacturing economies
will before long be reflected in prices. It is to be expected that the list
will be revised from time to time to take care of developments as
they occur.

Wherever possible the voltage of isolated plants operated by the
railroads should be changed to permit the use of lamps in the accom-
panying list. Ne\v installations should be designed to take listed lamps.

Your Committee recommends the adoption and ' printing in the
Manual, as recommended practice, the accompanying schedule of Tung-
sten Lamp Standards.

TUNGSTEN LAMP STANDARDS— 1920

Illumination

Sice in

IVatts Voltages
10 110,115,120,125
15 " " " "
25 " " " "
50 " " ". "

75 ' "

100 " " " "
150 " " " "

200

250 " " " "

300 " " " "

500 " " " "

750 " " " "

1000 " " " "

25 220, 230, 240, 250

50 " " " "

100 " '

200 " " " "

300 " " " "

500 " " " "

1000 " " " "

25 110,115,120,125
50 ' "

15
25
50

75
100

Type

and Sice

of Bulb

S. 14

S. 17

19
22

P. S. 25

Base Type
Med. Screw B

" B
., g

" B

" C

P. S. 35

a 40

p. S. 40

p. S. 52

P. S. 52

S. 19

S.30

P. S. 30

P. S. 35

P. S.40

P. S. 52

Mogul

C
C
C

c
c

Med. Screw B
" B
" B
C
C
C
C

Mogul

Mill Type

S. 19
S. 19

Med. Screw B
" B

Car Axle Lighting

32-64

(*) S. 17 G. 181/4
(*) S. 17G. 18^
('*) S. 19G.30
P. S. 20

P. S. 20

P. S. 22
P. S. 25

Remarks

Used for flood lighting,
Concentrated filament
for focusing.

Will be standardized to
replace the type B
lamp at a future time.

"White" bulb may also
be used.

Motor and Trailer Car and Locomotive Lighting and Headlights

15
23
36
56
94
100
250

33
110,115,120,125, 130

32
32

S. 17
S. 17
S. 19
S.21
S. 24/2
G.25
G.30

Med. Screw B
B
B
B
B
C

Cab Lighting.
Series.

Headlight.

(*) An extra charge of about 30 per cent, is usually made for the
"G" style.

146

RAILROAD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC WIRES AND

CABLES

Table of Contents
General

1. Scope. 6- A. Wrapping.

2. Inspection. 7. Marking.

3. Notification. 8. Terminology.

4. Tests. 9. Lot.

5. Rejection. 10-25. (Omitted).

6. Patents.

General Construction

26. Area and Material of 27-A. Repairs of Insulation.
Stranded Conductors. 28. Triplex, Duplex and Twin

27. Stranding. Cables.

Soft or Annealed Copper Wire and Cable

29. General. 35. Elongation.

30. Shape. 36. Conductivity.

31. Surface Imperfections. Zl . Tinning.

32. Specific Gravity. 38. Joints.

33. Permissible Variations from 39. Packing and Shipping.
Dimensions. 40. End Defects.

34. Gaging.

Hard Drawn Copper Wire and Cable

41. General. 46. Brazes.

42. Shape. 47. Conductivity.

43. Surface Imperfections. 48. Extensometer Test.

43-A. Specific Gravity. 49. Tensile Strength and Elon-

44. Core. gation.

45. Permissible Variations 50. Tensile Strength of Cables.

from Dimensions. 51. End Defects.

Class A Rubber Insulation with Mineral Base

52. Constituents. 56. Thickness of Insulation.

53. Results of Analysis. 57. Elasticity.

54. Check Analysis. 58. Tensile Strength.

55. Concentric Application. 59. Electrical Tests.

Varnished Cloth Insulation

60. Description. 63. Assembly.

61. Thickness of Insulation. 64. Tape.

62. Filler. 65. Electrical Tests.

Impregnated Paper Insulation

66. Description. 68. Tensile Strength.

67. Thickness of Insulation. 69. Electrical Test.

Electrical Tests of Insulation at Factory
70. High Potential Test. 71. Insulation Resistance.

147

148

Electricity.

72. Separator.

72). Tape.

Separator

Rubber Filled Cloth Tape

Braid

74.

75.

Weatherproof Braid. 76. Circular Loom Br
Tests.

Dry Paper Tape

77.

Dry Paper Tape.

Miscellaneous Braids

78.
79.

Glazed Cotton Braid. 80. Colored Braid.
Hemp Braid.. 80-A. Flameproof Braid.

Lead Sheath
81. Composition. 82. Thickness.

Galvanized Steel Wire Armor

83.

General.

88.

Covering over Armor.

84.

Preparation for Armor.

89.

Direction of Lay.

(a) Cloth, Taped or Braid-

90.

Size of Wire.

ed Cables.

91.

Samples for Test.

(b) Lead Sheathed Cables.

92.,

Tensile Strength and Elon^

85.

Thickness of Jut Bedding.

gation.

86.

Armor Wire.

93.

Galvanizing.

87.

Application of Armor.

94.

Flexibility.

Steel Tape

Armor

95.

Application of Armor.

96.

Armor Tape.

Galvanizing

97.

General.

100.

Test.

98.

Coating.

101.

Quality of Solution.

99.

Cleaning.

102.

Results of Tests.

103.
104.

106.
107.
108.
109.

Enameled Copper Magnet Wire

General.
Tests.

105. Preparations for Shipping.

General.

Form of Reel.

Bushing.

Size and Weight.

Cable Reels

110.
111.
112.

Covering and Lag<jing.

Marking.

Chocking.

Electricity. 149

List of Tables in Specification

Table No.

I. Standard Stranding of Concentric-Lay Cables.

II. Stranding of Flexible Cables.

III. Packages of Bare Soft or Annealed Copper Wire.

IV. Elongation of Soft or Annealed Copper Wire.

V. Conductivity of Soft or Annealed Untinned Copper Wire.

VI. Conductivity of Soft or Annealed Tinned Copper Wire.

VII. Tensile Strength and Elongation of Hard Drawn Copper Wire.

VIII. Thickness of Rubber Insulation.

IX. Elongation and Permanent Set of Grade A Rubber Compound.

X. Thickness of Varnished Cambric Insulation.

XI. Thickness of Impregnated Paper Insulation.

XII. Test Potentials for Rubber Insulation.

XIII. Test Potentials for Varnished Cloth and Impregnated Paper.

XIV. Megohm-Miles at 15.5 deg. Cent. (60 deg. Fahr.).

XV. Temperature Coefficients for Resistance of Rubber Compound.

XVI. Width aod Overlap of Rubber Filled Cloth Tape.

XVII. Thickness of Cotton Braid.

XVIII. Thickness of Sheath.

XIX. Size of Steel Armor Wire.

XX. Size of steel Tape and Juts for Armoring Cables.

150 Electricity.

RAILROAD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ELECTRIC WIRES AND

CABLES

General

1. Scope.

(a) The purpose of these specifications is to describe wires and
cables to be used principallj^ for electric lighting, power transmission, and
electric traction purposes.

(b) The workmanship and materials shall be the best of their
respective kinds and shall be in full accord with the best modern engi-
neering practice.

(c) Provisions in subsidiary specifications which are contrary to
these specifications annul the corresponding provisions in these specifi-
cations.

2. Inspection.

(a) The wires and cables will be inspected by the Engineer of the
Railroad or his authorized representative, who shall be afforded all neces-
sary facilities to ascertain whether the material and processes conform
to these specifications.

(b) The outer surface of the insulation of complete insulated wires
and cables shall be grounded while being electrically tested. If the insula-
tion is not provided with a conducting covering, and if the covering is
not liable to injury by water, the ground shall be obtained by immersing
the insulated wire or cable in water for eighteen hours and testing at the
end of that period while immersed. If the outer covering is susceptible
to injury by immersion, the insulated conductor shall be tested before
the application of such covering.

Dry core paper insulated lead covered cables, such as telephone and
telegraph cables, for use in water shall be tested after eighteen hours
immersion.

(c) In multiple-conductor cables, without waterproof overall jacket
of insulation, no immersion test will be made on finished cables, but only
on the individual conductors before assembling.

(d) Submarine cables shall be given a' final test by immersing the
completed cable in water in addition to the immersion test upon the
individual conductors. (See Section 59-a.)

(e) All other wires and cables will be inspected in their completed
form.

(f) The Inspector will notify the Manufacturer in writing when
the preliminary tests are satisfactory. Additional covering applied pre-
vious to the receipt of such notice will be at the Manufacturer's risk.

(g) Wires and cables shall not be shipped without being sealed by
the Inspector unless permission is given in writing.

The seals are applied for identification purposes only, and shall not
be considered by the Manufacturer as evidence of acceptance.

Electricity. 151

3. Notification.

The Manufacturer shall notify the Railroad sufficiently in advance
of the completion of the wires or cables to permit arrangements to be
made for the presence of an Inspector.

4. Tests.

The Manufacturer shall furnish suitable facilities for the testing of
the wires and cables and shall make the specified tests in the presence
of the Inspector. The Manufacturer shall also afiford the Inspector every
other reasonable facilit}- to ascertain whether the requirements of these
specifications have been complied with.

The Railroad will make chemical analysis of the rubber compound
or other materials entering into the manufacture of the wires and cables
whenever it deems such a step necessary.

When the Railroad desires bending or other mechanical or electrical
tests not' herein specified, they will notify the Manufacturer and the test
shall conform to the requirements of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers.

Except where otherwise specified the results of tests will determine
the acceptance of the individual coil or reel on which tests were made.

5. Rejection.

If rejections exceed 20 per cent of the length offered for inspection
at one time, the expense of inspection and test of the rejected part shall
be borne bj- the Manufacturer. Freight charges on foreign lines for
the return of all wires or cables that may be found defective and
rejected after receipt by the Railroad shall be borne by the Manufacturer.

The Railroad may make tests of samples of the wire or cable in its
own laboratory or elsewhere, but such tests shall be made at its own
expense.

The Manufacturer may retain duplicate sealed samples and, in case
of dissatisfaction, may demand a check test upon such sealed samples at
anj- time within two weeks after the date of the test report. (See
Section 54.)

6. Patents.

The Manufacturer shall defend and save harmless the Railroad from,
and indemnify it against any and all claims which may be made against
it on account of alleged infringements of patent rights, and expenses of
any kind in connection therewith, arising from the use of the wire or
cable furnished by the Manufacturer.

162 Electricity.

6-A. Wrapping.

Wires and cables shall be securely wrapped as follows:
Package Style of Wire or Cable Wrapping

Coil National Electric Code. Paper or burlap.

Any but Code. Burlap.

Spool Any. Paper or burlap and boxed in a man-

ner satisfactory to the Inspector.
Reel All. See Section 110.

7. Marking.

Where wires or cables are shipped in coils or on spools, a tag con-
taining the following information shall be securely attached to the coils
or spools and a similar tag fastened to the outside of the wrapping: (a)
name of Manufacturer, (b) size of wire or cable, (c) character of insula-
tion, (d) net pounds, (e) gross pounds, (f) nvimber of feet, (g) Rail-
road's requisition and order number.

8. Terminology.

The terminology used in these specifications is that recommended in
the Standardization Rules of the American Institute of Electrical Engi-
neers.

9. Lot.

The word lot shall be understood to refer to all of the wires of one
kind and size offered for inspection at one visit of the Inspector.

General Construction

26. Area and Material of Stranded Conductors.

(a) Sectional Area of Cables: The cross-sectional area of cables
shall be considered to be the sum of the cross-sectional area of its com-
ponent wires when measured perpendicular to their axis and shall be not
less than the specified circular mils or area corresponding to the specified
gage. (See Section 33.)

(b) Antiealing: Unless otherwise specified, conductors shall be of
soft or annealed copper.

27. Stranding.

Unless otherwise specified, the stranding of cables shall be concentric,
with successive layers wound in opposite directions.

The cables shall have not less than the number of wires specified
in Table I or Table II for the type of cable ordered, but cables having a
greater number ©f wires will be accepted.

Electricity.

153

Table I — Standard Stranding of Concentric-Lay Cables

Number of Wires (See Note 2)

Size
(See Note 1)

Number of Wires (See Note 2)

Size
fSee Note 1)

Bare, Insulated

JT Weatherproof

Cables for

Aerial use.

Insulated
Cables for
other than
Aerial use.

Bare, Insulated

or Weatherproof

Cables for

Aerial use.

Insulated
Cables for
other than
Aerial use

2.0 Cir. Inches.
1.5 "
1.0 '

0.6 "
0.5 "

91
61
61

37'
37
19

127
91
61

61
37
37

0000 A. W. G . . .

2 "

7 and smaller . .

19 or 7
(See Note 3)

7
7

19
7

0.4 "

1. For intermediate sizes, use stranding for next larger size.

2. Conductors of 0000 A. W. G. and smaller are often made solid and this table of stranding
should not be interpreted as excluding this practice.

3. Class A cable, sizes 0000 and 000 A. W. G., is usually made of 7 strands when bare and 19
strands when insulated or weatherproof.

Table II — Stranding of Flexible Cables

Size

No. of

Size of Each

Make-up

Size

No. of

Size of Each

Make-up

Wires

WireA.W.G

(See Note 1)

Wires

WireA.W.G

(See Note 1)

2039000. . .

703

15.5

37 X 19

000

1.33

19 0

19x7

1816000...

16 0

20.0

1617000...

16.5

21.0

1440000...

17 0

20 5

Concentric

1284000...

17.5

■■

21 5

1103000 .

427

18.0

61 X 7

22.5

874600...

17.0

22.0

693600 ..

18.0

23 0

.5.50000 .

19.0

24.0

436200 .

20.0

25.5

34.5900. . .

21.0

25.5

274300...

22.0

27 5

264600..

259

• 20 0

37 X 7

29 5

0000...

21.0

To Equal

Smaller...

Required
Size

30 0

Bunched

Smaller . .

Required
Size

30.0

Bunched

Note 1. "61x7" in the description of a rope-lay cable signifies 61 strands of 7 wires each.

27-A. Repairs of Insulation.

If exigencies of manufacture require repairs or joints in the insula-
tion, the work shall be done in such a wa}' as to leave the repaired part
or joint, and all parts affected b.v it, as strong and durable electrically,
as the remainder of the insulation. In the case of rubber insulation the
patches shall be properly vulcanized.

28. Triplex, Duplex and Twin Cables.

Unless otherwise specified the conductors of duplex or iriplex cables
shall be twisted and filled out to make round. Twin cables shall have
their conductors laid parallel.

154 Electricity. .

Soft or Annealed Copper Wire and Cable

29. General.

The purpose of these specifications is to secure soft or annealed
copper wire of the best commercial quality.

30. Shape.

The wire shall be of circular cross-section unless otherwise specified.

31. Surface Imperfections.

The wires shall be free from all surface imperfections not consistent
with the best practice.

32. Specific Gravity.

For the purpose of calculating weights, cross-sections, etc., the specific
gravity of copper shall be taken at 8.89 grams per cubic centimeter at a
temperature of 20 deg. Cent.

33. Permissible Variations from Dimensions.

The variations from the nominal diameter shall not exceed the fol-
lowing:

(a) Untinned Wire: For wire 0.010 inches or over in diameter,
one per cent over or under

For wires less than 0.010 inches in diameter, 0.1 mil (0.0001 in.) qver
or under.

(b) Tinned Wire: For wire 0.010 inches or over in diameter, three
per cent over and one per cent under.

For wire less than 0.010 inches in diameter 0.3 mils over and 0.1
mil under.

Cables otherwise meeting the specifications but having a cross-sec-
tional area of not over one per cent less than that specified may be
accepted by the Railroad upon a satisfactory adjustment in price.

34. Gaging.

The wire on each coil, reel or spool shall be gaged wherever desired
by the Inspector, but in the case of coils at not less than three places, '
one near each end and one approximately at the middle. In the case
of spools, not less than twelve feet of wire or cable shall be reeled off,
and the wire shall be gaged in six places between the second and twelfth
foot from the end. The coils or spools will be rejected if the average
of the measurements obtained is not within the limits stated in Section 33.

35. Elongation.

The enlongation of the wire shall be not less than specified in Table
IV. Tests shall be made upon fair samples, and the elongation shall be
determined as the permanent increases in lengths, due to the breaking
of the wire in tension, measured between bench marks placed upon the
wire originally ten inches apart. The fracture shall be between the
bench marks and not clo.ser than one inch tn either mark. If fracture

Electricity. 155

occurs outside the bench marks, or closer than one inch to either mark,
the test shall be repeated. If upon testing a sample from any coil, reel
or spool of wire, the results are found to be below the specified elonga-
tion, tests upon two additional samples shall be made, and if the average
of the three results is below the specified elongation, the wire may be
rejected. In the case of cables, tests shall be made on the individual
wires.

36. Conductivity,

The electric conductivity shall be determined as described in Section
47 and shall be not less than the per cent of the Annealed Copper Stand-
ard specified in Tables V and VI.

37. Tinning.

If the wire is to be insulated with rubber compound, it shall be cov-
ered with a heavy uniform coating of tin unless otherwise specified on
the order.

Tinned wire shall be free from projections and shall successfully
pass the following test :

Samples of wire which have not been insulated shall be thoroughly
cleaned with alcohol and immersed in hydrochloric acid of specific
gravity 1.09 corrected to 60 deg. Fahr. for one minute. They shall then
be rinsed in clear water and immersed in a solution of sodium sulphide
of specific gravity 1.14 for 30 seconds and again washed. This opera-
tion shall be repeated three times and upon the completion of the fourth
cycle, the sample shall show no sign of blackening. The sodium sulphide
solution shall contain an excess of sulphur and shall have sufficient
strength to thoroughly blacken a piece of clean untinned copper wire in
five seconds. '

38. Joints.

Joints will be permitted if properly brazed.

39. Packing and Shipping.

Table III gives the maximum and minimum weights of bare wire
of stated sizes which may be shipped in any one package, wiiether coil,
reel or spool; in the case of wire larger than 0.010 in. in diameter, the
maximum and minimum package weights are net, and in the case of
wire 0.010 in. and less in diameter, the maximum package weights are
gross, and the minimum package weights are net. The table also states
the limits of the dimensions of reels and spools on which wire may be
shipped. The length and diameter stated for reels and spools are to be
measured over all and are maximum sizes ; reels or spools smaller than
these may be used, provided the minimum weights called for are carried
by the reel or spool.

40. End Defects.

To insure the removal of defects from the wire, the Manufacturer
shall cut off at least 25 feet of wire, or as much more as may be neces-
sary from each end of every coil, reel or spool.

156

Electricity,

Table III — Packages of Bare Soft or Annealed Copper Wire

Package Weights
Pounds

Dimension of Reels and Spools, In.

Diameters, In.

Max.

Diameter of Hole

Max.

Min.

Dia.

Length

for Rod

0.460 to 0.360

520

290

■Wi to 2]A

0.359 " 0.258

430

290

Wi " 2]4

0.257 " 0.129

290

140

VA " IVi

0.128 " 0.102

230

Vi " Wi

0.101 " 0.083

230

Yi " Wi

0.082 " 0.081

200

H ' VA

0.080 " 0.064

200

% • m

0.063 " 0.051

120

Vb ' m

0.050 " 0.041

100

% ' VA

0.040 " 0.032

H " m

0.031 " 0.020

6>^

% " H

0.019 " 0.011

hVi

Vs " i

0.010 " 0.008

% ' i

0.007 " 0.0056

H ' \

0.005

Vs ' i

0.004

H ' i

0.003

58 ' i*

Table IV — Elongation of Soft (Annealed) Copper Wire

Minimum Per Cent of

Diameter, In.

Elongation in 10 In.

Diameter, In.

Elongation in 10 In.

Tinned Untinned

0.460 to 0.290

30 35

0.200 too. 151

27.5

0.289 " 0.103

25 30

0.150 " 0.101

25.0 Note: Use these per-

0.102 " 0.021

20 25

0.100 " 0.061

22.5 centages for samples

0.020 " 0.012

15 20

0.060 " 0.031

20.0 of tinned wires taken

0.011 " 0.003

10 20

0.030 " 0.003

17.5 from stranded cables.

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of the next sm.iller size.

Table V — Conductivity of Soft or Annealed Untinned Copper Wire

A.W. G. No.

Conductivity, per cent

A. W. G. No.

Conductivity, per cent

• 0000 to 8
8 to 20

98.5
98.0

20 to 30
Smaller than No. 30

97.5
97.0

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of tlie next smaller size.

Electricity.

157

Table VI — Conductivity of Soft or Annealed Tinned Copper Wire

A.W. G. No.

Conductivity per cent

A.W. G. No.

Conductivity per cent

9 and larger

98.0

95.8

97.8

95.6

97.6

95.4

97.4

95.2

97.2

95.0

97.0

94.8

96.8

94.6

96.6

94.4

96.4

94.2

96.2

94.0

96.0

93.8

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of the next smaller size.

Hard Drawn Copper Wire and Cable

41. General.

The intention of these specifications is to describe hard drawn cop-
per wire of the best commercial quality.

42. Shape.

The wire shall be of circular cross-section, unless otherwise specified.

43. Surface Imperfections.

The wire shall be free from all surface imperfections not consistent
with the best practice.

43-A. Specific Gravity.

For the purpose of calculating weights, cross-sections, etc., the specific
gravity of copper shall be taken at 8.89 grains per cubic centimeter at
a temperature of 20 deg. Cent.

44. Core.

Standard conductors shall be made of hard drawn wire laid con-
centrically about a core of material specified in the specifications accom-
panying the order. Unless otherwise specified the core of seven-wire
cables shall be of semi-hard drawn copper.

45. Permissible Variation from Dimensions.

The circumference of any cross-section of the wire .shall be a true
circle.

The variations from the nominal diameter shall not exceed the fol-
lowing :

(a) Untinned Wire: For wire 0.010 inches in diameter and larger,
one per cent over and under.

For wire less than 0.010 inches in diameter, 0.1 mil (0.0001 in.) over
or under.

158 Electricity.

(b) Tinned Wire: For wire 0.02 inches in diameter, and larger,
two per cent over or one per cent under.

For wire less than 0.02 inches in diameter, 0.1 mil under.

Where the area of cross-section of cables is specified, the cables shall
be of not less than the area specified.

46. Brazes.

Brazes made before drawing, in accordance with the best practice,
will be permitted in wire entering into cables, but no two brazes in a
strand may be closer together than 50 feet in wire larger than No. 5
A.W.G., or closer than 100 feet on smaller wires. Brazes will be allowed
in single wire conductors only where the length specified exceeds that
which can be drawn from an ingot. No joints shall be made in wire
after drawing.

47. Conductivity.

Electrical conductivity shall be determined upon fair samples by
resistance measurement with a Kelvin bridge or other instrument
approved by the Railroad. The use of the Hoops bridge is approved.

Samples shall be cut from not less than ten per cent of the coils in
each lot of wire, the number of samples being never less than two. The
conductivity shall be not less than the following per cent of the Annealed
Copper Standard:

For diameters 0.460 to 0.325 inch, 97 per cent.
For diameters 0.324 to 0.040 inch, 96 per cent.

If the average conductivity is less than specified above, the entire lot
may be rejected.

48. Extensometer Test.

If required by the Engineer, fair .samples shall be cut from not less
than ten per cent of the coils in each lot of wire, the number of samples
being never less than two, and extensometer tests shall be made upon
them, and the results on each sample plotted as a curve. The point at
which the ratio of the elongation to the stress begins to increase, shall
be at a stress not less than 55 per cent of the ultimate strength of the
sample.

If more than 20 per cent of the samples fail to pass this test, the
entire lot may be rejected.

49. Tensile Strength and Elongation.

The tensile strength and elongation of the wire shall be not less than
specified in Table VII. Tensile tests shall be made upon fair samples,
and the elongation shall be determined as the permanent increase in
length, due to the breaking of the wire in tension, measured between
bench marks placed upon the wire originally ten or sixty inches apart,
as specified in Table VII. The fracture shall be between the bench marks
and not closer than one inch to either mark. If the fracture occurs out-

Electricity,

159

side the bench marks or closer than one inch to either mark, the tests
shall be repeated. Samples shall be cut -from not less than ten per cent
of the coils in each lot of wire, the number of samples being never less
than two. If more than ten per cent of the samples fail to pass this test,
the entire lot may be rejected.

Table VII — Tensile Strength and Elongation of Hard Drawn
Copper Wire

A. w. G. No.

0000.

000.

00.

2.
3.

4
5.
6.
7.
8
9.

II.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

Diameter, Inches

0.4600
0.4096
0 3648
0.3249
0.2893
0.2576
0.2294

0.2043

0.1819

0.1620

0 1443

0.1285

0.1144

0.1019

0.09074

0.08081

0 07196

0.06408

0.05707

0.05082

0 04526

0.04030

0 03589

0 03196

0.02846

0.02535

0 02257

0 02010

Area, Cir. Mils.

211 600
168 100
133 225
105 625
83 520
66 565
52 440

41 615

33 125

27 225

26 245

20 735

17 956

16 385

12 995

10 815

10 404

8 464

8 281

6 561

6 400

5 184
4 225
4 096
3.249
2 601
2 025
1 600

Tensile Strength,
Lb. Per Sq. In.

49 000

51 000

52 800
54 500

56 100

57 600

59 000

60 100

61 200

62 000

62 100

63 000
63 400

63 700

64 300
64 800

64 900

65 400
65 400
65 700
65 700

65 900

66 200
66 200
66 400
66 600

66 800

67 000

Elongation, Per
Cent in 10 In.

3.75
3.25
2.80
2.40
2.17
1 98
1.79
In 60 in.
1.24
1.18
1.14
1.14
1.09
1.07
1.06
1.02
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.97
0.95
0.94
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.87
0.86
0.85

For intermediate sizes, the requirements shall be those of the next
larger size. A reduction of 10 per cent in the tensile strength of wires
taken from stranded cables will be allowed when the wires are tinned and
three per cent when untinned.

50. Tensile Strength of Cable.

The tensile strength of cables shall be not less than 90 per cent of
the total tensile strength of the component wires, exclusive of the core
if the latter is not made of hard drawn copper.

51. End Defects.

To insure the removal of defects from the wire, the Manufacturer
shall cut off at least 25 feet of wire, or as much more as may be neces-
sary from each end of every coil, reel or spool.

Class "A" Rubber Insulation With Mineral Base

52. Constituents.

Class "A" rubber insulation shall consist of a properly vulcanized
compound consisting of not less than 30 per cent fine Para or smoked

160 Electricity.

first latex plantation Hevea nihher with mineral fillers. It shall contain
only the following ingredients: •

Rubber, »

Sulphur,

Inorganic mineral matter,
Refined solid paraffine or ceresine.
It shall not contain either red lead or carbon.

53. Results of Analysis.

The vulcanized compound shall conform to the following require-
ments, when tested by the procedure of the Joint Rubber Insulation Com-
mittee current at the date of order.

(a) Results to be expressed as percentages by weight of the whole
sample :

Maximum Minimum

Rubber 33 30

Waxy hydrocarbons 4 0

Free sulphur 0.7 0

(b) The requirements for intermediate percentages shall be in pro-
portion to the percentage of the rubber found :

Limits allowed for 30% Rubber Compound Maximum Minimum

Saponifiable acetone extract 1.35 0.55

Unsaponifiable resins 0.45 0

Chloroform extract 0.90 0

Alcoholic potash extract 0. 55 0

Total Sulphur 2.10 0

Specific gravity 0 1 . 75

Limits allowed for 33% Rubber Compound Maximu)n Minimum

Saponifiable acetone extract 1.50 0.60

Unsaponifiable resins 0. 50 0

Chloroform extract 1 .00 0

Alcoholic potash extract 0.60 0

Total sulphur , 2. 10 0

Specific Gravity 0 1 . 67

(d) The acetone extract (60 cu.cm.) shall be not darker than a light
straw color.

(e) Hydrocarbons shall be solid, waxy and not darker than a light
brown color.

(f) Chloroform extract (60 cu.cm.) shall be not darker than a straw
rt)lor.

Failure to meet any requirement of these specifications will be con-
sidered sufficient cause for rejection.

(g) Contamination of the compound by the use of impregnated
tapes will not excuse the Manufacturer from conforming to these speci-
fications. The use of fine Para or first quality plantation rubber, without
compliance with the chemical limits, will not be sufficient for acceptance.

Electricity

161

54. Check Analysis.

If the Manufacturer questions the accuracy of the analytical results
upon which rejections are based, the Railroad will have an analysis made
by another chemist, using the procedure of the Joint Rubber Insulation
Committee. If the results of such analysis show the rubber compound
to be in accordance with the specifications, the Railroad will bear the ex-
pense thereof; otherwise the Manufacturer shaW bear the expense. (See
Section 5.)

55. Concentric Application.

The compound shall be applied concentrically about the conductor
and shall fit closely thereto. If necessary, in order to achieve this result
on insulated conductors of greater diameter than 0.3 of an inch, a tape
may be applied over the insulation before vulcanization. Such tape, if it
does not comply with Section 73, will be additional to any which may be
required in the accompanying wire specifications. Where the insulation is
applied in more than one layer, adjacent layers shall cohere firmly.

56. Thickness of Insulation.

Unless otherwise specified, the minimum thickness of insulation at
any point shall be in accordance with Table VIII.

Table VIII — Thickness of Rubber Insulation
30 Per Cent. Hevea Rubber Compound, Wall Thickness in 64th of an Inch

Working Pressure "

a-c

3rd

Size of

Rail

Volts — Alternating

Conductor,

d-c

Rys.

A. W. G. or

Cir. Mils.

600

601

1
5

2
5

3
5

5
0

6
0

7
0

8
0

9
0

1
0

1
1

less

750

0
0

0
0
0

14-8

7-2

0000

400,000

500,000

2,000,000

For intermediate sizes the insulation thickness specified for the next larger size shall be used

57. Elasticity.

(a) Samples from wires of No. 8 A.W.G. or less shall be obtained
by the removal of the copper wire by the elongation of the wire, or if
tinned by the mercury process at the option of the Inspector.

From larger wires a sample of approximately g^ square inch rectangu-
lar cross-section shall be cut from the insulated conductor, using a sharp

162

Electricity

knife. The sample shall be bent in every direction to magnify and reveal
any surface cracks or imperfections which may exist.

(b) Two thin bench marks shall be marked on the tost sample two
inches apart and at right angles to the direction of pull.

The sample shall then be clamped in an approved testing machine and
stretched at the rate of twenty inches per minute until the marks are
six inches apart and held for one minute and then immediately released.
One minute after release the marks shall not be farther apart than specified
in Table IX.

Table IX — Elongation and Permanent Set of Grade A Rubber
Compound

Sections

Lengthening,

Stretching and

Release

Length at Instant
of Fracture

2J'8 inch
2ys inch

10 inch

Larger than No. 8, 1-32 square inch

9 inch

58. Tensile Strength.

A sample prepared as described in Section 57 (a) shall be taken from
every 5,000 feet or less and stretched in an approved testing machine at
the rate of twenty inches per minute until it breaks.

The tensile strength shall be not less than 1,000 pounds per square
inch. At the instant of fracture the distance between bench marks shall
be not less than specified in Table IX.

59. Electrical Tests.

(a) Each and every length of wire or cable shall conform to the
requirements of Sections 70 and 71. Electrical tests shall be made upon
rubber insulated wire or cable after at least eighteen hours' immersion in
water, while still immersed and before the application of any covering
other than the tape used in vulcanization. In the case of multiplex cables,
the high potential test shall be made and the insulation resistance shall
be measured before assembling the conductors. An additional electrical
test shall be made on lead covered or armored cable and shall consist of
a high potential test to be made upon the cable after assembling and
leading or armoring, and, if lead covered, without immersion in water. In
the case of multiplex cables, this test shall be made successively between
each conductor and the other conductors and sheath in multiple. The
potential test shall be repeated on lead covered armored cables after armor-
ing. (See Section 2.)

(b) The insulation resistance (megohms) at a given temperature
shall be reduced to that at 15.5 deg. Cent. (60 deg. Fahr.) by multiplying
by the coefificient in Table XIV corresponding to that temperature. Tests
shall be made at temperatures within the range of Table XV.

Electricity.

163

Varnished Cloth Insulation

60. Description.

The insulation shall consist of a closely woven cotton cloth and vis-
cous filler. Each surface of the cloth shall have a smooth continuous film
of varnish and shall be free from wrinkles, blisters, and other imperfec-
tions. It shall be thoroughly impregnated with insulating compound, be
pliable and have no tendency to crack when doubled on itself. A separator,
which shall conform to Section 12, will be permitted.

61. Thickness of Insulation.

Unless otherwise specified the thickness of insulation shall be in ac-
cordance with Table X.

Table X — Thickness of Varnished Cloth Insulation in 64th-In.

D-C

0 to 500V

501 to 150GV

Single or
Two-Phase
up to 2500V

Belted Cables

3-Phase Grounded Neutral
Volts between Phases

Conductor

6000 to 7000

11000 to 12000

Each
Cond.

Belt

Each
Cond.

Belt

Cir. Mils.
2,000.000
1,750,000
1,500.000
1.250,000
1,000,000

9
9
8
8
7
6
6 -

5
5
4

10
9
9

8
8

7
7

6
6
6

10
9

9
9
9

500,000

12
12

250,000
A. W. G.
0000
1
8

8
8

6
6
6

8
8
8

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of the next larger size.

On single conductor cables in three-phase systems the thickness of in-
sulation on each conductor shall be the sum of those specified for each
conductor and belt. For all sizes above 500,000 cir.mil. having a voltage
between phases of 11,000 to 12,000 volts, the thickness shall be 28/64
inch. Double conductor cables in three-phase systems shall have the same
insulation on each conductor and belt as the three conductor cables.

62. FUler.

The filler shall be a viscous moisture-repelling insulating compound
having a dielectric constant approximately the same as that of the var-
nished cloth insulation and of such a nature as to have no deleterious
effect upon the varnish. It shall prevent the tapes from unwrapping when
cut, but allow the layers to slide upon each other when cable is bent.

164 Electricity.

63. Assembly.

The insulating cloth shall be applied in the form of tape wound on
helically and reversed at least every two layers. The tapes shall be of
such widths that they will lie smoothly and be free from wrinkles; the
turns shall overlap and the joints in successive layers shall be staggered.
The filler shall be applied between layers as to exclude all air and moisture,
the whole forming a hard semi-flexible wall of insulation.

64. Tape.

A layer of cloth tape, which shall conform to the requirements of
Section 73, shall be applied over the cloth insulation. In the case of
multiple conductor cables, a tape shall be applied over each conductor and
one over the belt.

65. Electrical Tests.

Each and every length of wire or cable shall conform to the require-
ments of Sections 70 and 71. Electrical tests shall be made upon var-
nished cloth insulated wire or cable after at least one hour immersion
in water, and while still immersed. If the wire or cable is to be covered
with dry or flameproof braid, tests shall be made before the braid is ap-
plied; if it is to be covered with weatherproof braid, the tests shall be
made on the finished product. Lead covered conductors shall be tested
against the sheath with sheath grounded. Multiple-conductor cables and
covered cables shall be tested between each conductor and the other con-
ductors and sheath or ground in multiple. The potential test shall be re-
peated on armored cables after armoring.

Impregnated Paper Insulation

66. Description.

The insulgition shall consist of Manila paper applied helically and
evenly to the conductor, and then thoroughly impregnated with an in-
sulating compound. The cable shall be pliable and show no tendency to
harden injuriously at 0 deg. Cent. (32 deg. Fahr.). The paper shall contain
no free mineral acids or free alkalis. The compound shall be so applied
as to exclude all air and moisture, and shall contain no free mineral acid,
alkali or other substances which have a deleterious effect upon the paper,
copper or compound.

67. Thickness of Insulation.

Unless otherwise specified, the thickness of insulation shall be in ac-
cordance with Table XL

68. Tensile Strength.

Tensile strength tests shall be made upon paper taken from any fin-
ished cable, both from conductor and belt, if any. Test pieces ten feet
in length shall be selected, looped and tension applied at the loop through
a mandrel, the diameter of which is equal to the width of the paper.

Electricit)'.

165

A tension of 5000 pounds per square inch shall be applied for S min-
utes, and then 6500 pounds per square inch for 1 minute. If more than
one out of six samples selected from each lot by the Inspector fail to meet
the tests, the entire lot may be rejected.

69. Electrical Tests.

Each and every length of finished wire or cable shall conform to
the requirements of Sections 70 and 71. No immersion is required before
testing. The potential test shall be made between conductor and sheath
with the sheath grounded. Multiple conductor cables shall be tested be-
tween each conductor, and the other conductors and sheath or ground in
multiple. The potential test shall be repeated on armored cables after
armoring.

Table XI — Thickness of Impregnated Paper Insulation — 64th Inch

D-C.

up to
500 V.

D-C.

501 to
1500 V.

Single or

two phase

up to

2500 V.

Belted Cables.
3-Phase Grounded Neutral Volts be-
tween Phases.

Conductor

6000-7000

11000—12000

Each
Cond.

Belt

Each
Cond.

Belt

Cir. mil.
2 000 000

9
9

8
8
7
7
6
6

10
10
9
9
9
9
S
8

5
5

1 750 000

1 500 000

1 250 000

I OOO 000

12
12
10
10

10
10
10
10
10
10

750 000

500 000

250 000
A. W. G.
0000

9
9
9
9

6
6
6
6

g
d

For intermediate sizes, the requirements shall be those of the next larger size.

On single conductor cables in three-phase systems the thickness of
insulation on each conductor shall be the sum of those specified for each
conductor and belt. For all sizes above 500,000 cir.mil. having a voltage
between phases 11,000 to 12,000 volts, the thickness shall be 28/64 inches.
Double conductor cables in three-phase systems shall have the same in-
sulation on each conductor and belt as the three conductor cables.

Electrical Tests of Insulation at Factory

70. High Potential Test.

The high potential test voltage specified in Table XII and Table XIII
shall be applied for five minutes ; shall have a frequency not exceeding
100 C3'cles per second and shall approximate as closely as possible to a

166

Electricity,

sine-wave. Tiic initially applied voltage shall not be greater than the
working voltage, and the rate of increase shall be approximately uniform
and not over 100 per cent, in ten seconds. The source of energy shall be
of ample capacity.

71. Insulation Resistance.

The insulation resistance shall be measured after the high potential
test and after a one minute electrification with a battery having an e.m.f.
of not less than 100 and not more than 500 volts. The results corrected
to the standard temperature of 15.5 deg. Cent. (60 deg. Fahr.) shall con-
form with the requirements of Table XIV. In the case of multiplex
cables, the values in the tables shall apply to each conductor.

72. Separator. Separator

The separator may consist of a wind or braid of soft cotton yarn,
or in the case of conductors of No. 6 A.W.G. and larger, a muslin tape.
With untinned conductors, the separator shall completely cover the con-
ductors ; with tinned conductors the separator shall allow the insulation
sufficient contact with the conductor to prevent the conductor sliding in
the insulation.

Rubber Filled Cloth Tape

73. Tape.

The tape shall consist of cotton cloth not lighter than one-quarter
pound per square yard, with not less than 56 by 60 picks per inch, thor-
oughly filled with a rubber compound. The tape shall be applied helically
overlapping not less than specified in Table XVI, which also gives the
maximum width of tape allowed.

Table XII — Test Potentlals for Rubber Insulation
Potentials in Kilovolts — Five Minute Test.

Size

Conductors.

THICKNESS OF INSULATION, 64TH INCH.

Cir. mils.
2 000 000

4 0

4 0
4.0
4.0
5.0

5 0

6 0
6.0
6 0
6.5
6.5
6.5
7.5
7,5
7.5
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8 0
7.5
7.5

5.0
5 0
5.0

5 0

6 0

6 0
7.0
7.0

7 0

7 5
7.5
7.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0
9.0

8 5
8 5

6.0
6 0
6.0

6 0

7 0
7.0
8.0

8 0
8 0
8.5

8 5
8.5
9.5

9 5
9.5

10 0
10.0
10 0
10.0
10 0
9 5
9 5

9 0

1 750 000

9 0

1 500 000

9.0

1 250 000

9.0

1 000 000

. .)

4 0

5 0
5.0
5 0
5.5

5 5
5.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
7 0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0

6 5
6 5

10.0

750 000

10 0

500 000

3.0

3 0
3.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
4.5

4 5

5 0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5 0
4.5
4 5

4 0
4 0
4 0

4 5
4.5
4.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.5

5 5

11 0

350 000

11.0

2.50 000

11 0

0 000

11 5

000

11.5

11 5

3.5
3.5

3 5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0

4 0
3.5
3.5

12 5

8
10
12
14
16
IS

10
1.0

.3 0
3.0
3 0
3.0
3.0
2 5
2.5

13 0
13 0
13 0
13.0
13.0
12 5
12 5

For greater tliioknesses arid 1500 volts for each J^ inrli.

Electricity.

167

Table XIII — Test Potentials for Varnished Cloth and Impregnated

Paper

Potentials in Kilovolts — Five Minute Test.

For Varnished Cloth use 100 per cent, of the following potentials.
For Impregnated Paper use 75 per cent, of the following potentials.

Size
of

THICKNESS OF INSULATION,

64TH INCH.

Conductors

Cir. mils.
2 000 000

5 0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
9.0
10.0

10 5

11 0

11 5
11 5
12.0
12.0
12.0
11.5
11.5
11 0
10 0

8 0

8 5

9 5

10 0
10.5

11 5

12 5

13 0
13.5

13.5
13.5
13.5
13.5
13.5
13.0
12.5
11.5
10 5

10 5

1 750 000

11 5

I 500 000

12 0

1 250 000

12.5

1 000 000

5.5
6.5

7.5
8.5
9 0

9 0
9 5
10 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
9 5
8.5

13.0

750 000

14 0

500 OOO
ZnO 000

2 5

3 5

4 0

4 5

5 0
5.5

6 0
6.0
6.5
6.5

7 0
6.5

5.0
6 0

6 5

7,0

7 5

8 0
8.0
8 0
8.5
8 5
8.0
8.0

14 5

15 0

250 000

15.5

A. W. G.
0000

15.5

000

15 5

15.5

1
2
4
6
8
10

3^6
3.0
3.0

4 0
4.0
4.5
5.0

5 0
5 0

15 5
15.0
14.5
14 0
13 0
12 0

Thickness of Insulation

Size

THICKNESS OF INSULATION, 64TH INCH.

Conductors.

Cir. Mil.

250 000

A. W. G.

0000-1

2-4

5&6

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of the next larger size. Where the
insulation thickne.ss is le.'ss than the minimum for which test voltages are given, no potential will
be required.

168

Electricity.

Table XIV— Megohm-Mii.es at 1.5.5 Dec. Cent. (60 Dec. Fahr.)

One Minute Electrification.

Rubber, minimum shall be 100 per cent, of following.
Varnished Cloth, minimum shall be 15 per cent, of following.
Impregnated Paper, minimum shall be 12i/2 per cent, of following.

Thickness of Insulation,

64th Inch

Conductors

Cir. Mis.

2,000,000
1,750,000
1,500,000
1,250,000
1,000,000
750,000
500,000

225
225
250
275
300
325
400
475
575

600
650
750
800
850

200
275
300
325
350
400
475
525
625

650
750
850
950
1000

250
300
325
350
375
450
525
600
675

700
800
900
1000
1050

275
375
325
375
400
475
575
675
725

800
850
950
1050
11.50

325
425
400
425
475
525
675
775
875

950
1000
1050
1200
1350

350
425
475
500
575
625
750
850
1000

1050
1150
1250
1350
1450

200
225
250
275
300
375
425
475

550
600
650
700
750

200
225
250
300
350
400

450
500
550
600
650

575
625
750
800
950
1050

1150
1250
1350
1450
1600

800
950
1150
1200

1250
1350
1450
1600
1750

250
300
350

375
400
450
500
600

350,000

250,000

1250

A. W. G.

0000

1350

000

1450

1600

16,50

.500

1800

550

650

750

850

950

10,50

11,50

1250

1450

1600

1750

1860

2000

650

750

850

1000

11,50

12.50

1400

14,50

1650

1850

2000

2150

2250

800

850

1050

1200

1.3.50

14.50

1600

17,50

1950

2050

2250

2400

2560

850

1050

12,50

14,50

1650

17,50

2000

2050

2200

2400

2600

2750

2850

11,50

1.S50

1600

1800

2000

21,50

2300

2400

2650

2850

3050

3200

3400

1.^50

1600

1850

2050

2250

2400

2600

2750

3000

3200

3400

3600

3800

1,5,50

1850

21,50

2350

2550

2650

2900

3050

3500

3550

3750

3850

4050

1400

1800

21,50

2400

2650

2850

3050

3250

3400

3650

3850

4150

4250

4450

1600

2050

2450

2800

3000

3200

3400

3600

3750

4050

4250

4460

4/50

4850

For intermediate sizes, the requirements shall be those of the next
larger size. For cables having insulation over 20/64 inch in thickness, 0T
copper cross-section greater than two million circular mils, the table may

D
be extended by means of the formula : Megohms = 4000 logio — where D is

outside diameter of insulation and d is diameter of equivalent solid wire.

Electricity.

169

Table XV — Temperature Coefficients for Resistance ok Rubber

Compound

The insulation resistance at a given temperature shall be reduced to
that at 15.5 deg. Cent. (60 deg. Fahr.) by multiplying by the coefficient
corresponding to that temperature.

(Centigrade Degrees)

Temper-

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficient

deg. Cent.

.65

1.02

.85

1.30

.69

1.07

.89

1.37

.73

1.12

.93

1.43

.77

1.17

.98

1.49

.81

1.23

15.5

1.00

1.56

(Fahrenheit Degrees)

Temper-

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficient

ature

Coefficinet

deg Fahr.

deg. Fahr.

.69

1.03

.88

1.30

.71

1.05

.90

1.33

.73

1.08

.92

1.37

.75

1.11

.94

1.40

.77

1.14

.97

1.44

.79

1.17

1.00

1.48

.81

1.20

.83

1.23

.85

1.26

Table XVT — Width and Overlap of Rubber Filled Cloth Tape

Diameter over

Insulation,

Inches

Maximum
Width
of Tape,
Inches

Maximum

Overlap,

Inches

Diameter over

Insulation,

Inches

Maximum
Width
of Tape,
Inches

Maximum

Overlap,

Inches

2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.15
1.00
0.88
0.75

5
4

3}2

3Ji
3

1-.,

0.62
0.50
0.38
0.31
0.25
0.19
0.16

1?4

For intermediate sizes the requirements shall be those of the next smaller size.

Braid
74. Weatherproof Braid.

Braid, unless otherwise specified, shall be of closely woven cotton
thread, at least two-ply, thoroughly impregnated with an insulating

170

Electricity.

weatherproof compound and finished with a black insulating compound
thoroughly slicked down. The compound shall neither be injuriously
affected by nor have injurious effect upon the braid at a temperature of
90 deg. Cent. (194 deg. Fahr.). The thickness of each braid shall be
not less than given in the following table :

Table XVII — 'Thickness of Cotton Braid

Diameter Under the Braid

or Jute, if any,

Inches

Thickness of
Braid,
Inches

Diameter Under the Braid

or Jute, if any.

Inches

Thickness of
Braid,
Inches

1.000 and over
0.530

0.053
0.038

0.290
0.160

0.028
0.018

For intermediate sizes, the requirements shall be those of the next smaller size.

For twin cable use mean diameter.
- (This table does not apply to fancy or special braids lor fixtures,
weatherproof wire, or cable, etc.)

75. Tests.

A six-inch sample of wire with carefully paratitined ends shall be
weighed and submerged in fresh water of a temperature of 20 deg. Cent.
(68 deg. Fahr.) for a period of twenty-four hours. The increase in
weight after submersion and removal of surface water shall be not more
than nine per cent, of the weight exclusive of copper and insulation before
submersion; The compound shall not drip at a temperature of 50 deg.
Cent. (122 deg. Fahr.).

76. Circular Loom Braid.

Circular loom braids shall be of cotton and unless otherwise speci-
fied, shall be each one-sixteenth inch in thickness. The braid shall be
impregnated with a black insulating compound which shall neither be
injuriously affected by nor have injurious effect upon the braid at a
temperature of 90 deg. (194 deg. Fahr.). The compound shall not drip
at a temperature of 50 deg. Cent. (122 deg. Fahr.).

The braid shall l)e coated with loose mica.

Dry Paper Tape

77. Paper Tape.

Dry paper tai)c sJiall be of high grade Manila paper not less than
five mils thick and shall lie applied ht'Iically lapping at least one-third its
width.

MisciaLANEous Braid.s

78. Glazed Cotton Braid.

Glazed cotton liraid shall be of smooth glossy hard finished black
cotton and no compound shall be applied to the finished braid. Glazed
braids for telephone wires shall be so applied as not to slip.

Electricity,

171

79. Hemp Braid.

Hemp braid shall be of six-lea hemp thoroughly impregnated with
an insulating weatherproof compound. The compound shall neither be
injuriously affected by nor have injurious effect upon the braid at a tem-
perature of 95 deg. Cent. (203 deg. Fahr.).

80. Colored Braid.

Colored braid shall consist of cotton impregnated with last colors
and shall be glazed except where they have an outer cover as in multiple
conductor cables, when they shall be unglazed. The yarns shall be
approved by the Inspector before they are applied.

80-A. Flameproof Braid.

The braid shall be of closely woven cotton thread at least two-ply,
thoroughly impregnated with a compound which will render it non-
inflammable.

i
Lead Sheath

81. Composition.

The lead sheaths of cable, except telephone cables, shall consist of
commercially pure lead. The sheaths of telephone cables shall be com-
posed of an alloy of lead and antimony; the amount of antimony being
approximately one per cent.

82. Thickness.

Unless otherwise specified the sheath shall have an average thick-
ness not less than that indicated in Table XVIII and the minimum thick-
ness shall in no place be less than 90 per cent of the required average
thickness.

Table XVIII — Thickness of Sheath

Thickness of Sheath in
64th Inch

Diam. of Core,
Inches

Thickness of Sheath in
64th Inch

Diam. of Core,
Inches

For Paper
Insulation

For Rubber

or Varnished

Cloth

Insulation

For Paper
Insulation

For Rubber
or Varnished
Cloth
Insulation

10
9
8

9
8
7

0.70

6
5

2 00 ...

0.30

1.25 ,/•.....

Less than 0.30

For intermediate sizes the requirement.? shall be those of the next smaller size.

For twin cable, use the mean diameter.

Galvanized Steel Wire Armor
83. General.

The purpose of these specifications is to describe the armoring of in-
sulated wire and cable with galvanized steel wire.

172 Electricity. ■

84. Preparation for Armor.

(a) Cloth Taped or Braided Cables: The cable shall be run through
a hot asphalt compound, served with a helical layer of jute yarn, run
through hot asphalt compound, then served with a second layer of jute
j-arn, run through hot asphalt compound and then laid with galvanized
wire.

{b) Lead Sheathed Cables: The leaded .cable shall be run through
a hot asphalt compound, served with a layer of jute yarn, run through
hot asphalt again, and then laid with galvanized wire.

85. Thickness of Jute Bedding.

The jute bedding under the armor, measured in the finished cable,
shall be not less than 3/32nds of an inch on taped or braided cables and
not less than 2/32nds of an inch on lead sheathed cal^lcs.

86. Armor Wire.

The armor shall consist of galvanized mild steel wire of uniform
diameter, free from all cracks, splits or other flaws. Splices in the armor
wire shall be smooth.

87. Application of Armor.

The armor shall be applied closely without appreciable space be-
tween adjacent wires. The lay shall be from eight to twelve times the
pitch diameter.

88. Covering Over Armor.

The armored cable shall be run through hot asphalt compound, served
with a layer of the best three-ply 14 lb. hard twisted jute yarn spun on
with a close short lay, run through hot asphalt compound, then served
with a second layer of the best three-ply, 14 lb. jute yarn, run through
hot asphalt compound, and finally run through some material to prevent
sticking.

89. Direction of Lay.

Successive layers of jute, or jiite and armor, shall be laid in opposite
directions. In the case of multiple conductor cable armored without
lead, the direction of lay of the armor shall be opposite to that of the
outside layer of conductors.

90. Size of Wire.

Unless otherwise specified, the armor wire shall be of the size specified
in Table XTX. The same number of the Birmingham \yire gage will be
acceptable.

Electricity.

173

Table XIX — Size of Steel Armor Wire

Diameter of Cable

under Jute Bedding,

Inches

Minimum Size

of Wire, Steel

Wire Gage

Diam. of
Wire. In.

Diameter of Cable

under Jute Bedding,

Inches

Minimum Size

of Wire Steel

Wire Gage

Diam. of
Wire, In.

1.30 and over

4
6
8

0.225
0.192
0.162

0.63

10
12
14

0.135

1.25

0.44

0 105

0 88.

Less than 0.44

0 080

For intermediate diameters, the requirements.shallibe those of the next smaller diameter.

91. Samples for Test.

Samples for each of the following tests shall be taken at random from
ten per cent, of the coils, the number of samples being never less than
two. If more than 20 per cent, of the samples fail to pass the tests, the
entire lot will be rejected.

92. Tensile Strength and Elongation.

The wire shall have a tensile strength of not less than 50,000 pounds
per square inch and an elongation of not less than ten per cent, in eight
inches. The instructions for making tests, given in Section 49, shall be
followed.

93. Galvanizing,

The galvanizing shall conform in every respect to the requirements
of Sections 97 to 102.

94. Flexibility.

The armor wire shall be capable of being bent around a spindle ten
times the diameter of the wire and straightened without developing
cracks in the galvanizing, visible to the naked eye.

Steel Tape Armor

95. Application of Armor.

The cable shall be run through hot asphalt compound, served with a
layer of jute yarn spun on with a close short lay, run through hot asphalt
compound, armored with a steel tape; armored with a second steel tape;
run through hot asphalt compound, served with a layer of 3-ply, 14 pound
jute yarn with a close short lay, run through hot asphalt compound and
finished by running through some material to prevent sticking. Both steel
tapes shall be laid in the same direction and the outer shall be centered
over the spaces between turns of the inner. If the cable is rubber in-
sulated, it shall be covered with tape, braid or other suitable protection
before passing through the asphalt compound. Each layer of jute shall
be applied in the reverse direction to the adjacent layer. The space be-
tween adjacent turns of steel tape shall not exceed one-tenth the width
of the steel tape.

(A)

174

Electricity

96. Armor Tape.

The galvanized steel tape and the jute, under the armor, after armor-
ing, shall conform to the following table :

Table XX — Size of Steel Tape and Jute for Armoring Cables

Minimum Jute

Cable Diameter

Max. Widtli

Min. Tliicknc.'o,

Bedding, under

Before Armoring,

Steel Tape,

each Tape,'

Armor, Measured

Inches

in Finished
Cable, Inches

Over 2.00

0.05

2/32

2.00

0.04

2/32

1.70

0.04

2/32

1.40

0.03

2/32

1.00

0.03

2/32

0.75

0.02

2/32

0.45 or less

0.02

2/32

For intermediate diameters the requirements shall be those of the next larger diameter.

Galvanizing

97. General.

These specifications shall apply to galvanized iron or steel unless oth-
erwise specified. Seven samples shall be taken from each lot for the pur-
pose of the following test:

98. Coating.

The galvanizing shall consist of a continuous coating of commercially
pure zinc of substantially uniform thickness, and so applied that it ad-
heres firmly to the metal. The finished product shall be smooth.

99. Cleaning.

The samples shall be cleaned before testing, first with carbona, ben-
zine or turpentine, and cotton waste (not with a brush), and then thor-
oughly rinsed in clean water and wiped dry with clean cotton waste.

100. Test. ' li'^ffl^il
The samples shall be immersed for one minute in a solution of copper

sulphate of specific gravity 1.186 at 18.3 deg. Cent. (65 deg. Fahr.),
rinsed in clean water and wiped dry. This operation shall be repeated
until the samples have been immersed four times. After these immer-
sions no sample shall show any bright deposit of copper. The samples
shall be approximately straight and the ends protected with paraffin. The
solution shall be saturated with copper sulphate to which an excess of
chemically pure cupric oxide has been added, and shall be maintained at
15.5-20 deg. Cent. (60-68 deg. Fahr.) during the test.

101. Quantity of Solution.

Wire samples shall be tested in a glass jar of at least two inches in-
side diameter. The jar without the wire samples shall be filled with
standard solution to a depth of at least four inches.

Electricity. 175

The solution shall not be used for more than one series of four im-
mersions.

Not more than seven wires shall be simultaneously immersed, and
not more than one sample of galvanized material other than wire shall
be immersed in the specified quantity of solution.

The samples shall not be grouped or twisted together, but shall be
well separated so as to permit, the action of the solution to be uniform
upon all immersed portions of the samples.

102. Results of Test.

In-case of failure of only one sample in a group of seven samples im-
mersed together, or if there is a reasonable doubt as to the copper de-
posit, two check tests shall be made on these seven samples. If there is
more than one failure in the original test or if either check test shows
any failures, the lot may be rejected.

Cable Reels

106. General.

Cable shall be delivered on reels which shall conform with the fol-
lowing requirements :

107. Form of Reel.

Each reel shall consist of a wooden drum with wooden discs or
heads securely fastened thereto.

108. Bushing.

If the shipping weight exceeds 300 pounds, each disc or head of the
reel shall be provided with a cast iron bushing or an iron plate, in the
center of which shall be a hole 2^,4 inches in diameter. The bushing or
plate shall be secured to the head by means of bolts through the head.

109. Size and Weight.

The reels shall be of suitable size and weight for the service in which
they are used. Both the drum and the head diameters shall be selected
with this in view.

110. Covering and Lagging.

Insulated cable shall be thoroughly covered with burlap before lag-
ging is applied.

When used for insulated cable, the reels shall be suitably lagged;
when used for bare cable, the lagging of the reel shall be replaced by a
burlap covering securely bound to the cable.
HI. Marking.

A tag containing the following information shall be fastened to the
coil inside the lagging with a duplicate securely fastened to the outside
of the reel: (a) Name of Manufacturer; (b) size and number of con-
ductors; (c) character of insulation; (d) gross pounds; (e) number
of feet; (f) Railroads requisition and order number.

Each reel shall be given a number for identification.

176 Electricity.

112. Chocking.

Reels shall be properly chocked in the car so that there shall be no
movement of reels during transit.

Note — The Committee has given consideration to alternate methods
of securing the desired quality of rubber insulation, w^hich will be re-
ported upon at a later date.

Approved for the Committee,
Edwin B. Katte^ Chairman.

RAILROAD SPECIFICATIONS FOR UNDERGROUND
CONDUIT CONSTRUCTION FOR POWER CABLES

General

1. Scope.

These specifications describe the materials to be used and the processes
to be employed in the construction of underground conduit lines for power
cables for railroad purposes.

2. Materials. Drawings.

The conduit line and the materials used in its construction shall con-
form in every respect to the specifications. The accompanying drawings
approved by the Engineer in charge shall form an essential part of these
specifications.

3. Location of Conduit.

(a) Conduit lines shall be located so as to be subject to the least
amount of disturbance and to interfere the least possible with prior in-
stallation.

(b) Preferably conduits shall be installed in a straight line between
adjacent splicing chambers. If curves are unavoidable, they shall be of
the greatest radius practicable. Curves of less than two hundred and
fifty (250) feet radius shall not be constructed unles approved by the
Engineer in charge.

(c) Conduit lines paralleling a railroad shall be located as far as
practicable from the tracks. Where located within six (6) feet, measured
horizontally from the nearest rail, the elevation of the top of the conduit
line shall be at least four (4) feet below the base of rail. Where this
is impracticable special protection shall be provided subject to the ap-
proval of the Engineer in charge. Where located six (6) feet or more
from a track rail the top of the conduit line shall have at least two feet
six inches (2' 6") of earth protection.

(d) Where conduit lines cross beneath the railroad tracks the top
of the conduit protection shall be not less than four (4) feet below the
base of rail unless special protection is provided which shall be approved
by the Engineer in charge.

Ducts or Conduits

4. General.

The ducts or conduits shall be made of vitrified clay or impregnated
wood fiber. They shall be straight and true and of uniform cross-sec-
tion throughout and free from defects except as hereinafter permitted.
The dimensions of the ducts or conduits shall conform to the dimensions
shown on approved drawings within the limits hereinafter specified.

177

178 Electricity.

Vitrified Clay Ducts

5. Vitrified Clay Ducts.

(a) The shape of the duct shall be as shown on the approved draw-
ing. The ducts shall be straight and true. The ends of each duct shall
be perpendicular to its sides, and they shall be practically smooth and
free from projection. The interior of the duct shall be beveled at
each end.

(b) Ducts shall be made of finely divided clay free from stones or
pebbles. The clay shall be thoroughly mixed, compacted, burned and
vitrified. Ducts shall be glazed on all surfaces with a good salt glaze.

6. Defects.

(a) Cracks : Ducts shall not contain cracks which will appreciably
weaken them. The presence of cracks shall be determined by tapping the
ducts with a steel hammer or its approved equivalent, and any duct which
fails to give a clear metallic ring under this test shall be rejected. Ducts
having injurious air or fire cracks shall be rejected. Ducts having cracks
in their surfaces which exceed one-sixteenth (t^s) of an inch in width or
which extend injuriously into their surfaces shall be rejected.

(b) Chipped Ends : Ducts having chipped ends may be accepted
providing the fracture does not extend further into the duct than the
beveling.

(c) Projections: The interior surfaces of ducts shall be free from
rough or sharp broken blisters or other projections and from smooth
rounded unbroken blisters which project more than one-sixteenth (t^i)
of an inch above the surface. Blisters or other projections on the outer
surface of ducts shall not project more than three-sixteenths (i\) of an
inch above the surface. Smooth salt drip which do^not project more
than one-eighth (14) of an inch above the inner ^irface is not ob-
jectionable.

(d) Recesses : Recesses in the walls of ducts caused by broken
blisters or other defects shall not decrease the thickness of the walls by
more than three-sixteenths (vs) of an inch. When on the inner surface,
the edges of the recess shall be smooth.

7. Combing.

The outer surfaces of ducts shall be combed with two (2) sets of
.three (3) combings, each running lengthwise on the duct and placed
adjacent to the corners.

8. Dimensions.

(a) Length : The unit length of standard clay ducts shall be eighteen
(18) inches. Short lengths shall be approximately six (6), nine (9) and
twelve (12) inches long.

(b) Inside Dimensions : The minimum inside dimension of ducts
shall be not less than that specified and the maximum not more than one-
quarter (14) inch in excess thereof.

Electricity. 179

(c) Wall Thicknkss: Tlie tliickncss of tlie walls of ducts shall be
not more than three-quarters (^) of an inch or less than nine-sixteenths
(■ft) of an inch at the thinnest part of the section exclusive of the comb-
ing.

9. Tests.

(a) Ducts offered for inspection shall be factory run from which no
ducts of superior quality have been removed.

(b) The ducts shall permit a mandrel eighteen (18) inches long and
one-eighth (}i) inch less than the specified inside dimension of the duct
to pass freely through them.

(c) A section of finished duct weighing from three to four pounds
broken so as to have all edges unglazed after being thoroughly dried and
then immersed for twenty-four (24) hours in a sufficient quantity of
water to just cover them and having a temperature of from sixty (60) to
eighty (80) degrees Fahr. shall show an absorption of water of not more
than five (5) per cent of its weight.

(d) The water in which the broken pieces of ducts have been im-
mersed shall not test either acid or alkaline with litmus paper after the
completion of the immersion test.

Fiber Conduit

10. Fiber Conduit.

Fiber conduit shall be made of finely divided wood pulp or fiber
thoroughly impregnated with bituminous insulating compound. The com-
pound shall not flow when the conduit has been heated to 212 deg. Fahr.
for one hour, nor shall there be any separation into layers. The conduit
shall not be affected by acids, alkalies or moisture and shall be free from
all substances which might corrode or injure the sheath or rubber com-
pound of a cable.

11. Walls.

The walls shall be hard and smooth and free from dents or obstruc-
tions, or excess of compound.

12. Dimensions.

The unit length of standard fiber conduit shall be five feet.

The inside and outside circumferences of any section of conduit
including the joints shall not vary more than one-sixteenth (is) inch
from a true circle at any temperature not exceeding 150 deg. Fahr.

The thickness of the conduit walls shall not be more than one-
thirty-second (1/32) inch less or one-sixteenth (1/16) inch greater at
any point than that given in Table I.

180 Electricity.

Table I — Ko.min'.vl Thicknkss ok Fikkk Comhtit Walls

A'omiual IiisiJi-

Socket

/^ ;■«'<:

Scrcxv

Diameter

Joint

/ot«/

Joint

VA in.

Va in.

^ in.

5/16 in.

2 in.

Vx in.

3/8 in,

2^ in.

14 in.

^ in.

3/8 in.

3 in.

Vx in.

V\ in.

7/16 in.

3J^ in.

H in.

34 in.

7/16 in,

4 in.

Va in.

^ in.

1/2 in.

13. Test for Section.

Each piece of conduit shall permit the passage of a mandrel thirty-
six (36) inches long and of a cross-section one-eighth (J^) inch less
than the nominal inside diameter of the conduit.

14. Socket Joints.

Socket joints shall have a mortise on one end and a tenon on the
other end of each piece of conduit. The mortise and tenon shall be
machine cut to produce a snug fit not less than three-eighths (^) inch
long, slightly tapered and free from projecting surfaces, which would
prevent the joint from being properly assembled. The thickness of the
conduit wall left after the mortise and tenon have been turned shall be
not less than one-thirty-second (1/32) inch less than one-half the nominal
thickness of the wall.

15. Drive Joints.

Drive joints shall have smooth machine cut tapers on each end of
each piece of conduit. The taper shall be four degrees to the axis of
the conduit. For each joint there shall be furnished a sleeve of the same
material as specified for the conduit, machine cut to an internal taper
at each end, the taper being the same as that specified for the con-
duit. The minimum thickness of the sleeve shall be not less than one-
half the nominal thickness of the conduit. The tapers on the conduit
and the sleeve shall be so cut that when the joint is made up the ends
of the conduit shall not touch or be separated more than one-half (J/^)
inch.

The dimensions of the sleeves shall be within the following limits:

Table

II-

-Sleeve

Dimensions — Drive

Joints

Nominal Inside

Diameter

of Conduit

Outside Diameter

of Sleeve

Not More Than Not Less Thai

Length of
Sleeve
n Not Less Than

VA in.

2 in.
2y2 in.

3 in.
314 in.

4 in.

2^ in.
27/8 in.
3H in.
3% in.
4V» in.
4^ in.

2-ft in.
2ih in.
3fg in.
3ii in.
4i^tf in.
4\h in.

2i^g in.
3/ff in.
2-^3 in.
3/c in.
3iB in.
3i^a in.

Electricity. 181

16. Screw Joints.

Screw joints shall have a machine cut thread on each end of each
length of conduit. For each joint there shall be furnished a sleeve of the
same material as specified for the conduit, having machine cut thread to
give an easy fit on the thread of the conduit. The minimum thickness
of the sleeve shall be not less than three-quarters of nominal thickness
of the conduit. The threads shall be cut and the ends of the conduit
shall be faced so that the ends of the conduit will butt with a firm water-
tight joint when the joint is screwed up firmly by hand, using a suitable
bituminous compound. The threads shall be four to the inch.

Tabie III — Sleeve Dimensions — Screw Joints

Nominal Inside Outside Diameter Length of

Diameter of Sleeve Sleeve

of Conduit Not More Tlwn Not Less Than Not Less Than

V/z in. 2^ in. 2i/2 in. 2i1t in.

2 in. ZVi in. 3^ in. 2\i in.
2y2 in. 4 in. 3)4 in. 3Tg in.

3 in. 5^ in. 4i'g in. 3iV in.
iVi in. 5:^ in. 4}i in. 3il in.

4 in. S% in- 5^3 in. 3il in.

17. Fittings and Bends.

Fittings and bends shall be made of the same material specified for
fiber conduit and all requirements as to quality, material, dimensions,
tests and joints shall apply thereto.

Bends shall have left-handed threads and sleeve for bends shall have
one end threaded left-handed. All other threads shall be right-handed.

18. Short Pieces.

In each shipment there shall be included not less than five (5) nor
more than fifteen (15) per cent of pieces of conduit, less than the stand-
ard length of five (5) feet but no conduit shall be furnished less than
two and one-half (2^^) feet in length.

19. Tests

(a) A sample of conduit at seventy (70) degs. Fahr. resting on
supports twenty-six (26) inches apart shall not exceed the deflection and
shall not break under the load as shown in Table IV, when the load is
centrally suspended between the supports.

(b) A six (6) inch sample of conduit at seventy (70) degs. Fahr.
shall not be crushed when placed between two (2) flat surfaces under the
pressure of a weight shown in the following tabic :

T.'^BLE IV— Deflection and Compression Tests

Inside Thickness Defiec- Deflection Compression

Diameter of Wall tion Test Test '

li^ in. Vi in. 5^ in. 200 lbs. 475 lbs.

2 in. 14 in. H >"• 300 lbs. 506 lbs.
2% in. J4 in. H in. 450 lbs. 500 lbs.

3 in. 14 in. H in. 550 lbs. 347 lbs.
31/2 in. y4 in. % in. 800 lbs. 317 lbs.

4 in. 1/4 in. H in. 900 lbs. 310 lbs.

182 Electricity.

(c) A six (6) inch sample of conduit shall be thoroughly dried at
a temperature of one-hundred-ten (110) degs. Fahr. for four (4) hours,
then weighed, and after immersion for fort3'-eight (48) hours in pure
water at seventy (70) degs. Fahr. shall show less than four (4) per cent,
increase in weight due to absorption of water.

General — Vitrified Clay Ducts and Fijjer Conduits

20. Inspection.

The Railroad may inspect the duct or conduit at any time during
the process of manufacture and shall be furnished free of cost the neces-
sary tools and appliances for making such tests as arc necessary to de-
termine if the requirements of these specifications have been met.

21. Packing and Marking.

Ducts when shipped in cars shall be carefully stacked, packed and
braced.

Where shipped in less than carload lots they shall have the name of
the Manufacturer, railroad order number and the shipping address
plainly marked on a tag securely fastened to ten (10) per cent, of the
pieces in the shipment.

Conduit Line Construction

22. Trenching.

(a) Where necessary the trench shall be opened at points along the
line of the proposed conduit line so that the nature and location of ob-
structions may be approximated and the grade line determined.

(b) The trench shall be excavated six (6) inches wider than the
width of the section of the conduit line and deep enough to provide at
least the earth protection specified in Section 3 (c).

(c) The trench shall be so graded that it will have a fall of at least
three (3) inches in one hundred (100) feet towards the lower splicing
chamber. The bottom of the trench shall closely follow the grade and
be free from depressions, humps or other irregularities.

About ten feet back from the splicing chamber the grade shall be
changed to permit the separation of the duct as described in Section
24 (d).

(d) After grading has been completed the trench shall be kept as
reasonably free from water by draining, pumping or bailing as may be
necessary in the judgment of the Engineer in charge.

(e) In making excavations parallel to the tracks of the Railroad
the excavated material shall be piled o'n one side of the trench and
trimmed back two (2) feet to provide necessary working clearance.
Where the trench is adjacent to high speed tracks the side nearest the
tracks shall be thoroughly braced to prevent the slipping of the roadbed.
No bracing shall extend above the top of the rail or be attached in any
way to the rails or ties.

Electricity. 183

23. Conduit Foundation.

The conduit foundation shall have a minimum thickness of four (4)
inches for the full width of the trench, except where ledge rock is en-
countered, in which case the concrete foundation may be omitted and
the bottom of the trench levelled with cement mortar. The concrete
foundation shall be allowed to attain its initial set before ducts are laid
thereon. The concrete shall conform to the Standard Specifications of
the Railroad.

24. Laying Clay Ducts.

(a) A layer of mortar of necessary thickness to insure an even
bearing shall be placed on the concrete foundation before placing the
lower tier of ducts. The ducts shall be laid so as to break joints at
least three (3) inches in the same tier and in each succeeding tier the
joints shall be broken, the same amount with relation to the tier below.

(b) Ducts shall be carefully butted. Each joint shall be wrapped
wuth a strip of burlap, cheesecloth or other wrapper of quality approved
by the Engineer in charge, not less than six (6) inches wide saturated
with neat Portland cement mortar and laid equally over the abutting
ducts. The ends of the strip shall lap not less than six (6) inches on
top. These wraps shall be double on curves and also where concrete
encasing is placed simultaneously with the laying of the ducts.

(c) The joints shall be plastered with one-half (Yz) inch layer of
mortar. A layer of mortar of necessary thickness shall be placed under-
neath each succeeding tier of ducts as laid.

(d) Commencing about ten feet back from the splicing chamber
the ducts shall be gradually separated both vertically and horizontally so
that there will be a separation of four (4) inches where thej' enter the
splicing chamber. Only eighteen (18) inch or twelve (12) inch ducts
shall be used at the entrance to splicing chambers. Short lengths neces-
sary for this adjustment shall be used further out in the section. Where
the ducts are cut to special lengths the cut shall be dressed with a chisel
and rasped until the hole is slightly bell mouthed and has smooth edges
to conform closely to the original design.

(e) Wherever the work is suspended leaving incompleted tiers the
free ends of the ducts shall be closed with tapered wood or other ap-
proved plugs which shall conform accurately to the shape of the open-
ing and be of such size at the large end that they cannot be forced en-
tirely within the opening. Where the conduit lines pass over quicksand
or other unstable ground, the concrete foundation shall be specially rein-
forced or supported.

25. Concrete Protection.

The duct line shall be encased with concrete which shall be not less
than three (3) inches thick on the sides and four (4) inches over the
top. The concrete shall conform to the specifications in Section 38. The
concrete shall be allowed to attain its initial set and preferably its final
set before the trench is filled in.

184 Electricity.

Laying Fiber Conduits

26. Laying Fiber Condmts.

(a) A layer of mortar of necessary thickness to ensure an even
bearing shall be placed on the concrete foundation before placing the
lower tier of conduits. One tier shall be laid at a time with all joints
staggered at least six (6) inches as between adjacent conduits and tiers
of conduits. Spacers shall be used between conduits so as to maintain
a separation of at least one (1) inch, both vertically and horizontally.
These shall be removed as the pouring of the concrete nears them.

(b) After the first tier of conduit is laid one (1) inch of concrete
shall be placed thereon extending three (3) inches beyond the side of
the conduit line. Succeeding tiers of conduit shall be laid in a similar
manner with one (1) inch of concrete laid over each tier except the
upper tier. After the upper tier has been placed a four (4) inch layer
of concrete shall be poured on top of the last laj'er of conduit.

(c) The concrete shall be carefully placed so as not to disturb the
conduits or to injure the joints in any way when tamping is being done..

(d) Where cither the socket, sleeve or screw joint type of conduit
is used the joints shall be treated with a joint paste or compound. The
paste or compound shall not act injuriously on the conduit or on the
sheaths or rubber insulation of cables. Extreme care shall be taken to
exclude the paste or compound from the interior of the conduits.

27. Joining Different Ducts.

Where a change from one style or size of duct to another is neces-
sary it shall be made at a splicing chamber.

28. Back Filling.

Back filling shall be done in layers and each layer shall be thor-
oughly tamped without flushing. Where openings have been made
through paving, sidewalls or platforms they shall be brought to a grade
three (3) or four (4) inches above the existing grade until after the
replacements have been made.

29. Clearing.

Materials, boulders and rubbish incidental to the construction shall
be removed as the work will permit and at its completion the site shall
be left clean and unobstructed.

30. Cleaning and Rodding,

After the conduit line has been completed and the concrete enclosing
it well set the ducts shall he cleaned and rodded by using a steel plunger,
a steel wire flue brush and wood mandrel in the order named. All mor-
tar or other foreign substance shall be removed from the conduit line,
leaving clean smooth surfaces inside the ducts. If obstructions are
found in rodding the ducts which cannot be removed by cleaners so as
to give a clean smooth opening one-eighth (%) inch less than the nominal

_^ Electricity. 185

size of the duct for the entire length between adjacent splicing chambers,
the conduit lines shall be opened up and the obstruction removed and the
ducts replaced.

Splicing Chambers

31. General.

(a) Splicing chambers shall be located where indicated on the plans
and shall be of the type shown on the accompanying drawings. The
modifications necessary to suit local conditions shall be subject to the
approval of the Engineer in charge.

(b) Splicing chambers shall preferably be made of concrete. Where
concrete splicing chambers are not practicable, hard burned brick laid
with Portland cement mortar joints shall be used.

(c) The splicing chambers shall generally be spaced from four hun-
dred (400) to five hundred (500) feet apart, depending on the size and
weight of cable to be installed.

(d) Splicing chambers shall be so located as to provide safe and
ready access and in general shall be built so that no part of the cover
of a manhole is less than three (3) feet measured horizontally from the
nearest rail. Splicing chambers shall, where possible, be located in dips
or depressions in the conduit line so that drainage will be naturally to-
ward them. The lower tier of ducts shall enter the splicing chambers
at not less than eight (8) inches cibove the floor and the upper tier not
less than eight (8) inches below the roof.

(e) Pulling in irons shall be located as shown on the drawings.
The manhole shall be circular in form and not less than thirty inches in
diameter. It shall, where practicable, be placed in the center of the
splicing chamber roof.

32. Dimensions of Splicing Chambers.

The dimensions of splicing chambers shall be determined by the
number of ducts entering them, the character and importance of the
installation and local conditions.

The dimensions of typical splicing chambers are shown in the fol-
lowing table :

DIMENSIONS OF SPLICING CHAMBERS
Table V — Two- Way Splicing Chambers

No. of Ducts
9 or less
lato 16

(A) (B)
8'-0" 5'-0"
9'-0" 6'-0"

Three- Way Splicing Chambers

9 or less

10 to 16

S'-O" B'-O"
9'-0" lO'-O"

Four- Way Splicing Chambers

6'-6"
7'-0"

9 or less

10 to 16

7'-0" lO'-O"
B'-O" ll'-O"

6'-6"
7'-0"

186 Electricity.

33. Excavation for Splicing Chambers.

Where outside forms arc not used, the excavation shall be made to
conform with the outside dimensions of the splicing chambers.

Where outside forms are used or the splicing chamber is to be con-
structed of brick, excavation shall be at least eight (8) inches greater
than the outside dimensions.

34. Walls.

(a) Walls shall be of a thickness necessary for local conditions
and will be shown on plans.

(b) Where brick construction is used, every third course shall be
headers. Brick bats shall not be used. At horizontal joints, the mortar
shall not exceed one-half inch in thickness and at vertical joints three-
eighths inch in thickness.

(c) The thickness of concrete and brick walls may be increased or
decreased from the dimensions shown on the plans to fit local conditions,
with the approval of the Engineer in charge.

(d) Where splicing chamber walls are within eight feet of the
nearest rail of railroad tracks, the walls shall be designed so as to take
care of the additional loads imposed upon them.

35. Floors.

The floors shall preferably be of concrete and placed at the same
time that the walls are built. If the manhole is of brick construcfion,
the floor shall be either of concrete four inches thick, or of grouted brick.

36. Cable Hangers.

Provision shall be made for supporting the cables in the splicing
chambers. A method is described below and illustrated on Plate No. 8.

(a) Racks : Each rack shall be made of not less than one-quarter
(%) inch angle iron punched or drilled and galvanized or sherardized.
The racks shall be fastened to the splicing chamber wall by galvanized
or sherardized bolts which are to be set in the side wall.

(b) Hangers: Each rack shall be provided with a number of single
or double cast iron cable hangers, of design shown on drawings, as the
Engineer in charge may direct. Each hanger shall be made of good
quality tough gray iron made bj- the cupola process and shall be true
to dimensions, smooth, clean and free from blow holes and other injuri-
ous imperfections. Each hanger shall be fastened to the rack with a
bolt. Each hanger shall be given one coat of an approved moisture re-
sisting paint before and after installation or otherwise protected from
corrosion as may be directed by the Engineer in charge.

(c) Insulators : Cable hangers shall be provided with semi-porcelain
insulators, glazed on all surfaces and shall be smooth and free from
cracks, flaws, chipped surfaces or other injurious imperfections.

Electricity. 187

37. Manhole Covers and Frames.

Frames and covers shall be of tough gray iron, free from injurious
cold-shuts, shrinkage strains, blow holes or other imperfections, and shall
be true to dimensions and workmanlike in finish. The frames and covers
shall conform with the size and type indicated on the drawings.

38. Drains.

A back pressure valve and trap with perforated inlet and guard, sub-
ject to approval of the Engineer in charge, shall be furnished and placed
as designated or as indicated on the drawing, and the same shall be prop-
erly connected bj' meatis of a pipe with the main sewer, or with gutter
drains or ditches at the nearest practicable point.

39. Anchor Bolts.

Anchor bolts in walls of splicing chambers and the pulling in irons
shall conform to dimensions called for on the plans, and shall be of
material similar to that covered by specifications for bridge iron.

40. Reinforcing Bars.

Reinforcing bars to be used in the construction of the roof of splic-
ing chambers and for reinforcing walls, when necessary, shall conform
■with the standard specifications for reinforcing bars.

41. Structural Steel.

Structural steel when indicated as necessary on the drawings, shall
conform to Railroad standard specifications for this class of material.

Approved for the Committee,
Edwin B. Katte, Chairman.

188

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE IV— ON RAIL

G. J. Ray, Chairman; H. B. MacFarland, V ice-Chairman;

E. E. Adams, John D. Isaacs,

A. S. Baldwin, H, D. Knecht,

W. C. Barnes, Howard G. Kelley,

W. C, Gushing, R. Montfort,

G. M. Davidson, A. W. Newton

Dr. p. H. Dudley, J. R. Onderdonk,

J. M. R. Fairbairn, F. S. Stevens,

L. C. Fritch, F, M. Waring,

J. H. GiBBONEY, M. H. Wickhorst,

A. W. GiBBs, J. B. Young,

C. R. Harding, Commiftee.

\
To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your Committee on Rail respectfully submits its report to the Twenty-
second Annual Convention.

The subjects assigned the Committee for 1920 by the Board of Direc-
tion for investigation and report were as follows :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on rail failures, present statistics and conclusions as to
causes, and submit suggestions for improvements in rail steel.

3. Continue special investigation of rail steel.

4. Recommend sections for rails over 140 lb. per yard.

5. Report on details of manufacture and mill practice as they aflfect
rail quality.

6. Recommend designs of rail joints covering important dimensions
affecting interchange of joint bars.

7. Report on material for joint bars and methods of treatment.

8. Recommend designs for track bolts covering important dimensions
aflfecting interchange of bolts.

9. Report on rational relation between intensity of. pressure due to
wheel loads and resistance of rail steel to crushing and deformation.

10. Report on effect of age on the physical properties of rail steel.

11. Report on developments in methods of inspection.

Meetings were held in 1920 as follows : Chicago, March 17th, with ten
present; New York, May 19th, with fifteen present; New York, September
14th, with twenty-two present; jointly with the Rail Manufacturers' Com-
mittee at New_ York, September 14th, with seventeen representing the Rail
Committee and nine representing the Manufacturers, or a total of twenty-
six; Chicago, November 16th, with twenty-one present.

(1) Revision of Manual

The Committee has given considerable attention to the rail record forms
in the Manual, and in Appendix A presents forms recommended for inclu-
sion in the Manual to replace the present forms.

197

198^^ Rail.

(2) Rail Failure Statistics

The rail failure statistics for the period ending October 31st, 1918,
classified by railroads are shown in Vol. 21, p. 1125. This is the first time
the statistics have been presented thus classified and they constitute in effect
a supplement to the rail failure statistics for 1918 classified by mills pre-
sented in the usual form with last year's report. The statistics for the
period ending October 31st, 1919, were published in Bulletin 229 for Sep-
tember, 1920. The failures are classified both by the mills that made the
rails and by the railroads that use them, and other new features are included
in the report. The average failures per hundred track miles for all the rails
reported on are given below.

Year \' cars' Service

Rolled 0

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913 2.0

1914 1.2

1915 0.7

1916 1.6

1917 5.3 -21

1918 1.6 "^8.9

1919 2.0 ....

4
224.1

398.1
277.8

124.0

152.7

198.5

77.0

104.4

133.3

176.3

28.9

32.1

49.3

78.9

107.1

12.5

25.8

44.8

69.5

91.9

8.2

19.8

32.9

50.9

74.0

8.9

19.0

34.2

53.0

11.8

29.2

47.7

21.6

38.9

It will be noted that the 1908 to 1914 rollings show successively decreased
numbers of failures compared on a basis of five years' service. Judged by
the performance on a four-year basis, the record of the 1915 rails will show
a little increase. The more recent or "war-time" rollings of 1916 and espe-
cially those of 1917 are starting out badly and promise to give high failure
records, due mostly to the product of certain mills.

(3) Investigations

During the year special reports have been presented by the Rail Com-
mittee as follows :

No. 89. Rail Failure Statistics for 1918 Classified by Railroads, by M.
H. Wickhorst.

No. 90. The Relation of Shattered Steel in Fissured Rails to the Mill
End of the Rail, by M. H. Wickhorst. (Appendix B.)

No. 91. Rail Failure Statistics for 1919, by M. H. Wickhorst.

No. 92. Residual Ductility Tests in the Bearing Surfaco from Failed
Rails in Service, by Dr. P, H. Dudley. (Appendix C.)

Report No. 90 is a continuation of the research w'ork to discover the
cause of interior rail shattering so a remedy can be provided. Previous re-
ports by the Rail Committee have announced the discovery of a shattered
condition in the interior of the heads of rails that had failed from transverse
fissures ; that is, the interior steel contained numerous small cracks, some of
which developed in service and some of these in turn finally breaking the
rail. It has already been shown that in the tody of the rail the shattering

Rail. 199

remains about one-half inch away from the exterior surface and this
investigation shows that the shattered interior also terminates about one-
half inch short of the end of the rail as hot-sawed at the mill. This in-
dicates that the shattering was not in the hot rail bar as rolled but de-
veloped in the cooling of the rail; that is, the small cracks are probably
shrinkage checks.

Dr. Dudley's paper describes the results of drop tests of sixty-five rails
which had failed in service. They were cut into short lengths and tested
in the drop test with the head in tension, to determine their ductility. Most
of the rails were lacking in ductility but some showed good ductility. Failures
of the coalescent type occurred mostly in the A rails, while failures of the
intergranular type were more numerous in the B and C rails.

(4) Rail Sections

The Committee has been giving attention to the designing of a section
for 150 lb. rail, and although not ready to submit a design to the Association,
reports progress on the subject.

(5) Mill Practice

The American Railway Association increased its appropriation for Rail
Committee work and the Committee recently employed Mr. John B. Emerson
as Assistant Engineer of Tests, for the purpose largely of making a critical
study of the influence of mill practice on the properties of the rails as made
at the various mills.

Subjects (6) to (10) Inclusive

The Committee has no reports to make on these subjects this year.

(11) Methods of Inspection

The Committee sent out a questionnaire on the subject of methods used
in the inspection of steel rails. The replies are being tabulated and studied,
and the Committee expects to submit recommendations later.

CONCLUSION

Your Committee submits the following resolution for adoption by the
Association :

That the rail record forms submitted with this report (Appendix A) be
adopted by the Association and included in the Manual to replace the present
forms.

Subjects for Future Work

Your Committee recommends the subjects 1 to 11 be assigned to it for
1921, except that subject 10 be dropped and replaced by the subject, "Re-
port on the most desirable length for rails."

The Committee on Rail,

G. J. Ray, Chairman.

Appendix A

RAIL RECORD FORMS

A. W. Newton, Chairman; C. R. Harding,

W. C. Gushing, M. H. Wickhorst,

J. M. R. Fairbairn, Sub-Committee.

After giving careful consideration to a revision of the Rail Record
forms as they appear in the 1915 Manual and concluding that it would
be desirable to make a thorough revision of these blanks, as a result of its
labors the Sub-Committee presents in the following pages revised forms
and recommends that they be substituted for those in the Manual.

The forms have been re-grouped and re-numbered. Below is given
the grouping with the form number and title :

Group 1 — Inspection and Shipment:

401-A, Mill Inspection.

401-B, Certificate of Inspection.

401-C, Report of Shipment.

401-D, Tabulation of Results of Mill Inspections of Rail.

401-E, Yearly Summary. of Mill Inspections of Rail.

Group 2 — Rail Failures:

402-A, Track Foreman's Report of Rail Failure.
402-B, Monthly Summary of Rail Failures.
402-C, Yearly Summary of Rail Failures.
402-D, Statement of Rails in Main Tracks.

Group 3 — Rail Wear:

403-A, Diagram of Location of Rails.
403-B, Diagram of Lines of Wear.
403- C, Record of Wear.

Explanation of Forms

As will be noted above, the Rail Record forms are divided into three
groups as follows :

401 — Mill Inspection and Shipment.
402— Rail Failures.
403— Rail Wear.

Group 1

401-A, Report of Chemical and Physical Tests of Rails.

This form gives the Inspector's reports of chemical, physical and
other tests of rails on which acceptance or rejection is based.

401-B, Certificate of Inspection of Rails.

This form gives a statement of the amount of rails accepted and
rejected of each class, tonnages, etc.

200

Rail. 201

401-C, Report of Shipment of Rails.

This form gives the details of the rails loaded into each car for
shipment. When properly checked by the receiving officer, it furnishes
the basis for the payment of the invoice.

401-D, Tabulation of Results of Mill Inspections of Rail.

This form is a tabulation of the results of the mill inspections of
rails covering in general the results for several days' rolling, or rollings
distributed over several weeks. The form may be varied to suit the
specifications to which the rails are rolled.

401-E, Summary of Mill Inspection of Rails.

This form is for an annual report by each railway to the American
Railway Association covering the main results of the mill inspection of
rails.

Group 2
402-A, Report of Rail Failures in Main Track.

This form is intended for use by the Track Foreman to report each
rail failure as it occurs in the track. It is the basic report from which
monthly and annual summaries are made.

402-B, Rail Failures for the Month.

This form is a monthly summary of the rail failures on a division.
402-C, Rail Failures for the Year.

This form is an annual summary of the rail failures and is used
by each railway to make an annual report to the American Railway
Association.

402-D, Statement of Steel Rails in Main Tracks.

This form is a statement showing the rails existing in the tracks at
the end of the year.

Group 3

403-A, Location Diagram.

This is a form on which may be drawn a diagram showing the loca-
tion of the rails in test.

403-B, Diagram Showing Lines of Wear.

This form contains sections of the rails being tested and on which
the progressive wear may be shown. The diagram should be of the
section of the rail under test.

403-C, Statement of Comparative Wear of Test Rail.

This form is a tabulation of the results of tests of wear.

202

Rail

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Rail.

203

CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTION OF RAILS

Rolled Bv _ At __ _ For North & South Hallroad Report Nc

Section And Lbs Per Yd Dates Of Rollins.

Mr _ ^

The Following Steel Rails Have Been Inspected Anp Accepted Accof

No 4

DING

OlB

And Approved As Per Details Given Below. All Rails Have Been Inspected And Approved In Accordance With

NuMBKH Or Heats RtjECTta Number Of Rails Placed Ih Stock; NolI No.2-

Other.

Rails Accepted

Total

Rails Rejected On Account Of

Ra\ls

Tons

As No 1 From This Rolling

Top Rail Test Piece (Or Pieces) br«»k'hq

" No.2 ••

" ■ . - - ■■ du'c47°t'"

As Other From This RoLLivja

ion D&VCCTS

As No. 1 From Stock (See Peport No.

Second •"•'"' entAKiwa

•• No.2 ■■ (See Report Nq_.._

Diir.-iri.TV

As Other From Stock (See Report No .

Total Accepted AnoShipped

Third ..•'•.' 6»i*mHo

As No- 1 Rails Stocked From This Rolling

■' ' • ■ "Jc",ui"

•■ No2 • ■ ...

22|

"' " ' ion OlFiCTB

■ Other ■ ■ ...

Surface Defects g;«5»»

Rails Restraishteo

24.

Total ReJecteo

Rails Cut; For Flaws pt»soTis'°

Rails Made No 2 •, For Flaws oe'sons"'

Number Of Rails Of Each Le

NOTH

Lenctm

24.

Total

No.l

No's

Otmeb

Calculated Weisht

Shu

>PER'S

Scale Weight

Total Pounds

Tons

LBS

Total Poi

JNDS

Tons

Lbs

No. 1

No?

Other

Railroad
Order KIo.

Amount Or ORDERS 1 Accepted Under This Certificate! Balance Due I

Tons No 1

Tons No

Tons Othi

Nol

No.2

Other | No. I

No.2

Tons Lbs

Tons

Lbs

Tons

Lbs I Toms

Lbs

Tons

Lbs

Remarks
Date Of Report J92._. Sighed Inspector

204

Rail.

FORM 40lC

REPORT OF SHIPME NT OF RAI LS ^^^°^ '*° -

ROLLED BY _. _ AT FOR. North & South Railroad

i^Fr.TinN AKJn I R-? DFR YD D 0 ORDFR NUMBER

CONSIGNED TO _

QUALITY NUMBER

—

LOADED ON CARS |

NO. OF RAILS OF EACH LENGTH

SHIPPEI^S
WEIGHTS
P0UN03

INITIAL

NO.

1 1

TOTAL

TOTAL WEIGHT 0F-5H1PMENT. JONS POUNDS

TOTAL TONS
OF ORDER

TOTAL SHIPMENTS

BALANCE DUE

TONS

LBS.

TONS

LBS.

NO.I RAIL

N02RAIL

TOTAL

DK]

REMARKS:

rE OF REPORT 192 SIGNED „ INSPECTO

Rail.

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208

Rail

FORM 4 0*2 A

North & South Railroad

REPORT OF RAIL FAILURE IN MAIN TRACK

DIVISION _.. SECTION..

.DATE OF REPORT...

J92..

2
3

4
5
6
8
9
10
II
13
14
15
16
17
18
36
37

38
39

WEIGHT^ PER YARD _ _

RAIL SECTION

MANUFACTURER

DATE ROLLED _ _ _

HEAT NUMBER STAMPED ON ttAII

RAIL LETTER 7 IN60T NUMBER...

KINO OF STEEL

MONTH AND YEAR LAID

LOCATION f EET...„ OF MILE POST.

WHICH TRACK 12 WHICH RAIL

ON CURVE OR STRAIGHT LINE

OEeREE OF CURVE

HIGH OR LOW RAIL _

ELEVATION OF OUTER RAIL

KINO OF FAILURE (SEE CLASSIFICATION)

DISTANCE FROM END OF RAIL

CONDITION OF WEATHER

DESCRIBE BREAK

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
34
35

WAS RAIL MUCH OC LITTLE WORN

BY WHOM DISCOVERED

DATE AND TIME FOUND...

WAS RAIL REMOVED _

DATE REMOVED

EXACT 6ASE OF TRACK AT BREAK

WAS BREAK OVER OR BETWEEN TIES _ _.

DISTANCE BETWEEN EDGES OF TIES AT BREAK....

KINO OF TIES

CONDITION OF TIES AT BREAK

KIND OF TIE PLATES

KIND OF BALLAST..

WAS ROADBED FROZEN

KIND OF JOINT 33 NUMBER OF HOLES..

NUMBER OF BOLTS LOOSE .._

DISTANCE END OF RAILTOEDGE OF TIE

WAS ACCIDENT OR DETENTION CAUSED BY BREAK IF SO DESCRIBE.

DRAW LINES ON THE DIAGRAM BELOW TO SHOW NATURE OF BREAK IF BREAK WAS NEAREST RECEIVIN6 END
DRAW LINE THROUGH WORDS "LEAVrN6 END" INDICATE 6A6E SIDE BY DRAWING LINE THROUGH WORPS
'GAGE SIDE" ON OPPOSITE SIDE.

SIGNED ....FOREMAN

Rail

209

Back Of R«m 402 A

CLASSIFICATION OF RAIL FAILURES

Mahh With W) On« Or MoRt Or The Diasbams Smowiws Thi VJatukb OfTmi Failubs.Tmc Fobeuam Should
Fiuu Out This Ripobt Ano Forwabo The Same Oav The Bbeax Is DiSCOvireO, Or UTme Case OtA Oamaseo
Or DtftCTwE Rail, The Dav W Is Taksm Out Of The Track

5«U«Rl'i

1- BROKEN RAIL.

L ^

(A) TH»NSvEHSt FisauRi: Tms Term Covers A Fracture Pboqressins Outwardly From A Central Muclejs
With This Tvpi Or FnACTuat.Tmni Is Al*ays A Smooth CBBiawT Ob Dark Oval) Spot In The Iktirioo
Or The Head.

<£) Oboinarv Brea|(s: This Ti*w Covers A Square Or Angular Break In Which There.Is No Evidencs
Or A Tbansversi FiSSurs

2 -FLOWED HEAD

\:7

IZ2:

This Tebu Means A Rollins Out Of The Metal On Top Op The Head Toward Thc Sides Without There
Beins Any Inoication Of A Breakinq Down Op The Head Structure ; That Is The Under Side Op The
Head Is Not Distorted

3- CRUSHED HEAD

This Term Is Used To Indicate A Flattehins Op The Head And Is Usually Accoupauied Bv A BRlAwua
Down Op The Head

4-SPLIT HEAD

This Term Includes Rails Split Throuoh Or Near The Center Line Of The Head. Or Rails With
Pieces Split Out Of The S'Oe Op The Head. When This Term Is Used It Should Be Further De-
fined Bv Statins Wmetheh It Is Or Is Not Accoupanibd By A Seamed Or Hollowed Head.

5- CRACKED WEB

^^=^ s

This Term Refers To A LonsituOinal Crack In The Side Op The Web.

6- BROKEN BASE

Tn„ Term C<^,e« All Breaw In The Base Op The Rail And Should Be Describeo And Illubtratio On
The Sketcms On The Front Page ■"«!»« vh

7-DAMAGED

Under Head Will Be Included All Rails Broken Or Ihuured By Wrecks, Broken Wheeib Or Similar
Causes

210

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RAIL FAILURES FOR THE MONTH OF I92...0N DIVISION

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FORM 402D
DIVISION

DECEMBER 31.19

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STEEL
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N0I103S JO
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North & South
STATEMENT OF RAILS IN MAIN TRACKS OF

MAIN TRACK

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215

FORM 403C
North 8c South Railroad

STATEMEIMT OF COMPARATIVE WEAR OF TEST RAIL

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Appendix B

THE RELATION OF SHATTERED STEEL IN

FISSURED RAILS TO THE MILL END

OF THE RAIL

By M. H. Wickhorst
Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee

Rails that have failed in track due to interior transverse fissures
contain "shattered" steel in the interior of the rail head, as disclosed
by deep etching with strong hydrochloric acid of sections of the rail
head, particularly horizontal longitudinal sections through the middle of
the head. Deep etching with strong acid was first used in this connection
by the Altoona Laboratory (1) and has proved to be very valuable in
adding to our knowledge of the subject of fissured rails which is so ac-
tively in process of development.

Rawdon has definitely shown that the defects disclosed by the deep
etching are pre-existent cracks (2), that is, they are present previous to
the etching, the acid serving to open them up.

The present work is a contribution to throw a little light on the
question of the origin of the cracks. Etchings have shown the cracks to
be deeply imbedded in the rail head, they occurring not less than about
one-half inch from an external surface. This suggested that the cracks
are shrinkage cracks formed during or after the cooling after the rail bar
has been fully formed. If so, then the end of the rail produced in the
sawing of the hot bar also should be free from the cracks for about
one-half inch or so from the end as hot sawed. This report describes
some tests to determine whether the "shattered" condition of the interior
of the rail head of fissured rails extends to the end of the rail or re-
mains clear of it. If it does not extend fully to the end, it indicates that
the shattering was not in the hot bar as formed.

Through the kindness of Mr. H. B. MacFarland, Engineer of Tests
of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System, about twenty-five
fissured rails were examined at the Topeka Laboratory. As part of the

(1) Report of F. M. Waring to J. T. Wallis, Sept. 25, 1918, on Inves-
tigation of Transverse Fissures in Failed Rails. See Proceedings Am. Ry.
Eng. Assn., Vol. 20, 1919, pp. 614-617. See al.so paper by F. M. "Waring and
K. E. Hofammann. Deep Etching of Rails and Forgings, Am. Soc. for Testing
Materials, Proceedings, 1919, Part 2, p. 183.

(2) Henry S. Rawdon. The nature of the Defects Revealed by the
Deep Etching of Transversely Fissured Rails. Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Bulletin
225, March, 1920, pp. 239-249. Also Proceedings. 1920.

H. S. Rawdon and Samuel Epstein. Metallographic Features Revealed
by the Deep Etching of Steel. Bureau of Standards, Technologic Paper 156.

Report 90, July, 1920.

216

Shattered Steel Near End of Rail. 217

investigation of the rails, longitudinal sections through the interior of
the head, six inches long, prepared as shown in Fig. 1, were cut from
each end of the rail and from near its middle. Most of the samples
showed a defective condition in the interior of the head and about half
the rails showed a condition of badly shattered steel, displaying numerous
etching cracks. The method of etching was to immerse the slab, repre-

FiG. 1 — Specimen Used for Deep Etching.

senting the upper half of the head, in hot commercial hydrochloric acid
in a large porcelain dish for about 30 minutes.

The samples which showed numerous etching cracks were suitable
for observations as to whether the zone of shattered steel terminates
before reaching the end of the rail and measurements were therefore
made on these rails, of the distance from the end of the rail to the nearest
crack displayed in the etched section. The numbers of the rails on which
the measurements were made and the mill and service data concerning
the rails are compiled in Table 1. The results of the measurements
showing the distance of the end of the rail to the nearest crack in the
shattered metal are given in Table 2. It will be noted that the shat-
tered steel terminates from .33 to .62 inch from the end of the rail, with
an average distance of .49 inch in the 19 rail ends measured (3). At any
other place on the etched surface, including the end of the slab cut six
inches from the mill end of the rail, a line drawn at right angles across
the surface from side to side would be apt to cut through a crack or
come close to it.

218

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Shattered Steel Near End of Rail. 219

Six illustrations are given in Figs. 2 to 7, inclusive, vi^hich shovv^ best
the shattered steel as displayed in the etched surfaces. In these may be
seen how the shattered zone terminates before reaching the end of the
rail. This fact and the angular nature of the small cracks indicate that
the shattering was not present in the hot bar as it left the finishing rolls,
but developed in the cooling; that is, the cracks seem to be shrinkage
checks. On the other hand, it has been suggested that the freedom of the
end of the rail from cracks, is due to the densifying eflfects of the hot saw,
and not to the relief of the end from strains.

(3) Since this work was done, Howard has presented a paper to the
Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, "On the Shattered Zones in Certain Steel
Rails," in which he also states that the shattered zones have been found to
terminate before reaching the hot sawed ends of the rails.

Table 2. — Distance of Shattered Steel from End of Rail.

Rail End of Rail to Nearest Crack

Number A End B End

9010-2 ' .62 in. .49 in.

9031 .38 (Note)

9069-6 .46 .51

9086 .51

9095 .59 .49

9098-1 . . .33

9098-2 .51 .49

9115 .41 .49

9124-1 .. .56

9124-2 .48

9125 .52 .51

9126-2 .46 .48

Minimum, .33 inch; maximum, .62 inch; average, .49 inch. In this table,
the letters A and B are used simply to distinguish the two ends and have no
other significance.

Note. — The B end of rail 9031 had some longitudinal streaks which ex-
tended close to the end of the rail and it was uncertain just how close the
shattered zone proper was to the end.

220

Rail.

Fig. 2 — Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9010-2.

Fig. 3— Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9086.

Fig. 4 — Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9095.

Shattered Steel Near End of Rail. 221

Fig. 5— Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9098-1.

Fig. 6 — Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9098-2.

Fig. 7 — Etched Horizontal Section at End of Rail 9124-2.

Appendix C

RESIDUAL DUCTILITY TESTS IN THE BEARING SURFACE
FROM FAILED RAILS OF SERVICE

By Dr. P. H. Dudley

For several years the New York Central Lines have conducted numer-
ous drop tests on rails removed from service after having developed in-
terior transverse fissures. These tests were conducted principally at Beacon,
N. Y., under an improvised drop testing machine with a solid anvil, and
so constructed that the full residual ductility could not be developed under
successive blows on the test pieces.

It was therefore arranged with one of the manufacturers for tests
to be conducted at their plant during July, 1920, under the standard drop
testing machine, so that each individual piece could be tested to destruc-
tion, and the full residual ductility developed. For this purpose a general
order was issued on the main line of the New York Central Railroad —
East of Buffalo — to collect together any rails on hand which had been
removed from the tracks due to the development of interior transverse
fissures in service. - These rails were gathered from widely scattered loca-
tions, and represent failures in melts rolled in different years, as well as
different months of the same year.

All rails, with the exception of three from one melt, had originally
met the chemical and physical test requirements of the New York Central
Lines' specifications for basic open hearth steel, which call for a carbon
range of 0.62 to 0.75 for rails 100 and 105 pounds per yard, and elongation
requirements of 5 per cent, in two consecutive inches, or 6 per cent, in one
inch for test butts from the second, middle and last full ingot poured.
One test butt per melt, in rotation, has the full ductility exhausted by suc-
cessive blows, to check with the full ductility to be obtained, due to the
chemical composition.

All rails in this series of tests were rolled direct from the ingot
without reheating the blooms, and were either 100 or 105 pounds per yard
weight.

The rails were shipped to the mill, then cut into pieces averaging
about 5 feet in length, so that from five to six tests were obtained from
each rail. Three hundred and five pieces were obtained from the 65
rails shipped to the mill. Each test was made to destruction; the ductility
after each blow and deflection were measured, and finally the type of
fracture was noted, as well as any irregularities.

The tests were all made with the head in tension, supports 3-foot
centers, and the 2,000-pound tup falling through a height of IS feet. This
differs from the standard drop tests on butts from new rails of these
weights, which stipulates a 20-foot drop, and either with the base or head
in tension. The object in testing all pieces of the old rails with head in

Report No. 92.

222

Rail. 223

tension was to determine the amount of residual ductility in the cold rolled
bearing surface, and also to classify the type of head fracture as each
piece was broken under successive drops.

Fissures of either the Intergranular or Coalescent type had developed
in at least a portion of each rail during its service in the track, and was
the cause of the removal. The complete history of each rail is known,
including its chemical composition, physical properties, date laid, length of
•service, location in track, ballast, degree of curvature, if any, and class of
traffic over the rail. This information, together with the data obtained
in the recent drop tests on the old rails, constitutes sufficient information
to make a complete analysis for study. This analysis is partially shown
in the following Tables No. 1 to 7, inclusive, together with brief com-
ments and discussion.

Illustrations are also shown in Figures No. 1 to 4, inclusive, of the
various types of failures classified from observation of the fractures de-
veloped originally in the track, or under the drop test of the pieces of
old rails after removal from service.

Figure 1 illustrates the most predominant type of interior transverse
fissure, which is classified as the "INTERGRANULAR" type.

Figure 2 shows the second type of interior transverse fissure, and
classified as the "COALESCENT" type, which originates at an imprint of
the gag in the interior metal of the head, generally about ^ of an inch
under the running surface of the head, and parallel to it, and then rounds
off Into the transverse section.

Figure 3 represents a "CORE" of brittle metal as the starting point of
fracture of the rail section. These cores closely correspond in physical
properties to the metal at the nucleus of the Intergranular type of Interior
transverse fissure, as both show decided brittleness and lack of ductility.

Figure 4 illustrates the classification of the "PLAIN" fracture, which
Is free from defects of the type shown In either Figures 1, 2 or 3. In
classifying Plain fracture, a note was made of any irregularities found,
such as segregation, pipes, if any, gray spots, slag, etc.

224

Rail

Fig. 1 — Interior Transverse Fissures, Intergeanular Type, Nucleus
Over Outside of Web. One-Half Size, 6-inch 100-lb. Rail.

Fig. 2 — Interior Transverse Fissure, Coalescent Type. Horizontal

Split in Head, from Imprint of Gag, Gage Side. "A" Rail.

One-Half Size, 6-inch 100-lb. Rail.

Rail.

225

l-'ic. 3 — Core Xkar Cknter of Head, i^ull Size, Non-Ductile Metal.

Fig. 4 — 6-in. 100-lb. Rail Head, Full Size. Fracture of Ductile Metal.
Drop 30,000 Foot-Pounds.

226 Rail.

It would not be feasible to show the results of every test in detail,
therefore only a few typical drop test data are herewith submitted. Tables
1, 2 and 3 are actual drop test data of a complete rail in each case. The
original results obtained on the new rail test butts in the exhausted
ductility test, together with the ladle analysis, are shown for each rail.

Table 1 — Illustrating Brittle Rail for Its Entire Length.

Section 100-lb. Melt No. 1940. Rail "B". Rolled January 23, 1911.

Ladle Analysis.

Carbon, 0.641. Manganese, 0.79. Phosphorus, 0.025. Sulphur, 0.046.

Original Drop Test, New Rail, Head Up.

Blows to Fracture, 3. Def., 2.6". Exhausted Due, 13-18-13-13-8-5 = 0.70.

Drop Test Data on Failed Rail from Service, Head Down.

Test Per, Elongation Per Inch To-

No. Blow. Set. 1 in. 2 in. 3 in. 4 in. 5 in. 6 in. tai. Remarks.

571—1 1 Broke Core.

571—2 1 Broke Core.

571—3 1 Broke Intergr. Fiss.

571—4 1 Broke Intergr. Fiss.

571—5 1 Broke Intergr. Fiss.

Table 1 contains the drop test results on a typical BRITTLE rail for

its entire length. Pieces from rails of this type invariably fail on the

first blow, and generally reveal additional fissures, partly or fully de-
veloped, or cores.

Table 2 — Illustrating Rail of Second Type with Both Brittle and

Ductile Metal.

Section 100-lb. Melt No. 4004. Rail "A". Rolled January 24, 1911.

Ladle Analysis.

Carbon, 0.736. Manganese, 0.89. Phosphorus, 0.029. Sulphur, 0.037.

Original Drop Test on New Rail, Head Up.

Blows to Fracture, 3. Def., 2.2". Exhausted Ductility, 7-10-14-15-12-9 = 0.67.

Drop Test Data on Failed Rail from Service, Head Down.

Test

Per.

-Elongation Per

Inch-

To-

No. Blow.

Set.

lin.

2 in.

3 in.

4 in.

5 in.

6 in.

tal.

Remarks.

568—1

Broke

Intergr. Fiss.

56&-2

Broke

Large Core.

568-3

0.94

6.22

1.61

6.38

2.29

6.50

Broke

*14

6.63

Plain Fracture

568-4

0.92

6.20

1.66

6.37

Broke

*09

6.41

Plain Fracture

568-5

0.90

6.22

Twisted

6.28

Plain Fracture

Table 2 is a tabulation of drop test data on another complete rail
and shows that while one end or a portion of the rail was decidedly

Rail

227

brittle, the balance of the rail was ductile, and in some tests a residual
ductility was obtained almost the.- equivalent of that obtained from the
test butt of the new rail at the time it was manufactured. In other words,
after a number of years' service in main line track, the ductility of the
section had only been slightly reduced by the cold rolling of the wheel
loads. The phenomena of both ductile and brittle metal being found in
the same rail length is of great significance.

Table 3 — iLLUSTRAnNG the Ductile Type of Rail.

Section, 105 lb. IMelt No. 16361. Rail "A". Rolled September 13, 1913.

Ladle Analysis.

Carbon, 0.645. Manganese, 0.75. Phosphorus, 0.023. Sulphur, 0.047.

Original Drop Test on New Rail, Head Up.

Blows to Fracture, 4. Def., 3.80". Exhausted Duct.. 9-13-20-22-20-17 = 7.01.

Drop Test Data on Failed Rail from Service, Head Down.

Test

Per.

-Elongatior

iPer

Inch-

To-

No. Blow.

Set.

lin.

2 in.

3 in.

4 in.

5 in.

6 in.

tal.

Remarks.

572—3

1.05

6.23

1.79

6.35

2.56

6.59

3.24

6.66

Broke

*11

6.70

Fracture 0. K.

572-^

1.05

6.25

1.80

6.41

2.62

6.57

Broke

*16

6.59

Scg. in web.

572—2

1.11

6.29

1.94

6.41

Twist

6.57

Fracture 0. K.

572-5

1.10

6.27

1.97

6.41

2.28

6.63

Broke

*16

6.73

Seg. in web.

572-1

1.10

6.25

2.00

6.47

Broke

*15

6.64

Seg. in web.

572-6

1.15

6.26

2.04

6.44

Broke

*11

6.63

Fracture 0. K,

Table 3 are the results of tests on one rail which was ductile for its
entire length, except for the isolated portion of the rail length which
contained the original interior transverse fissure, developed in service.
This type is somewhat similar to the type illustrated in Table 2, except
for the fact that neither fissures, nor lack of ductilit)', is found in any
of the remaining portions of the head under the drop test.

Figure 5 shows sketches of the manner in which the rails fracture
under the drop test, and illustrate the three types mentioned in the above
tables. The tables and the sketches are from corresponding rails. Similar
sketches were made of the fracture of each rail in detail.

' IBuiBtJO

■^Cjm

j^fUJ

spy

— -ji-

A/Oq

-4

)--

<c <t

k«^

•vi i:

--t

r-i

u, Sag-

ui Gig

f: ?

S (T)

-' ^

'^A

^iO

■*^ o

wC^

Fig. 5 — Diagram of Droi'
228

Tksts.

Rail.

229

The rails from each ingot were bunched on the hot beds, at the plants
of mannfacture, and the pertinent questions then are:

1. Why should an occasional rail cool with nearly its entire length
of head brittle?

2. Why should an occasional rail cool with its ductility in a portion
of its length of head, due to the chemical composition, and another por-
tion of its head cool brittle?

3. Do the strains of the movements of the metal in the heads after
recalescencc and at the blue heat make an occasional rail or a portion
brittle?

4. Do the jars of the movements of the rails on the hot beds to be
transferred to the Finishing Department at a blue heat make a portion
of the metal of the heads brittle?

Table 4 — Analysis of Drop Test Specimens Removed from Service.

Rail Failed from

Position in Ingot

Coalescent Type

Intergranular Type

20 rails

8 rails

3 "

12 "

0 "

7 "

1 "

3 "

Unknown

Totals.

0 "

2 "

24 rails

32 rails

Table 4 is a classification of failures originally developed in service,
with reference to the position of the rail in the ingot. It will be noted
that of the 24 rails which developed Coalescent type interior transverse
fissures in service, 20 were from the "A" position. This corresponds
with the general experience with fissures of this type, as more than 80
per cent, occur in "A" rails, and in nearly all cases show either decided
segregation, inclusions or impurities.

The majority of the Intergranular type of fissure are generally
found in the "B" and "C" positions, in metal of good chemical uniformity.
There is, however, in nearly every case investigated for fissures of this
type decided interior brittleness in the vicinity of the nucleus. In other
words, the unsoundness in fissures of this tjpe is PHYSICAL, rather
than CHEMICAL.

Table 5.

Length of Service

1 vear

2 ■ "

3 "

4 "

5 "

6 "

7 "

8 "

Rail Failed from

Coalescent Type

Intergranular Type

1 rail

1 "

2 rails

1 "

2 "

4 "

11 "

10 "

6 "

8 "

2 "

7 •'

Totals 24 rails

32 rails

230 Rail.

Table 5 is a classification of failures according to length of service
rendered before failure. It is interesting to note that 21 of the 24
Coalescent type, and 29 of the 32 Interpranular type had given 5 to 8
years of service before ultimate failure. This is typical of the develop-
ment of fissures in open hearth rails, as the majority render about 6
years' service before complete fracture occurs. This applies to the heavy
main line traffic, on well ballasted track, and for high speeds of train
movement.

Table 6 — Results of Drop Tests on Fissure Rails Removed from

Service.

Weight of Drop, 2,000 lbs. Height of Drop, 15 ft. Supports, 3 ft. centers.

No. Pieces '

No. pieces breaking on the first blow 137

" " showing 3% Ductility (Exhausted)... 4

4% " " ■••4

' One (5)% " " ... 2

— := 147 = 48% of total
' Two (5)% " " ... 14

6% " " ... 19

7% " " ... 18

8% " " ... 23

9% " " ... 18

10% " " ... 14

11% " "... 8

12% " " ... 15

13% " " ... 10

14% " " ... 6

15% " " ... 9

16% " •' ... 2

17% " " ... 0

18% " " ... 1

19% " " ... 1

— = 158 = 52% of total

Total number pieces tested 305 305 =100%)

Table 6 is a classification of the failure of the individual test pieces,
according to the amount of residual ductility obtained. Of the 305 pieces
tested, 137 broke on the first blow without displaying ductility. One hun-
dred and fifty-eight, or 52 per cent, of the total tested, developed at least
five per cent, in two consecutive inches; the residual ductility on the vari-
ous test pieces ranging all the way from 5 to 19 per cent.; the latter
amount being obtained in one inch of one test piece. This is a remark-
able showing in view of the service records of these rails under severe
traffic, speed and weather conditions, and substantiates the fact that the
broad head of the 100 and 105 pound rail sections provides ample area

Rail. 231

to carry the wheel loads of present-day traffic, without impairment of its
initial ductility, when the rails are made from sound, homogeneous metal,
both physically and chemically.

It has been shown by our previous experiments on tangent track
that the average intensity of pressure per square inch on the broad heads
of the 6-inch 100 and 105 pound rails, which are similar in all details, are
not high under the heavy locomotives on the rail heads.

We conducted one series of tests on worn 6-inch 100-pound rails in
service 8 to 10 years, and found that the average static intensity of
pressure per square inch for all wheels of a Pacific type locomotive, in-
cluding tender, was 82,150 pounds.

In a second series of tests on 6-inch 105-pound rails in service about
eight months, a similar locomotive of the same type as used in the first
test showed on average static intensity of pressure per square inch of
57,425 pounds.

The locomotive showing the lowest average intensity had run 40,539
miles, and the wheel treads were worn slightly concave. The locomotive
showing the highest average intensity was just out of the shop, and, there-
fore, the relationship between contour of wheel tread and rail head was
not as favorable as when the wheel treads are worn slightly hollow. The
locomotives on the New York Central usually run from one hundred to
one hundred and twent3--five thousand miles before the treads of the
driving tires are returned.

The areas of contact obtained on the rail heads of the stiff 6-inch
100 and 105 pound sections show that the major axis may be transverse
to the running surface of the rail head, and yet the areas of contact are
as large as those formerly obtained on the light 4^-inch 65-pound rails.

Referring further to Table 6, it will be noted that 137 test pieces
failed under the first blow of the tup, of which number fifty-seven dis-
closed cores, or fissures of either the coalescent or intergranular type.
Over half of the remaining eighty pieces were portions of high and low
rails from curves. These contained the accumulated deformation and
abrasive effect from the impingement of thousands of wheels, of which
a great many were cast iron wheels with the M. C. B. contour. The
chamfer of the cast iron wheels on the low rails does more than simply
abrade the bearing surface. The action seems to exhaust the ductility in
a faster ratio than the ordinary rolling abrasion. The metal in the low
rails wears hollow, and in portions of the bearing surface the metal is
frayed and ragged. It could hardly be expected under the 30,000 foot-
pounds of the drop that this frayed metal would show as much ductility
as on rails where only rolling abrasion has occurred.

232 Rail.

Table 7— Analysis of Drop Tests on Fissure Rails.

Length ot

Broke
on Ist
Blow.

EXHAUSTED DUCTILITY* PERCENT.

3er7ic e

Oae
6

two

5«8.

T0TA.L3.

DISCU)Sa OHDER DROP TEST - C0ALISC3OT TTPE.

2 years

6 "

7 "

_■

e "

DISCLOSH) UNDER DROP TEST - DfTERGHAHUUB TYPE.

5 years 1 5

6 " 1 10

7 " [ 3

8 " B 9

DISCLOSED CORES IN HELD UNDER DROP TEST.

3 years J 1

4 " 4

5 " 2

6 " 5 •

7 " 1

8 " 7

-L

PLAIN TRACTURES

2 years

3 "

4 "

7 "

SOfE : B tnuosrals In each column are aotual number of pieces.

Bxaniplei- The figure 2 In the first column in the first table means tlBt
two pleoea of rail broke on the first blov, and disclosed fiss-
ures of the coalescent type.

Table 7 contains a summary of drop test results on 56 rails of the
series, showing the length of service, residual ductility developed, as well
as the number of pieces failing on the first blow of the tup, and the type
of defect according to the classifications of Figures 1 to 4. It is apparent
from a survey of the table that test pieces containing hidden interior
fissures are devoid of ductility, and fail on the first blow. Four test
pieces contaiiTing cores developed a small amount of ductility before
fracture, and the balance of test pieces with defects of this type displayed
brittleness, and failed under one drop.

The portion of the table showing plain fractures, reveals that 59 test
pieces failed on the first blow with no indications of cores or fissures. Of

Rail. 233

the remaining 137 plain fractures which displayed residual ductility of
from 3 to 19 per cent, in one or more inches, there were 58 test pieces
which developed 10 per cent, or a greater amount in one inch. It is an
interesting fact to find so many pieces from a number of rails still con-
taining this large amount of residual ductility.

There are differences in the number of rails or test pieces analyzed
in the Tables Nos. 4 to 7, inclusive, due to the fact that a portion of the
information relating to some of the rails had not been furnished. This
however, does not affect these analyses in any way, except to a minor
extent. Additional tables have been compiled, but are not included in
this report.

It was exceedingly important to find the high residual ductility in
such a large number of the test pieces from these rails after 5 years, or
more, of service. The statement has often been made and inferred that
the ductility is practically nil in all rail heads after relatively lighter
traffic conditions and shorter lengths of service than was obtained on
this lot of rails. This supposition will need revision from a study of
the tests included in this report, for the evidence presented shows that
a large amount of ductility' still remains In many of the pieces of the
old rails, with the full ductility due to the chemical composition, after
a number of years' service.

Ralls rolled for the New York Central Railroad — East — and received
from the mills during the period 1910 to 1920 in basic open hearth steel
amount to 1,098,400, while interior transverse fissures developed in this
number of rails at the rate of 0.062 per cent, for the entire period,
which is a very low rate. The rails included are the 6 inch 100 pound,
6 inch 105 pound, and the S% inch 80 pound sections in all types of
service — mam line, secondary track, and on subsidiary lines. This Infor-
mation Is added to show the difficulties involved in detecting and locating
the small percentage of failures in the very large tonnage of rails rolled
and installed.

The material included in this report is sufficiently comprehensive
to add considerable to our knowledge of the Ductility In Old Open
Hearth Rails removed from service, and points out the necessity for
the accumulation of information of a similar nature on rails in service
on other Lines, having different rail sections and service or traffic
conditions.

The most important problem In the research work on interior trans-
verse fissures is to determine the causes inducing the irregular ductility
and brittleness disclosed In these tests, which at present seems attrib-
utable to cooling conditions of the rails during manufacture, either on the
hot bed, or in rolling, or during handling of the cooling rails from the
hot beds. Elimination of brittleness which has been show^n to exist in
a portion of some rails would go far toward reducing the number of
failures due to interior transverse fissures in service.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XXII— ON ECONOMICS OF
RAILWAY LABOR

C. E. Johnston, Chairman; C. H. Stein, V ice-Chairman;

W. J. Backes, C. B. Hoyt,

A. F. Blaess, T. T. Irving,

B. M. Cheney, R. E. Keough,

C. C. Cook, E. R. Lewis,
W. R. Dawson, C. A. Paquette,
John Evans, W. H. Penfield,
R. H. Ford, J. R. Sexton,

L. C. Hartley, W. J. Towne,

W. R. Hillary, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee on Economics
of Railway Labor :

1. Report on plans and methods for obtaining labor for railways.

2. Study and report upon methods for training and educating em-
ployees in Engineering and Maintenance work.

3. Study and report on standard methods for performing maintenance
of way work with the view of establishing units of measure of work per-
formed.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, June 8th, July 16th,
August 27th, October 18th and November 30th, 1920. The names of the
members in attendance have been given in the Minutes of the meetings
which have been printed in the Bulletin.

(1) Report on Plans and Methods for Obtaining Labor for Railways

A carefully prepared questionnaire was sent to 65 representative roads
in Eastern, Western and Southern territory and to representative roads in
Canada, in order to develop the existing practices throughout the country.
Replies were received from about 85 per cent and, in addition, several let-
ters from railway officers, whom the Committee interrogated on this sub-
ject.

This questionnaire developed that very little is being done by the rail-
ways in the way of specializing for the selection of their maintenance of
way labor. The returns when carefully analj'zed also show that for mainte-
nance of waj'^ labor, at least, the railways have not availed themselves of
the lessons which the experiences resulting from the war merely developed
and intensified, and that no positive action has been taken to overcome the
economic conditions which tend to create serious labor shortages at differ-
ent seasons of the year.

235

236 Economics of Railway Labor.

Except for such labor as can Ixi obtained locally, on approximately
two-thirds of the roads throughout the country, the great army of excess
workers required during the working season are, as a rule, recruited through
Labor Agents, the majority of whom charge the men for securing the
temporary job. There is no uniform practice as to the officer charged
with responsibility for such matters, the tendency, however, seems to be to
leave it, in a general way, under the Engineer Maintenance of Way, where
same exists. Where the services of these Labor Agents are utilized, it is
almost the universal custom for the railways to obtain labor from various
agencies, there being little tendency to accomplish this through a single
source of supply.

As a general rule, railways do not pay bonuses or compensation to
agencies for maintaining a stated supply of workers on their lines, but
there are cases where this method has been followed, especially in times
of labor stringency, the agency being responsible for maintaining the
supply and being paid accordingly. Very little, if any, written limitations
or rules are placed upon Labor Agents concerning the manner and method
that they shall observe in securing labor, although some States and the
larger cities have regulations pertaining to same, which, however, are not
very rigidly enforced.

Very few railways pay the agencies for securing their labor, it
being customary for the Labor Agent to require the laborers to reimburse
him for his efforts. This has resulted in a great many abuses which are
alike prejudicial to the interests of the worker and the railways, and your
Committee has been impressed with the need of uniform regulations with
respect to such matters.

During the war, the U. S. Employment Service was created, and for
a time the indications pointed to some unified system, but for various rea-
sons it ceased to be an effective factor as a labor gathering medium.

Many roads report that they use State and Municipal Agencies to
a more or less extent but, as a rule, the majority of the roads rely on
their own unorganized efforts, or a few utilize the services of free labor
gathering agencies, either wholly or partially supported by themselves,
but the majority depend upon the fee agencies, v/ho. as previously stated,
are supported by fees obtained from workers.

The majority of the roads do not contract maintenance work, although
there is a tendency in this direction on some of the more important items
requiring extra gangs, or where special skill is required.

Prior to the war, it was the practice for many roads to maintain
labor agencies in the large labor centers, like Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas
City, Omaha, etc. These were abolished during the war, but since the
armistice was signed pre-war conditions have been restored and there
has been a marked tendency to increase agencies either wholly or partially
supported by individual roads entering the larger labor centers. There
has also been a marked increase of fee agencies patronized by the railways.

Economics of Railway Labor. 237

No cases are reported where more than one road has combined for
this purpose. There does not appear to be any imiformity of practice
as to whom labor gathering agencies shall report, although the tendency
is towards the Maintenance of Way Department.

The reports indicate that in reality practically no limitation is placed
on free transportation for transporting labor that cannot be obtained
locally, and apparently no means has been found for protecting against the
abuses resulting from the flagrant misuse of transportation furnished for
the purpose of transporting this labor. In times of shortages, where labor
cannot be supplied locally or obtained by labor contractors from territory
tributary to the carriers, it is customary for most roads to pay fare for
laborers recruited in off-line districts over other lines in order to bring
them to their own road.

It is not the practice of the roads to invoke statutory requirements
against the misuse of transportation, as no method has yet been found
whereby this may be effectively used. This problem presents many diffi-
cult and baffling angles, and various remedies have been suggested, but
they have failed by reason of an entire absence of coordinated effort among
the roads.

No effective means has so far been developed to protect against the
worker who, having accepted free transportation, fails to accept service.
When such worker leaves the service after a few days' (or hours') service,
as is frequently the case, few roads make any attempt to retain part of his
earnings as partial compensation for such free transportation.

The investigations of this Committee, previously reported, have shown
that the length of service for the casual worker is of exceedingly short
duration, and the facility with which these transient woi-kcrs may move
from place to place is almost entirely responsible for this condition. The
questionnaire, however, develops that the majority of the roads appear not
to feel that the abolition of free transportation for these casual workers
would operate to stabilize labor. The replies reaching the Committee in-
dicate a general recognition of this widespread abuse in connection with
the transportation of laborers, but few practical suggestions have so far
reached the Committee for its remedy. The popular one seems to be that
some arrangement should be worked out by each road whereby laborers
will be piloted from the source of employment to the particular job for
which they are engaged.

Where the services of boarding contractors are utilized tt) feed extra
or floating labor, it is customary to aft'ord free, reduced or limited trans-
portation for their camp and food supplies, on approximately half of
the roads reporting, the others assessing charges in some form or other
thereon.

There is no accepted practice among roads concerning the wisdom
of permitting their own employees to board extra or floating labor, when
by doing so free or limited transportation for camp and food supplies
arc given.

During the war, Regional Director R. H. Aishton, in Circular No.
63, made some progress in unifying this and similar practices and some
of the roads have still adhered to same, but it is not universal.

(A)

238 Economics of Railway Labor.

The replies indicate a decided effort is being made to furnish houses
for regular Section Foremen at nominal rental, and some feeble efforts
are being made to furnish better quarters than heretofore for common
lal)or, but it is not general.

The conditions in the Eastern section do not, as a rule, require
this for its excess labor, whereas in the West it is necessary in some
form on account of the long stretches of open country and the com-
paratively long distances between the towns. The -majority of the roads
furnish bunk houses for their laborers for which no rental is charged, but
as a rule they consist of old car bodies. Some tendency for improvement
in this direction is reported.

It is the general practice for the railways to supply housing with wood
or steel bunks for their floating, or semi-permanent labor, hut the bedding,
kitchen and other utensils are supplied by the boarding contractors, or
the laborers themselves.

It is also the general practice to supply cooks for track gangs, but
no uniformity exists as to the number in proportion to the men employed.
This applies to Bridge and Building Department and miscellaneous em-
ployees as well.

The majority of the roads reporting apparently contract with companies
or individuals for feeding their common labor that is seasonally employed,
the balance evidently believing that better results are secured where this
is not done.

There is almost an entire absence of trained supervision over food,
sanitation or camp supplies for the workers. Where such supervision
exists it is usually of a sporadic character and confined to local officers
engaged in other duties. One large Eastern road, however, has assigned
the feeding of its laborers to its dining car department and through it
secures the benefit of the same sanitation and supervision of its food
and camp equipment that is afforded to its patrons.

There is a marked difference between the practices of Eastern and
Western roads in the matter of engaging and caring for labor. The
general tendency of the Eastern lines is to so arrange their maintenance
work that it shall be done with regular forces and minimize, as far as
possil)le, the use of extra gangs, whereas, as a general rule, the Western
roads dei)end on the extra gangs and casual lalx)r to supplement the work
of the sections, principally for relaying rail, l)allasting and similar heavy
work.

There appears to be an almost universal appreciation by the roads
of the serious effect that intermittent labor has on their organization and
efficiency in maintaining the railways of the country. There is also a
general feeling on the part of a majority of the roads that this can
only be corrected, or at least minimized, by working out a more scientific
method of arranging the maintenance of way program whereby large
armies of workers will not be made idle during a very considerable part
of the year. The annual man-hours remain about the same, but due to
the fact that it is not scientifically arranged, a great many excess work-
ers remain frequently on furlough, creating an economic condition that
is hurtful to all concerned.

Economics of R a i 1 \v a >• Labor. 239

There is a universal feeling that before very much can be done by rail-
ways to stabilize labor, housing and living 'conditions must be more in
conformity with the current practice of industrial and similar concerns,
who seem very much in advance of ihc railways in this particular. Better
sanitation, proper facilities for bathing and improved structures for hous-
ing the employee would appear to be the medium that will react powerfully
to stal)ilize railway track labor. A better distribution of the forces so
arranged as to give consideration to the comfort of the foremen ami their
families are a greater asset than is popularly supposed for increasing the
efficiency, contentment and loyalty of the worker.

Changed working conditions have now served to intensify tlie im-
portance of securing greater efficiency and a better selection of workers
than ever before in the iiistory of our railways. Section 15-A, of the
Transportation Act, expressly stipulates that in determining the allowable
return, expenditures for maintenance of way and structures and equipment
must \x: so managed "as to secure honest, efficient and economic results."
Manifestly if methods are employed which are wasteful or extravagant
and as a result the principal item of railway maintenance (labor) is af-
fected, the net return may also be affected. It would seem that it is well
within the province of this Association to study the effect of poor methods
in housing, transporting and otherwise caring for railway labor to the
end that nothing of this kind may ever occur. Comparison of practices
of industrial, public utility and commercial concerns as compared with
railway practices should be of great assistance in this connection as in-
dicating the trend of modern ways and methods concerning the human
investment and permit a greater return than heretofore.

(2) Study and Report upon Methods for Training and Educating
Employees in Engineering and Maintenance Work

Your Committee has not completed its study of the subject-matter,
consequently are not in a position to make conclusive recommendations.

In our study thus far there appears no limit to the field involved, and
it will require much more investigation and thought by the Committee to
arrive at any really worth-while conclusions.

As information, your Committee prepared and submitted to representa-
tive lines during the year a questionnaire to develop the present situation
and practices, and at the date of this report (November 30, 1920), 60 rail-
way companies, having a minimum length of not less than 150 miles of main
track and with a total main track mileage of approximately 152,000 miles,
have reported. A tabulation of these returns expressed in percentage is
as follows :

(a) Organization

Of the roads reporting (60) 7? per cent have a Divisional and 25 pcr
ccnt Departmental organization.

'(A)

240 Economics of Railway Labor.

(b) Education and Training

Notwithstanding tlie large percentage divisional organization, approxi-
mately 72 per cent of the lines charge an Engineer or the Engineering
Department with the direct responsibility of maintenance of way. We
also find approximately 65 per cent of the lines give preference to En-
gineers, or men having Engineering training, in selecting Division officers
in charge of maintenance of way. hifty per cent of tlie total of Road-
masters and Track Supervisors employed by the roads reporting have had
Engineering training. Our reference to Roadmasters and Track Super-
visors are those having charge of an average of 111 main track miles and
75 sidetrack miles. The a\erage age of Roadmasters and Track Super-
visors being approximately 45 years.

Our investigations to date show approximately 99 per cent of track
foremen selected from common labor ; the percentage of common labor
being about as follows :

Native White 40 per cent

Negro 17 per cent

Mexican 10 per cent

Other Foreign 33 per cent

100 per cent^

Note. — The Mexican labor rcpurled is employed on but 26 of the
total of 60 lines.

The average length of track section in charge of section foreman in-
cludes :

6.7 miles main tracks
3.1 miles side track

Section motor cars are in use on approximately 69 per cent of the
mileage reported.

Your Committee will continue vigorously to assemble more com-
l)lete data with respect to the present situation and practices, but it
appears obvious that there is at this time a lack of appreciation on the
part of General Oflicers of railways of the tremendous inefficiency and
resulting waste of loss due to the absence of concerted organized effort
to educate and properly train employees in maintenance of way work.

Replies received also indicate a lack of coordination among the rail-
ways that must be secured before any real start can lie made towards
efficiency and stability.

Our investigation to date ( September, 1920) indicates an estimated
relative efficiency of only 67 per cent as compared with the results oiitained
during the pre-war period or. say, 1912 to 1916, these averages based upon
replies from 52 of the 60 princii)a! railways of the country reportine.

Progress Report

(1) The Committee feels that good progress lias been made (ju this
subject during the year. It has assembled much data that will be very
helpful in the further study of this important subject.

Economics of Railway Labor. 241

(2) The C<imniittee has assembled and is assenililing mucli informa-
tion helpful in its consideration of this subject. We do not underestimate
its importance and the necessity of thoroughly developing every pha-^e oL
this extensive field.

(3) The Committee has devoted all time possible duung tlie year
to the study of subjects (1) and (2), and feel that solution of the proli-
lems in these subjects must antedate and be used as factors in tlie con-
clusions to be drawn on subject (3).

CONCLUSION

The Conuuittce has reached no conclusion on the subjects assigned.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee strongly recommends reassignment of only these three
subjects for the ensuing year.

In its study, investigation and discussion thus far sufficient facts have
been developed to indicate the trend of present practice on the railways
with respect to maintenance of wa.\- lalior. Our analysis of the practices
in vogue causes us to suggest to the membership that the railways take
immediate and individual action to improve their labor situation and put
forth organized effort to increase labor efficiency.

Your Committee fully appreciates the magnitude of the subjects as-
signed and hopes, in due time, to arrive at helpful conclusions. It must,
to a large extent, be guided by the information and suggestions furnished
by the membership who cannot but appreciate also the necessity of real
constructive work along these lines.

Respectfully submitted.

The CoMMiTTi'.r. o\ Economics of Raii.w.w L.mior,

» C. E. Johnston, ChainiKui.

REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON
STANDARDIZATION

J. R. \V. Ami'.rosk,

I'ici'-CluiirmtiH

B. H. Mann,

G. J. Ray,

H. L. Ripley,

0. E. Selby,

H. M. Stout,

C. M. Taylor,

W. P. W'lLTSEE,

I. J. Yates,

Committee.

E. A. I'^RiXK, Cliainiiiiii ;
V. ].. C. BoNP,
A. Ckumpton,

A. F. DORLEY,

W. T. Dorrance,

W. J. EcK.

J. AI. R. Fairbatrn,

W. H. HOYT.

Edwin B. Kaite,

F. R. Layng,

To the A)iierica)i Railicay Enginecr'utg Association :

Instructions to the Committee for this year's work were as follows:

1. Review at once, plans and specifications heretofore adopted and
suggest to the Committee on Outline of Work a list of recommendations
which interest more than one committee or of w'hich further study ought
to be made in the interest of improving sucli plans and specifications with
a view of having the Committee on Outline of Work issue specific in-
structions to the several committees to undertake certain of this work
during the coming year. The purpose of this being the development of
minimum specifications for as many items of standard railwaj' materials
as possible, not only in the interest of economy and better materials, but
to insure the fullest measure of competition.

2. Endeavor to secure the more general use by railways of the
specifications, standards and recommendations of the .\ssociation, as a
means of saving time and money.

3. Submit as suggested work for each committee for the 1921 outline
of work definite recommendations for minimum specifications for specified
items of standard railway materials.

Committee Meetings

Two meetings were held on June 16th and December 7th, both in
Xevv York, reports of which have been published in the Bulletin.

Progress Report

In accordance with instructions 1 and 3, a list of recommendations
has been prepared for the Committee on Outline of \\'ork and is attached
as Appendix A.

In accordance with instructions 2, chairmen of the committees were
asked to make active inquiries into the use of recommendations of their
committee and to promote general use of A. R. E. A. recommended prac-
tices.

Conclusions

The Committee has no conclusion to lu'esent.

243

244 Standardization.

Recommendations for Future Work

In last year's report, your Committee recommended a concerted eflfort
to cover tiie desirable field of railroad standardization and that it be
directed to proceed with the development of its work along the lines in-
dicated by the instructions approved by the Committee on Outline of
Work for 1919.

Standardization — considered solely in relation to railroad requirements
— from its very nature, as well as its wide scope and diversified application,
has been in the past and must continue to be the result of growth. But
your Committee believes that its natural growth can and should be ad-
vantageously accelerated by judicious assistance.

Much has been done in standardizing twist drills, wood screws, ma-
chine screws, rails, steel angles and beams, certain types of hardware, like
butts, strap and tee hinges, nails, spikes, machine and carriage bolts, signal
fittings, wire — the list is too long to quote here. Due to the efforts of
the R. S. A. (Signal Section, A. R. A.), many signal fittings now are
interchangeable, both in part and as a whole, which otherwise would still
be made to individual pattern by each manufacturer, thus requiring the
railroads to multiply repair stock and divide repair orders. The Mechan-
ical Division of the A. R. A. has made some progress.

Material benefits will accrue to the railroads from standardizing
track spikes, track l)olts, track jacks, track and ballast tools of all kinds,
rail drilling, switch lamps, etc., and this Association should lead in the
work. This can be done by detailed handling of each article until the
final design, acceptable to both producers and consumers, is reported to
this Association. Our experience would lead us to believe that a pur-
chasers' market would expedite results. Therefore, your Committee rec-
ommends that the following instructions be given it for next year's work:

1. Review at t)ncc, plans and specifications heretofore adopted and
suggest to the Committee on Outline of Work a list of recommendations
which interest more tlian one committee or of which further study ought
to be made in the interest of improving such plans and specifications with
a view to having the Committee on Outline of Work issue specific in-
structions to the several committees to undertake this work. The purpose
of this to be the development of the least number of specifications for as
many items of standard railway materials as possible, not only in the
interest of economy and better materials, 1)ut to insure the fullest measure
of competition.

2. Endeavor to secure the more general us.e by railways of the
specifications, standards and recommendations (/f the .Association, as a
means of saving time and money.

Standardization. 245

3. Submit as suggested work for each committee for the 1921 out-
line of work definite recommendations for specifications for specified
items of standard railway materials.

"Wnir Committee also recommends that all standards adopted by the
A. k. E. A. be known and designated as R.E. standards. In case of the
adoption of standards originated by other bodies, due credit should be
given to the originators.

Respectfully submitted,

ThI-: Cd-MMlTTKIi ox StA.\1i.\R1/IZ \TI()N%

E. A. Frixx-:. Cliairman.

Appendix A

Consult Zi'ith
Committee Article Committee on

II — Ballast Ballast tools Track

IV — Rail Rail sections

Rail drilling'

Bolts . Track

V— Track

Track tools, except hal

ilast

Tie plates

Ties, Ballast, Rail

Frogs

Switches

Signals

Switch stands

Spikes

Screw spikes

Guard rails

Rail braces

Signals

Derails

Signals

V'l — Buildings

Glass sizes

Hydrants, fire
Hoze, nozzles.
Baggage trucks

etc.
;, hand

Water Service

Scales, freight

house

and

baggage

Fire extinguisb

lers

\III — Masonry Portland cement

Cement testing
Metal reinforcement

IX — Signs, Fences and
Crossings . Highway crossing signs

X— Signals R. S. A. standards

Switch lamps Track

Bridge lamps Iron and Sleel

Highwa)^ crossing signs Signs

XIII — Water Service Wood tank details

Tank fittings
Water columns
Tank gages
Float valves

X\"II — Wood Preservation. No. 1 Crcos(jte
No. 2 Creosote
No. 3 Creosote
Coal tar — Creosote solution

XVI 11 — Electricity Incandescent lamps Signals

Insulators

Insulated wires and cables Signals
Tile and other conduits
Friction, rubber and other

tapes Signals

Knife and snap switches

246

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XX— UNIFORM GENERAL
CONTRACT FORMS

W. D. Faucette, Chairman; C. A. Wilson, Vke-Chairman;

C. F. Allen, C. B. Niehaus,

A. O. Cunningham, H. A. Palmer,

G. L. Davenport, C. J. Parker,

Clark Dillenbeck, J. W. Pfau,

G. E. GiFFORD, A. C. Shields,

J. C. Irwin, E. L. Taylor,

E. H. Lee, Frank Taylor,

O. K. Morgan, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association: '

The following subjects were assigned Committee XX — Uniform Gen-
eral Contract Forms, for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on forms of agreement embodying rules governing the
construction of undercrossing of railways with electrical conductors,
conduits, pipe lines and drains, conferring with Committee on Roadway
and Electricity.

3. Make final report, if practicable, on form of lease agreement for
industrial site.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of this Committee were held in New York on June 29th
and November 9th, 1920. List of those present has been given in the
minutes of the meetings which have been furnished the Secretary of
the Association, and which have been referred to in the Bulletin.

(1) Revision of the Manual

In Appendix A, covering Revision of the Manual, certain changes
have been recommended for adoption by the Association. This work
was in charge of a Sub-Committee, the Chairman of which was Mr.
Clark Dillenbeck, the members of the Sub-Committee being: Clark
Dillenbeck, J. C. Irwin, C. B. Niehaus, E. L. Taylor, Frank Taylor.

(2) Report on Forms of Agreement

This subject was assigned to a Sub-Committee, of which Mr. J. C.
Irwin was Chairman, with the following members : J. C. Irwin, C. A.
Wilson, E. H. Lee, E. L. Taylor, H. A. Palmer, C. F. Allen.

247

(A)

248 Uniform General Contract Forms. -

This Sub-Committee has given considerable study to proposed form
of agreement but it was the final conclusion of the Sub-Committee and
of the General Committee, that this form should be submitted to the
Association as a progress report, and it is, therefore, shown in Appendix
B. It is the wish of this Committee to receive any criticisms or sugges-
tions in connection with this form, and the Committee desires that this
subject be reassigned to this Committee as part of next year's work.
Attention is drawn that it was thought best to change the title of the
form which is set forth in Appendix B.

(3) Lease Agreement for Industrial Site

The Committee makes its final report on the form of Lease Agree-
ment for Industrial Site as set forth in Appendix C and recommends
to the Association the adoption of this form of agreement.

This assignment has been on the Committee's list of work for
several years and has been considered very carefully by the Committee
during the present year. The various paragraphs have been thoroughly
discussed and exchange of views in meeting and by correspondence
resulted in the adoption at the last Committee meeting of this final
report.

Your Committee realizes that in standardizing a form of lease agree-
ment for industrial site that it is hardly possible such an agreement
can be adopted without some modification to meet conditions that will
arise, but your Committee believes that this agreement embodies the
fundamental principles governing the preparation of such a lease agree-
ment and offers it to the Association as a result of its work. Conditions
will arise in different parts of the country where modifications, and no
doubt the insertion of additional paragraphs, will be necessary. How-
ever, your Committee feels that paragraphs herein contained can be
adapted and that the railroads will find in this report a guide in the
preparation and standardization of a form of lease agreement for indus-
trial site.

Your Committee believes that in view of the length of time it has
considered this form of agreement nothing would be gained by carry- ,
ing it over another year. It was the hope of the Committee to receive
detailed criticism from the American Railway Development Association
before the completion of this report, but the President of the American
Railway Development Association did not feel justified in giving an
expression on the form of lease before the matter was brought before
his membership and as it was necessary that the work of your Committee
for this year be closed, no expression from the American Railway De-
velopment Association was obtained, much to our regret.

In the preparation of a form of agreement of this character, the
Committee fully realizes that the diversified territory in Canada and in
the United States through which this form of agreement will be dis-
tributed, if printed in the Manual, will probably call for changes in
some of the paragraphs in order that it may become a workable agree-

Uniform General Contract Forms. 249

ment in the hands of any particular road, but as before stated, the Com-
mittee feels that it has embodied herein those essential paragraphs which
should not be overlooked in the preparation of such an industrial site
lease agreement.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) The Committee recommends that the changes in the Manual,
set forth in Appendix A, be approved and that the revised matter be
substituted for the present recommendations existing in the Manual
or Supplements.

(2) The Committee recommends that the form of Hcense for wires,
pipes, conduits and drains on railroad property set forth in Appendix
B be received as information, and be assigned as part of the Committee's
work for the coming year.

(3) The Committee recommends that the final report on Form of
Lease Agreement for Industrial Site, Appendix C, be adopted and
printed in the Manual.

Recommendations for Future Work

Your Committee recommends that the following list be considered
in making future assignments :

(1) Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the
Manual, and submit definite recommendations for changes.

(2) That the license for wires, pipes, conduits and drains on rail-
road property, which was submitted this year as information, be re-
assigned this Committee for further study.

(3) Form of Agreement for private road crossing.

(4) Form of Agreement for the purchase of electricity.

(5) Form of Agreement for the sale of electricity.

(6) Form of Agreement to cover joint use of passenger station.

(7) Form of Agreement to cover joint use of a freight station.

(8) Form of Agreement for trackage rights.

(9) Form of Agreement for private crossing at grade.

(10) Cost-Plus Contracts and recommend a form, for such as may
desire to use this form of contract. (Although the Committee mentions
this subject, and while we do not recommend or favor this manner of
doing work, it is only our purpose that if such a tj'pe of contract under
any condition be used, it may be the wish of the Association to have this
(Committee give some study to such forrri of contract.)

(11) Study of all specifications in the Manual in connection with
which Form of Construction Contract would be used, with the view of
changing or eliminating any conflicting verbiage from one or the other
which might raise questions as to the meaning or intent of the agree-
ment as a whole.

*5i> Uniform General Contract Forms.

Work of Committee XX

At the request of the Chairman of the Standardization Committee,
your Chairman sent a questionnaire to 61 Chief Engineers of railroads,
and at this writing replies from 40 have been received.

It is very gratifying to observe the amount of interest manifested
in these replies, but on account of the large amount of matter which
would be contained in printing the full answers your Chairman under-
took to condense the substance of these replies in the form of a table
which is attached as Appendix D.

In reading this report we attract your attention to the answers to
the fourth question, which were very encouraging to j^our Committee.

From replies received from many of the railroads it was noted that
considerable thought was given in answering the questionnaire and in
many instances agreements were sent for examination and comments
were made in regard to the practice on the different railroads.

It is the thought of your Committee that the publication of this
canvass as an Appendix to this report would be of interest to the
Association. This is submitted only as information.

The Committee records, with pleasure, the satisfactory attendance
at the Committee meetings held and the interest manifested by its
members.

Respectfully submitted,

The Committee on Uniform General Contract Forms,

W. D. Faucette, Chairman.

Appendix A
REVISION OF THE MANUAL

Clark Dillenbeck, Chairman, Sub-Committcc.

This matter was given careful consideration by your Sub-Committee
and report prepared. This report was carefully considered in detail at
the meeting of the General Committee on November 9th, and wc submit
the following revised report as approved at that meeting:

"Construction Contract Form," pages 653 to 665 of the Manual:
Change Heading page 653.

Proposed Heading
Form of Construction Contract

Present Heading
Construction Contract Form
Form of Proposal, page 655.

It is recommended that this be placed to precede "(A) Agreement,"
now on page 653.

Section 30, page 661. Change heading and first paragraph.

Proposed Heading
Land of Company, Use of by
Contractor.
Proposed Form
30. The Company shall provide the
land upon which the work under
this contract is to be done, and
will, so far as it can conveniently
do so, permit the Contractor to use
so much of its land as is required
for the erection of temporary con-
struction facilities and storage of
materials, together with the right
of access to same, but beyond this
the Contractor shall provide, at his
cost and expense, any additional
land required.

Section 32, page 662. Change last line of last sentence.

Proposed Form
32. But if the work, or any part
thereof, shall be stopped by the
notice in writing aforesaid, and if
the Company does not give notice
in writing to the Contractor to re-
sume work at a date within
of the date fixed in the

Present Heading
Property and Right of Entry.

Present Form.
30. The Company shall provide
the lands upon which the work
under this contract is to be done,
except that the Contractor shall
provide land required for erection
of temporary construction facilities
and storage of his material, to-
gether with right of access to the
same.

Present Form
32. But if the work, or any part
thereof, shall be stopped by the
notice in writing aforesaid, and if
the Company does not give notice
in writing to the Contractor to re-
sume work at a date within

of the date fixed in the

251

Uniform General Contract Forms

written notice to suspend, then the
Contractor may abandon that por-
tion of the work so suspended and
he will be entitled to the estimates
and payments for such work so
abandoned, as provided in Section
38 of this contract.

written notice to suspend, then the
Contractor may abandon that por-
tion of the work so suspended and
he will be entitled to the estimates
and paj'ments for work done, on
such portion so abandoned, as pro-
vided in Section 38 of this Con-
tract.

Section 34 (a), page 663. Omit the words "thirty days" from second
and third lines.

Present Form
34. (a) The Company shall have
the right at any time, for reasons
which appear good to it, to annul
this contract upon giving thirty
days' notice in writing to the Con-
tractor, in which event the Con-
tractor shall be entitled to the full
amount of the estimate for the
work done by him under the terms
and conditions of this contract up
to the time of such annulment, in-
cluding the retained percentage.

Page 666, Bond. Change Heading.

Present Heading
Bond

Proposed Form
34. (a) The Company shall have
the right at any time, for reasons
which appear good to it, to annul
this contract upon giving notice in
w^riting to the Contractor, in which
event the Contractor shall be en-
titled to the full amount of the
estimate for the work done by him
under the terms and conditions of
this contract up to the time of such
annulment, including the retained
percentage.

Proposed Heading
Form of Bond

Bulletin 189, pages 71 and 72, Revision to Agreement Form in
Manual. No change is recommended.

Bulletin 207, Industrial Track Agreement, pages 103 to 107. Change
heading.

Present Heading
Industrial Track Agreement

Proposed Heading

Form of Industry Track

Agreement.

The Committee realizes that changes are necessary in the form and
regret that definite recommendations must be postponed to a later date.

Pages 109 to 115, Agreement for Interlocking Plant. Change

heading.

Present Heading

Agreement for Interlocking

Plant.

Proposed Heading
Form of Agreement fob Inter-
locking Plant.

Uniform General Contract Forms. 253

Omit the whole o£ Section 9, Wage Rates, page 113.
Present Form
9. The wages of employees con- 9. (Omit this paragraph.)
nected with maintenance, renewal
and operation of said interlocking
plant shall be the same as the
standard wages paid by the

Company for similar

service to its other employes in the
same territory.

Bulletin 217, Agreement for Grade Crossings, pages 41 to 47. Change
heading.

Present Heading Proposed Heading

Agreement for Grade Crossings. Form of Agreement for Crossing
Omit the first note. of Railroads at Grade.

Present Form
(Note. — During Federal Control
terminology should conform to re-
quirements of Federal Administra-
tion.)

Change the words "grade crossing" to "railroad crossing at grade"
in second note under "Whereas" second line, and in Section 3, page 42,
under "Construction," second line.

Recommendations

Your Committee recommends that the above changes in the Manual
be approved and that when the Manual is reprinted the changes be incor-
porated therein.

Appendix B

LICENSE FOR WIRES. PIPES, CONDUITS AND DRAINS ON
RAILROAD PROPERTY

(Tkntative Form)

THIS AGREEMENT, made this day of 19.., by

and between the

hereinafter called the Company, and

having a principal office or place or business in

hereinafter called the Licensee,
WITNESSETH, THAT:
Whereas, the Licensee desires to construct, maintain and use

upon the property of the Company, situated in

, and more definitely shown on the plan hereto

attached, designated as

and dated , and made a part hereof :

It is mutually agreed as follows :

1. The Company grants permission to the Licensee to construct,

maintain, and use

upon the property of the Company, in accordance with said plan and the
specifications forming a part hereof, and subject to the requirements of
the Company.

2. In consideration of this license, the Licensee shall pay to the

Company, in advance, the sum of per

beginning

3. Every cost and expense of construction, maintenance, use and
removal resulting from this license shall be paid by the Licensee. The
Company may perform without notice any work which it considers
necessary to the safe operation of the railroad. The Licensee shall do
no work under this license, which may interfere with the operation of
the railroad without the written permission of the Compan}-.

4. Use of the property of the Company however long continued
shall not affect any estate or easement in the Licensee or any rights
other than license.

254

Uniform General Contract Forms. 255

5. The Licensee shall indemnify, protect, and save harmless, the
Company from and against all claims, suits, costs, charges, and damages,
made upon or incurred by the Company in connection with this license.

6. This agreement maj^ be terminated by either party by

notice to the other party, or without notice on disuse

by the Licensee for

7. Any notice given by the , Company to the Licensee shall be
deemed to be properly served if the notice be delivered to the Licensee,
or if left with any responsible agent of the Licensee, or if deposited in

tlie postoffice, post paid, addressed to the Licensee at

last known place of business.

8. Upon termination hereof the Licensee shall forthwith remove
all his constructions from the property of the Company, satisfactory to
the Company. In case of the Licensee's failure so to do, the Company
may at its option cither retain such constructions or remove them
at the cost of the Licensee.

9. This agreement shall not be assigned or in any manner trans-
ferred, without the written consent of the

of the Company.

10. Until terminated as hereinbefore provided, this agreement shall
inure to the benefit of and be binding upon the legal representatives and
successors of the parties respectively.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have executed this
agreement on the day and year first above written.

Company.

Witness

Witness By

Appendix C
FORM OF LEASE AGREEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL SITE

Parties

(1) THIS LEASE, Made in .....this day

of 19 by and between the

, a corporation, the Lessor, hereinafter called the

Company, and

having a principal office or place of business in

in the and , hereinafter called the

Lessee, WITNESSETH ;

That the Company in consideration of the agreement of the Lessee
herein contained, hereby leases unto the Lessee, all those certain

premises, situated in , County of

State of , described as follows :

Description

(2)

the location and dimensions of said premises being more definitely
shown on the plan hereto attached, designated as

and dated

and hereby made a part hereof.

Term

(3) To have and to hold the same from

19...., to 19..., unless sooner terminated, as

hereinafter provided.

Termination

(4) Either party hereto may terminate this lease at any time, by

giving to the other party days' written notice to that

effect. Acceptance of rent in advance by the Company shall not act as
a waiver of the right to terminate this lease.

256

Uniform General Contract Forms. 257

Notice

(5) Any notice given by the Company to the Lessee shall be deemed
to be properly served if the same be delivered to the Lessee, or if left with

any of agents, or if posted on said premises, or if

deposited in the postoffice, postpaid, addressed to the Lessee at

last known place of business.

Rent

(6) The Lessee shall pay a rental of

per payable in advance,

beginning on , for the use of said premises,

payable to the of the Company, at

Refund

(7) Rent paid in advance for a period extending beyond the ter-
mination of this lease shall be repaid to the Lessee within thirty days
after demand, unless such termination shall be on account of violation
of non-fulfilfment of any of the terms of this lease by the Lessee, or
on account of abandonment of said premises by the Lessee, in which
case the amount paid as rental shall be retained by the Company.

Taxes

(8) The Lessee shall pay all taxes, licenses and other charges which
may be assessed or levied upon said premises, improvements thereon, and
upon the business of the Lessee upon said premises, or against the
Company by reason of occupation or use of said premises by the Lessee.

Purpose

(9) The said premises shall be used for the following purposes :

Assignment

(10) This lease shall not be assigned or in any manner transferred
nor said premises or any part thereof sub-let, used or occupied by any
party other than the Lessee, nor for any purpose other than that specified
herein, without the written consent of the Company.

Abandonment

(11) The failure of the Lessee to occupy or use said premises for

the purpose herein mentioned for days at any one time

shall be deemed an abandonment thereof. An abandonment of said

258 Uniform General Contract Forms.

premises by the Lessee, shall operate as an absolute and immcclialc
termination of this lease without notice.

Improvement

(12) The Company hereby gives to the Lessee, subject to all of
the conditions hereof, the privilege of erecting, maintaining and using
on said premises, suitable buildings and other structures for the aforesaid
purposes; provided that such buildings and other structures shall be first

approved by of the Company, and thereafter

maintained as to meet with the approval of the

of the Companj'; that the Lessee shall, so long as this lease continues,
keep all buildings and other structures on said premises in good repair,
including painting, so as to present a good appearance, so far as required
by such and that the Lessee shall install, re-
arrange and maintain such improvements as may reasonably be required
by said Company for the reduction of fire hazard.

Clearance

(13) The Lessee shall neither erect nor place, nor permit to be
erected or placed, upon said premises any structures or obstruction that
will in any way imperil the safety of trains, engines or cars upon such
railroad tracks as are now or may hereafter be located on, or adjacent
to said premises, or the safety of persons or property in, upon, or about
such trains, engines, cars or tracks. The minimum horizontal and verti-
cal clearances from the tracks shall be prescribed by

of the Company upon request.

Removal of Improvements -

(14) LTpon the termination of this lease in any manner, the Lessee,
upon demand of the Company, without further notice, shall deliver up to
the Company the possession of said premises, and shall if required, re-
move all the improvements placed thereon by the Lessee, and restore said
premises to substantially their former state, and in case the Lessee shall fail,

within days after the date of termination of this lease, to

make such removal or restoration, then the Company may, at its election,
either remove said improvements and restore said premises for the ac-
count and at the sole cost of the Lessee, or may take and hold the said
improvements as its sole property.

Uniform General Contract Forms. 259

Inflammables

(15) No goods of an explosive, dangerous or inflammable nature
or character shall, in any case, be stored in or upon said premises with-
out the written consent of the Company.

Condition of Premises

(16) The Lessee shall at all times keep said premises and the vicin-
ity thereof, in a safe, ''clean and sanitary condition. The Lessee shall
not mutilate, damage, misuse, alter or commit or suffer waste in premises.

Advertising

(17) No advertising shall be placed upon said premises or upon
any structures thereon, except for the Lessee's own legitimate purposes,
and all advertising so placed shall be to the satisfaction of the
of the Company.

Laws and Regulations

(18) The Lessee shall in all respects abide by and comply with all
laws, rules, regulations and ordinances affecting the said premises.

Miscellaneous Charges

(19) The Lessee shall pay all charges for water and lighting and
for street or road sprinkling, sweeping or oiling, that may be levied or
assessed against said premises, covering the period of occupancy.

Snow and Ice

(20) The Lessee shall at all times keep the sidewalks in front of
said premises free and clear of snow and ice, and any expense to the
Company by reason of the failure of the Lessee so to do shall be paid
by the Lessee to the Company upon demand therefor ; such expense to
include all loss or damage of whatsoever character, either to persons or
property.

Use of Tracks

(21) The Lessee shall not permit nor allow tracks belonging to
others than the Company to be constructed upon said premises, and the
Lessee v/ill not permit nor allow trains or engines belonging to others
than the Companj- to be used upon or given access to said premises, with-
out the written consent of the Company.

Company's Right of Entry

(22) The Company shall have the right at all times to enter upon
and to construct railroad tracks on said leased premises, and to maintain
and operate, and to extend or change the location at any time, of such
tracks as are then on said premises, upon days' written

260 Uniform General Contract Forms.

notice to the Lessee. If any structure on said premises shall obstruct or
interfere with the construction of additional main or passing tracks of
the Company, or if required for proper clearance of tracks, the Lessee

at expense, shall promptly move such structure to

another location, either on or beyond said premises as may be necessary,
upon days' written notice to the Lessee.

Access to Premises

(23) In the event it is necessary for the Lessee or his agents, ser-
vants, workmen and customers to pass over other lands of the Company
and railway tracks of the Company, to have access to and from said
premises, all such persons shall make use only of the way indicated by

the , of the Company for that purpose, and the

Lessee hereby expressly assumes all the risk of accident and injury to
the person and property of all such agents, servants and workmen, and
all others resorting to the leased premises in connection with the Lessee's
business, whether the same be occasioned by the negligence of the Com-
pany's servants or in any other manner whatever, and the Lessee shall
indemnify the Company from and against all claims, suits, costs and
charges made upon or incurred by the Company by reason or in conse-
quence of any such accident, loss and injury.

Liability

(24) (a) The Lessee assumes all responsibility for and agrees to
indemnify the Company against loss or damage to property of the Lessee
or of others upon said premises, regardless of negligence of the Company,
arising from fire caused by locomotives operated by the Company in serving
the Lessee upon said premises, or in the vicinity thereof, except to rolling
stock belonging to the Company or to others, and to shipments in the
course of transportation.

(b) The Lessee agrees to indemnify, protect and save harmless the
Company for loss of, damage to, or destruction of property of the Lessee
or of others upon said premises whether caused by fire or otherwise (ex-
cept fire caused by locomotives as hereinbefore provided for), or for
death of or injury to, any person or persons, arising out of the construc-
tion, maintenance, use, or operation on said premises (except where such
death or injury was due solely to negligence of the Company).
Forfeiture

(25) Any breach of any covenant, stipulation or condition herein
contained to be kept and performed by the Lessee, shall after

Uniform General Contract Forms. 261

days' written notice, if continued, at once terminate this lease, and all
rights of the Lessee hereunder. No further notice of such termination
or declaration of forfeiture shall be required, and the Company may at
once re-enter upon said premises and repossess itself thereof, and re-
move all persons therefrom, or may resort to ap action of forcible entry
and detainer, or any other action to recover the same.

Right of Inspection

(26) The said premises shall be open at all reasonable times to the
inspection of the Company, its agents, and applicants for purchase or
lease.

Renewal

{Zl) If the Lessee, with the consent of the Company, holds over and
remains in possession of said premises after the expiration of said term,
this lease shall be considered as extended, and shall continue in effect

from, , to ^

subject, however, to termination as herein provided, and upon the same
terms and conditions as are herein contained. Until terminated as here-
inbefore provided, this lease shall inure to the benefit of and be binding
upon the parties hereto, their heirs, executors, administrators, successors
and assigns.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have executed this
lease on the day and year first above written.

Company.

Witness :

By.

262

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Own form favored by Legal
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Forms of contract prescribed by
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P H

REPORT OF COMMITTEE IX— ON SIGNS, FENCES
AND CROSSINGS

Arthur Crumpton',
Arthur Anderson,
F. W. Bailey,
F. n. Batch ELi.oR,

F. T. Darrow, I

G. N. Edmonhso.n",
S. C. Tump,

L. C. Lawton,

Chairman; Maro Johnson, Vicc-CIiairman;

S. L. McClanahan,
W. S. McFetridge,
L. A. Mitchell,
T. E. Rust,
W. D. Warren,
K. G. Williams,
D. R. Young,

Cnnuiiittfc.

To ihc American Railway Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee:

(1) Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Man-
ual, and submit definite recommendation for changes.

(2) Report on the subject of "Signs," and the principles of design
and rules for their use, considering the adoption of a sign for general
use, as far as possible. Also consider the location of signs, bearing in
mind the matter of safety of employees obliged to use the roadwax'.

(3) (a) Make final report, if practicable, on grade crossings, cross-
ing gates, crossing signal bells, warning signals.

(b) Over- and under-grade crossings, study the laws and require-
ments of the Federal Government and of the various states, provinces
and municipalities, which affect the distribution of cost as between the
carrier and the public.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, May 13th, August
6th and November 12th, 1920. The names of members in attendance have
been given in the Minutes of the IMcetings which have been printed in
the Bulletin.

(1) Revision of Manual

In Appendix "A" the Committee submits proposed changes in the
Manual, together with the reasons therefor, and its recommendations are
given under the heading of Conclusions.

(2) Signs

In Appendix "B" the Committee submits the results of its review of
the various signs covered by previous reports and the minutes of Com-
mittee Meetings. Its recommendations arc given under the heading of
Conclusions.

(3) Highway Crossings

In Appendix "C" the Committee submits the results of its studies in
connection with the following subjects:

267

268 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

(a) Grade Crossings, including tentative specifications and summary
of the requirements and practice of the various States and Canada.

Crossing gates, warning signals and bells.

(b) Over and under-grade crossings.

Revision of Statement of State and Canadian laws relating to the
separation of grades at highway crossings.

Bibliography on Elimination of Grade Crossings.

Conclusions

(1) The Committee recommends that the changes in the Manual in
Appendix "A" be approved and the revised matter be substituted for the
present recommendations in the Manual.

(2) The Committee recommends tliat the following paragraphs be
approved and published in the Manual at the bottom of page 316 in lieu
of its recommendation adopted at .the last Convention. The additional
signs covered are End of Block, Lack of Clearance, Corporation or Sub-
division and Passing Siding.

Roadway Information Signs

Signs for Dump Ashes, Blind Siding, Water Station, Fuel Station,
Beginning of Double Track, End of Double Track, End of Block, Lack
of Clearance, Corporation or Sub-division and Passing Siding to be simi-
lar to sketch shown on page 318, 1915 Manual, for Trespass Signs.

Length of sign plate to he changed, if necessary, on account of word-
ing and corners to be square on last two signs.

The Committee recommends that the designs submitted of Mile Post,
Section Sign, Sub-Division and Section Sign, Property Post, Bridge
Number, Curve and Elevation Number and Valuation Section signs be
approved and published in the Manual.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that the following subjects be assigned
for future work :

(1) Report on the location of signs, bearing in mind the matter of
safety of employees obliged to use the roadway.

(2) Prepare plans and specifications for round and square concrete
fence posts. In this connection follow up the data relating to the use of,
and results obtained from concrete posts used on the different railroads.

(3) Make a revised study of the relative economy of steel, wood
and concrete fence posts and present the data in such form as will cn.-
able comparisons to be made as to the relative economy of the various
types, as the prices of steel, concrete and wood vary due to local condi-
tions or fluctuations in the market.

(4) Prepare specifications for Highway Grade Crossings.

(5) Report on the various substitutes for wooden crossing plank
both at highway crossings and on city streets, including concrete slabs,
Tarvia and rock preparations, and oiled macadam.

Respectfully submitted,
The Committee on Signs, Fences and Ckossings.
Arthur Crumpton, Chairman.

Appendix A

T. E. Rdst, Chairman;
B. J. Dalton,

(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

L. A. Mitchell,

Sub-Coinmittee.

The Sub-Committee to which was assigned the work of studying the
subject matter in the Manual and recommending definite changes in the
same, reports as follows :

(1) No changes are recommended in the definitions appearing on
pages 297 and 298 of the Manual.

(2) The following changes are recommended in the Specifications for
Standard Right-of-Way Fences, appearing on pages 298 and 303, inclusive,
of the Manual. Recommended changes, omissions or additions are under-
scored.

Present Specifications

Class A Fence.

2. A Class A fence shall consist
of nine longitudinal smooth gal-
vanized steel wires; the top and
bottom wires shall be No. 7 gage ;
the intermediate and stay wires
shall be No. 9 gage.

The spacing of the longitudinal
wires, commencing at the bottom,
shall be 4, 4>^, 5, 5^, 6, 7, 8 and 9
inches. The bottom wires shall be
5 inches above the ground and the
stay wires shall be spaced 12 inches
apart.

When used as a hog-tight fence,
the bottom wire shall be not over
3 inches above the ground, with a
strand of barbed wire lyz inches
below same.

Class B Fence.

3. A Class B fence shall consist
of seven longitudinal smooth gal-
vanized steel wires; the longitudinal
and stay wires shall be No. 9 gage.

The spacing of the longitudinal
wires, commencing at the bottom,
shall be bVi, 7, 7^/^, 8, 8K and 9
inches. The bottom wire shall be
7 inches above ground and stay
wires shall be spaced 18 inches
apart.

269

Recommended Specifications

Class A Fence.

2. Class A fence shall consist of
nine longitudinal smooth galvanized
steel wires ; the top and bottom
wires shall be No. 7 gage ; the in-
termediate and stay wires shall be
No. 9 gage.

The spacing of the longitudinal
wires, commencing at the bottom,
shall be 4, 4^, 5, 55^, 6, 7, 8 and 9
inches. The bottom wires shall be
5 inches above the ground and the
stay wires shall be spaced 12 inches
apart.

When used as a hog-tight fence,
a strand of barbed wire shall be
added 2^ inches below the woven

Class B Fence.

3. Class B fence shall consist of
seven longitudinal smooth galvan.-
ized steel wires; the longitudinal
and stay wires shall be No. 9 gage.

The spacing of the longitudinal
wires, commencing at the bottom,
shall be 6V2, 7, 7y2, 8, 8>< and 9
inches. The bottom wire shall be
7 inches above the ground and stay
wires shall be spaced 12 inches
apart.

270

Signs, Fences and Crossings.

Class C Pence.

4. A Class C fence shall consist
of five longitudinal smooth galvan-
ized steel wires ; the longitudinal

Class C Fence.

4. Class C fence shall consist of
woven wire fencing 24^^ inches high
with three strands of barbed wire

and stay wares shall be No.. 9 gage. above. The woven wire fencing
The spacing of the longitudinal shall consist of seven longitudinal,
wires, commencing at the bottom, smooth, galvanized steel wires :
shall be 7j/2, 8, SYz and 9 inches. The longitudinal and stay wires
The bottom wire shall be 9 inches shall be No. 9 gage and the stay
above the ground and the stay wires shall be 12 inches apart. The
wires shall be spaced 24 inches spacing of the longitudinal wires,
apart. commencing at the bottom, shall be

' 3, 314, 4, 4^, 5 and 5^/< inches and

the bottom ware shall be 2 inches
above the ground. The spacing of
the barbed wires above the w^ovcn
wire shall be 4^, 10 and 12 inches.

Concrete Posts.

10. Omit this paragraph.

End Post, Etc.

11. Omit this paragraph.
Intermediate Posts.

12. Omit this paragraph.
Braces.

13. Omit this paragraph.
[nter)iiediate or Line Posts.

20. Intermediate or line posts
shall be set at least 2 feet 4 inches
m the ground and I6V2 feet apart.

Intermediate or Line Posts.

20. Intermediate or line posts
shall be set at least 2 feet 4 inches
in the ground and not more than
20 feet apart, center to center. The
first line post from any corner, an-
chor or gate post shall be set 10
feet, center to center, from the

Signs, Fences and Crossings

271

Bracing-

24. Wood end, corner, anclujr
and gate posts shall be braced bo-
using an intermediate or line post
or a piece of 4-inch by 4-inch
sawed lumber of a qualitj' equal in
durability to that of the posts,
gained into the end, corner, anchor
or gate post, about 12 inches from
the top and into the next interme-
diate or line post about 12 inches
from the ground and be securely
spiked. A cable made of a double
strand of No. 9 galvanized soft
wire looped around the end, corner,
anchor or gate post near the
ground line, and around the next
intermediate or line post about 12
inches from the top, shall be put
on and twisted until the lop of the
next intermediate or line post is
drawn back about 2 inches. Four-
inch by 4-inch reinforced concrete
braces shall be used with concrete
posts.

Stretching.

25. Longitudinal wires shall he
stretched uniformly tight and par-
allel ; stays shall be straight, verti-
cal and uniformly spaced. Wires
shall be placed on the side of the
post away from the track.

Splicing.

27. Approved bolt clamp splice
or a wire splice made as follows
may be used: The ends of the
wires shall be carried 3 inches past
the splicing tools and wrapped
around both wires backward from
the tool for at least five turns, and
after the tool is removed, the space
occupied by it shall be closed by
pulling the ends together.

The use of smooth wire in pref-
erence to barbed wire is recom-
mended for right-of-way fences.

The use of heavy smooth wire.
or a plank at the top of a barbed
wire fence, is recommended.

Bracing.

24. Wood end, corner, anchor
and gate posts shall be braced by
using an intermediate or line post
or a piece of 4-inch by 4-inch
sawed lumber of a quality equal in
durability to that of the posts,
gained into the end, corner, anchor
or gate post, about 12 inches from
the top and into the next interme-
diate or line post about 12 inches
from the ground and be securely
spiked. A cable made of a double
strand of No. 9 galvanized soft
wire looped around the end, corner,
anchor or gate post near the ground
line, and around the next interme-
diate or line post about 12 inches
from the top, shall be put on and
twisted until the top of the next
intermediate or line post is drawn
back about 2 inches.

Stretching.

25. Longitudinal wires shall be
stretched uniformly tight and par-
allel; stays shall be straight, verti-
cal and uniformly spaced. Wires
shall be placed on the side of the
post away from the track, except
that on curves of 1 degree or more
the wires shall be placed on the
side of the post away from the cen-
ter of the curve.

Splicing.

272 Signs, Fences atid Crossings.

(3) The Sub-Committee recommends tliat the two paragraphs on
page 303 of the Manual headed "Galvanized Wire Fencing" be omitted.

(4) No change is suggested in the recommendations regarding "Gates
for Right of Wa}- Fences," appearing on page 310 of the Manual, although
it is thought that under present market conditions the use of a steel gate
may not be justified.

(5) The Sub-Committee recommends that the dimensions of flange-
ways for steam and electric railways, adopted by the Association in 1918,
be referred to the Committee on Track and published in the next edition
of the Manual in the chapter devoted to the work of that Committee. It
is thought that as these dimensions apply to frogs, crossings and guard
rails, the Track Committee would be primarily interested, that members
would naturally look under the report of that Committee for data of this
nature, and that its consideration by Committee No. 9 would be a duplica-
tion of effort. There is also the danger that if two committees are
handling the same subject conflicting recommendations may be adopted
at different times and published in the Manual.

The Sub-Committee's reasons for recommending the above changes
are as follows :

Specifications for Stand.vrd Right of Way Fences.

Class A Fence. — A fence 4 ft. 6 in. high is required by the laws of a
great many states. The specifications as they now appear in the Manual
provide that when this fence is used for hogs the bottom wire shall be not
over 3 in. above the ground with a strand of barbed wire below. This
would make the fence only 4 ft. 4 in. high, which would prevent its use
in states requiring a 4 ft. 6 in. high fence. The Sub-Committee believes
that the use of a barbed wire 2^ in. below the fencing will serve the
purpose without lowering the woven wire.

Class B Fence. — The change from stays 18 in. apart to 12 in. apart is
recommended because our largest makers of woven wire fencing do not
fabricate this fence with 18 in. stays. It is also our opinion that the use
of 12 in. stays is fully warranted.

Class C Fence. — The Class C fence specified in the Manual is one that,
in our opinion, is only suitable under special conditions and in special
locations. A fence 3 ft. 6 in. high is not suitable for general use, would
be a legal stock fence in few, if any, states, and when used should be so
placed as to suit the special conditions which caused Its adoption. In
its place the Sub-Committee has recommended a fence which is being
used to some extent and which gives most of the advantages of the
Class A fence at a considerably lower cost.

Concrete Posts. — The specifications for concrete posts, paragraphs
10, 11, 12 and 13 and the last sentence of paragraph 24 are obsolete, being
largely amended by the conclusions adopted by the Association in 1918.
Inferentlally, also, they exclude the use of steel posts which have been
adopted by several roads. The Sub-Committee thought it best, therefore,
to omit all reference to concrete posts. Later on, if thought best, specifica-

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 27S

tions of fence with concrete posts and with steel posts can be prepared
by the Committee.

Intermediate or Line Posts.— The present specifications for line posts
provide that the same shall be 16^^ ft. apart, without any reference to a
short panel at the corners or ends. The Sub-Committee believes that a
shorter panel should be used at these corners and ends and recommends
10 ft. If this panel is too long an unnecessarily heavy brace is required
and if it is too short there is a tendency for the end post to lift out of
the ground. Ten feet is thought to be about the right length. The change
in the distance apart of other line posts is to meet the practice of those
roads which use 20 ft. centers, and, apparently, with good results.

Stretching. — The Sub-Committee is of the opinion that on curves it
is desirable to have the fence on the outside of the curve from the posts
so that the fence pulls against the posts instead of away from them. If
this is not done it is thought that the staples would be likely to pull out
when the wood in the post gets old and loses its holding power.

Splicing. — The Sub-Committee recommends the omission of the last
two sentences as it seems to us that while the use of smooth wire may
be proper in some places it certainly is not desirable in all places. On
the western plains, for instance, smooth wire would scarcely be suitable
for cattle fences. Cattle will reach through and bend down a fence of
smooth wire in an endeavor to reach the grass on the right of way. If
it is conceded that there are localities where the use of smooth wire is
undesirable the Sub-Committee feels that the two sentences are much
too general and should be omitted. If this is done there is nothing in
the specifications to conflict with the use of smooth wire where the protec-
tion of high-priced stock from being injured by barbed wire, or other
reasons, make it seem better to use smooth.

Galvanized Wire Fencing.

It seems entirely unnecessary to recommend that wire which meets
the Association's specifications be used in the manufacture of fencing.
The adoption of such a specification carries with it the recommendation
for its use. As to the rest of the recommendations th-ey seem both con-
flicting and not based on sufficient knowledge of the manufacture of such
fencing. The first paragraph says that a second coating of zinc should
be applied to electrically welded fencing after it is fabricated and the
second paragraph says that all the galvanizing is to be applied after it is
fabricated, so that the two recommendations are not consistent. As a mat-
ter of fact, the Sub-Committee believes that neither of the two methods
are practicable. It is very probable that an extra heavy coating of zinc
on the fence wires is desirable, but such coating should be applied in
one operation. As to galvanizing the fencing after fabrication we do
not believe that it is commercially practicable. The following is quoted
from a letter recently received by the Committee from one of the largest
manufacturers of fencing:

274 Signs, Fences and Crossings. _^^^

"Regarding your recummendation llial u second coating of zinc be
applied tc electrically welded fence after it has been fabricated, would
say that it is not feasible to apply a second coat of zinc on any galvanized
wire. Wire — to be properly galvanized by the hot method — should be
drawn through the molten zinc bath at such a speed as will let it acquire
the temperature of the molten zinc bath during its journey through that
bath. The result is that any zinc applied by a first coating will be melted
in the second passage through the bath and no more zinc would be left
on the wire when it emerged from the second treatment.

"There is another reason, which perhaps is more technical, and that
is — an}' metal to be galvanized must be made chemically clean and free
from all oxides immediately before it is plunged into the molten zinc.
Any metal exposed to the air, even for a few minutes, is more or less
affected by the oxygen of the atmosphere. Wire once galvanized is
oxidcd by the atmosphere in this way and a second coating would not
fn:m]y adhere unless the first zinc coating was thoroughly cleaned im-
mediately before the second treatment. There is no known way to clean
zinc by chemical means. It can be cleaned by scouring, but that is not
feasible under these circumstances. Therefore, this question of removing
the slight oxide coating would present a double galvanizing, even if the
first reason we have given above did not apply.

"Galvanizing the fence after it is manufactured, whether it is elec-
trically welded or woven by other means, is not feasible. If the manu-
factured roll of fence were dipped in the spelter as a roll, the question
of proper cleaning would be a serious one and we think an insurmount-
able difficulty and, moreover, an}- strands or stays that touched each
other would be soldered by the molten zinc. When unrolled these wires
would have to be ripped apart, which probably would mean that the
galvanizing would be ripped ofT one wire or the other. Many rolls of
fence, especially for railroad use, weigh from 600 to 1,000 lbs., making
an unwieldy bundle to galvanize by tliis means.

"If the fabricated fence were galvanized by runing the fabric through
a molten zinc bath before being finally wound into a bundle, the question
of cleaning would still be a serious problem. The joints and the con-
nections would still hold the cleaning acids as the fabric passed into the
molten zinc bath and good galvanizing would not result. In this case, as
in the case of galvanizing the wound roll, all of the joints and connections
where the stay wire crosses the line wire would be soldered solid by the
zinc. Woven wire fence must be more or less flexible to enable it to
adjust itself to stretching conditions and to the contour of the ground.
This would be i)rc\cnted if the joints were solidly .soldered together.

"Moreover, there are no manufacturers in the country equipped with
galvanizing departments capable of handling the product, either by gal-
vanizing the bundle or running the completed fabric through the galvaniz-
ing bath. It would involve changes in mill arrangements and conditions
which we think no manufacturer would contemplate, even if there were

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 275

not the objections first cited above. Both the fabricated fence and the
completed roll would take up so much unnecessary zinc that the cost
would be prohibitive and much of the zinc, because of the thick coating,
would crack off while the fence was being unrolled and stretched."

It seems to the Sub-Committee that the recommendations concerning
galvanized wire fencing are inconsistent in themselves, not practicable
commercially, and that they should be eliminated from the Manual.

Suggested Rearrangement of Subject-Matter.

1. Definitions.

2. Specifications for Standard Right of Way Fences.

3. Cut showing the four classes of fence, post spacing, etc. (New.)

4. Wire and Nail Tables, etc.

5. Concrete Fence Posts.

6. Gates for Right of Way Fences.

7. Surface Stock Guards.

8. Snow Fences, etc.

9. Cuts showing Snow Fences.

10. Signs.

11. Cuts showing Signs.

Appendix B

(2) SIGNS

J. N. Edmoxdson, Chairman; L. C. Lawton,

A. Anderson, W. S. McFetridge,

F. W. Bailey, S. L. McClanahan,

F. D. Batchellor, Sub-Committee.

Tlie principles of design and rules for use of signs have been quite
thoroughly covered in previous reports and this year we give the follow-
ing resume of the various signs, together with our recommendations.

In reviewing the old reports on work done to date by both this Com-
mittee and that of the Committee on Signals and Interlocking we find
that it has generally been acknowledged that signs should be divided
between those serving the public and those serving employees, the latter
of course being largely in the majority. In this division certain signs
have been reported by this Committee and adopted and certain signs have
been reported by the Signal Committee in Volume 19, pages 76 to 91.

We will first take signs serving the public and we find the following
situation :

Highway Crossing Signs

(a) At crossings.

(b) Approach warning signs.

The first sign, "at crossings," is covered in the 1915 Manual, page 317.
The second sign, "approach warning signs," was adopted by the Conven-
tion at its 1920 Session.

Trespass Signs

(a) Right-of-Way.

(b) Bridge.

These are covered on page 318 of the 1915 Manual.

Private Crossing Sign

The Committee do not believe a sign should be adopted by the Asso-
ciation to cover this, but consider it entirely a local matter as to their use.

Next we have the signs for the use of railroad employees.
Yard Limit

This is covered in Supplement to the Manual issued in 1918, pages
53 to 63.

Speed Limit

Permanent.
Temporary.

276

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 277

(a) Limit.

(b) Slow.

This is also covered bj^ the above reference to Supplement to the
Manual, no distinction being made, however, between Permanent and
Temporary Signs and the "b" sign covered by a note.

Railroad Crossings

(a) Distant (1 mile).

(b) Close (Stop or 400 ft. sign).

This is covered as above by 1918 Supplement to the Manual, pages
S3 to 63, as far as the "one mile" sign is concerned, but nothing was ever
done with regard to the sign used by many railroads close to the crossing.

Junction — 1 mile
Yard — 1 mile
Station — 1 mile

Whistle Post

Covered by the 1918 Supplement to the Manual.

Drawbridge

(a) Distant (1 mile).

(b) Close.

The "one. mile" sign was adopted in the 1918 Supplement to the Man-
ual. Nothing, however, was adopted for the "close" sign to a drawbridge
which is used the same as at railroad grade crossings.

Flemger Sign

Adopted in the 1918 Supplement to the Manual.
Water Station Limit
Fuel Station Limit
Cinder Station Limit
Blind Siding
Beginning and End of Double Track

Adopted at the 1920 Convention, similar to sign on page 318 of the
Manual.

The above cover all the signs of l)oth Committees that have been
adopted by the Association to date and we make report below on the
following signs which are still left for consideration.

End of Block

Your Committee recommends that this sign be similar in design to
the sign adopted at the 1920 Convention for the Beginning and End of
Double Track.

Clearance Post

As a question of safety and also due to the fact that a post of this
character is not being used to any extent, your Committee recommends

278 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

that no such post be adopted, but if necessary to mark clearance point
where not taken care of by derails or signals that the rail and tie at the
clearance point be painted to indicate such location.

Mile Post

Your Committee present design of mile post, which they recommend
for adoption.

Section Signs — Sub-Division and Section Signs

Your Committee submits herewith sketch covering Section Sign, which
they recommend for adoption. Also sketch covering Sub-Division and
Section Sign where such are needed at the intersection of various Sub-
Divisions.

Corporation or Sub-Division Signs

Your Committee recommends that this be similar to sign on page 318
of the Manual, excepting that it would be necessary to use a sign either
36 ft. X 24 ft. of 42 ft. x 24 ft. It would also be necessary to use this
sign on a post flattened where fastened to the plate in order to paint
both sides of the same, this sign being set at right angles to the tracks.
We also recommend that this have square corners.

Property Posts

Your Committee submits sketch covering property post, which they
recommend for adoption.

Passenger Station and Passing Siding Signs

Your Committee believe that the question of Passenger Station signs
is one to be considered in connection with stations and not properly one
for this Committee, it not being a roadway sign.

For Passing Siding signs needed your Committee recommend one
similar to sign on page 318 of the Manual, excepting sign will have to
be longer in order to take care of the necessary wording.

Track Pan Posts

Your Committee understand that this matter is being considered by
the Signal Committee, as shown on page 11 of Volume 19 of the Proceed-
ings of the Association.

Bridge Numbers

Your Committee submits herewith sketch of proposed sign to be used
at bridges where the numbers cannot be painted directly on the structures.
Where the latter can be done your Committee recommend that in prefer-
ence to the erection of a sign. This would refer to through bridges or
overhead bridges of any type.

Culvert Numbers

Your Committee recommend that no sign be adopted for culvert
numbers, as this would require in many cases a large number of unim-
portant signs.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 279

Curve and Elevation Numbers

Your Committee submits licrewitli sketch of proposed post to be
used for that purpose and tlie adoption of which is recommended.

Lack of Clearance Sign

•Your Committee recommend a sign of this kind be con.structed simi-
lar to sign shown on page 318 of the Manual, with the proper wording.

Valuation Section Sign

This is a sign which has recently been brought up on some railroads
on account of the valuation by the Government and the continuing of
reports by Valuation Sections. If such sign is desired, your Committee
recommend the adoption of sketch submitted.

In the above signs your Committee has only recommended a general
design, as we find that details will have to be followed out according to
conditions existing in various locations.

With regard to the location of signs your Committee recommend
that this be given further consideration the coming year and informa-
tion be obtained from various railroads as to their current practice on
such locations.

(2:?2)

280

Signs, Fences and Crossi n g s

— isi"-.

)

Y-

'i_'

A~"

181

—

■fl

[WW

"v
'l

D
Suboradc

3P ^ 7*

J !
1

'l.
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■I

Location .- To be placed preferably on
north or east side of track
or in direction leading
from principal termini.

Material - i' round steel bars T'lony
Concrete - class 1-2-^.

^yV•■?•':.K^♦^^^\<;.:■J•/;■:^»^;^;«|;^riii7

lores recessed

SECTION *A-A'

TRACK ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION

TYPICAL DETAIL OF NUMBERS

Sizes to be used rrtien 3 are required 5iz.es to be used when lorEonlj- are required

MILE POST

Signs. Fences and Crossings

281

5lGNS TO HAVE. I"Bi.ACK margin,
WHITE FIELPANO BLACK LETTERS.
PLACe SON PARALLEL TO TRACK
rtEAR RIGHT OP WAY LINE".

Section Post

Sub Division

AND

Section Post

282

Signs, Fences and Crossings.

•„ Exacf line or intersecfioo of lines

j tobe indica+ed by Cross cut 19 Concref'e.

This side fo face MaiQ
Track where possible.

Letfers fo
Into post

be moulded

^f^^r^w^^W^

To be set 00 all Property Corners, on fbc
Property line af the PC and P.J. of all
Curves, and every 1000 ft. on laogenfj.

Concrele fobe laid and finished in
accordance with general opecificafions
■for tnasonry.

All exposed edges of Concrcfe io b^
rounded to a radius of One inct>

Property Line Rdst

Signs, Fences and Crossings.

28S

Pipe Flattened
ly i" thick

Place sign at right angles fo track

and on side most conspicuous to

Pa:ib trains.

5ridge sign to be used only at

openings in track where number

can not be conspicuously painted

on structure

5ign to hav« I" black margin, white

field and black letters

Sign to be bolted to pipe with

round headed i' bolts

Concrete
Class 12 4

BRIDGE SIGN

284

Signs, Fences and Crossings

Black figures and Lef tens

Black figures and Leffero.

Part white Of) all sides ^

N 2

— O/Psirrf white on all sides.

Paint black on all aides.

Paint blacK on all aides.

FuLLEtEVATion Post Zero Elevation Fbsr

SIMPLE TRACK

5el on inside of curve at each end
?-0'from gauge side c^near rail to
nearside of posr and oppoaire'End
of Easemcnt^in ail cases. Elcva+ionto
read approaching curve. Degree
Of Curve te be on side facing tracK,
and number of Curve lobe on side
opposr+e Eieva+jor^.

SINGLE TRACK

Set" on inside ot curve> at each end
7-o'from gauae side of near rail to
near side of post and opposite
Beginning of Lasement, or vrhere
no Spiral is used at the point
of run-off on tangents. Figures
to read approaching Curve.

DOUBLE OR FOUR TRACK
Above notes apply also to Double or four
Track except^ that all posts must be
set on outside of Tracks

ELEVATION P05T5

Signs, Fences and Crossi n^%

285

BACK ELEVATION

5 5eT 3CRC.W.

PLAN

NOTE.-

allsi5nst0 have. face of
Letters and borders painted
black on white background.

Fb5T5 AND BACK Of SIGM3 TO
BE PAINTED BLACK.LeTTE.R5 AMD
BORDERS pp ALL SIGHS TO BE
RAISED ir". WITH SLIGHT DRAUGHT

Good second hand boiler
tube.5 may be used for posts
and filled with grout.

Place sksn parallel-tothe.
r Track near r\oht of way une:.

Valuation Section Sign

Appendix C

(3) HIGHWAY CROSSINGS

Maro Johnson, Chairman; K. G. Williams,

F. T. Darrow, W. D. Warren,

S. C. Jump, D. R. Young,

Gradk Crossings.

Sub-Conimitti'e.

Grade crossings have taken on greatly increased importance dnring
recent jears. State and local authorities have become interested and in
many cases are actively co-operating in providing protection, in improving
the physical conditions and in educating the public. Some states have
laws with definite requirements as to grades to be used and details of
construction. In others the Highway Commission has adopted rules
pertaining to these features.

The Committee presents an abstract of the regulations in effect in
the various states and Canada. In general, these regulations are inter-
preted in a liberal spirit by the officials enforcing them. On the so-called
Federal Aid and State Aid projects, plans are usually prepared by the
State Highway Commissions. For highways where the requirements are
not stipulated by law the following specifications, which it is believed
will provide an adequate crossing, are presented as information with a
view to their consideration at a later date for insertion in the Manual.

Wood plank arc recommended. Some roads are using concrete plank
experimentally and others, bituminous concrete, at crossings. This Com-
mittee is not ready to recommend these.

Specifications for Highway Crossings

(1) A railroad grade crossing should not be so constructed that it
will limit the traffic on a highway in respect to number of vehicles or load
carried by them.

(2a) Under ordinary- conditions the grade of the surface of the high-
way should be level with the top of rail for a distance of one foot outside
each rail ; should be three inches lower at points ten feet each side of the
center of the track, and should slope upward or downward from these
ten-foot points at grades not exceeding five per cent, where such grades
are practicable.

(2b) Where the length of the approach is excessive, where the view
is obstructed, or where an approach grade in excess of 5 per cent is
necessary, the following grade line should be used: The surface of the
highway should be level with the top of rail, for a distance of 1 ft. out-
side each rail ; should be 6 in. lower at points 30 ft. each side of the
center of the track, and should slope upward or downward from these

286

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 287

30-ft. points, at grades not exceeding 5 per cent, where such grades are
practicable.

(3) The width of embankment at the crown end of cuts, exclusiv«
of ditches, should be not less than 20 ft.

(4) Ample drainage for railway and highway should be provided.

(5) A single line of 4-in. plank not less than 10 in. wide and 16 ft.
long, measured at right angles to the highway, should be placed outside
and adjacent to each rail. The space between the rails should be planked
solid after making provision for flangeways. The top surface of plank
should not be more than % in. below the top of rail, and should be
chamfered at each end. Flangeways should be 2^ in. wide and tapered
to 4 in. at the extreme ends. Rail joints should not come within the
limits of the planking except where the length of crossing exceeds the
length of rail.

Crossing Gates — Warning Signals and Bells

This Association has adopted a standard highway crossing sign, page
.317 of the Manual, and a standard approach warning sign, page 629, Vol.
21 of Proceedings. The approach warning sign has been adopted by the
National Association of Railroad Commissioners and by the American
Railway Association. In some states a stop sign consisting of a semi-
circular metal plate with the word "stop" is located close to the track at
crossings designated by the Public Service Commission or other authority.
Under all ordinary conditions these signs are all the protection required.
There are many crossings in prairie states where no sign is provided,
the train being visible for a long distance.

The use of crossing gates, warning signals and bells should be con-
fined to crossings in cities and towns where the view is obscured or
highway and rail traffic is heavy. Their use elsewhere is not ordinarily
justified, but the conditions under which they are installed are not uni-
form for the reason that the installation is governed by local considera-
tions and is frequently forced by local authorities.

The American Railway Association has adopted rules for the guidance
of flagmen and gatemen and has prescribed the equipment with which
they must be provided. Where a flagman is on duty bells should not be
installed. There is a tendency for the flagman to depend on the bell.

Gates are operated mechanically, by compressed air and by electricity.
Mechanically operated gates are simple and easy to maintain. The pneu-
matic gate is also a satisfactory gate. Both types are subject to some
trouble in the winter time. Leaky pipes which permit water to enter and
freeze are one source of trouble with the mechanical gates. With pneu-
matic gates, during expansion of the air, there is a tendency for water
to condense on the interior surface of the pipes, freeze and eventually
stop up the pipe. Pneumatic gates are adapted to situations where more
than one pair of gates are operated from the same gate house. Such
installations should be made where the gateman has a full view of both
crossings. Electrically operated gates are more expensive in first cost,

288 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

in maintenance and in operation. The use of automatic electric gates
actuated by approaching trains through a track circuit is not desirable.
It should be possible to operate gates on opposite sides of the track in-
dependently. It requires about twenty seconds to operate one pair of
gates. The crossing should be closed about one-half minute in advance
of the arrival of train. Striped gate arms are more easily seen than
those painted in solid color.

Wigwags should be visible 500 ft. from the track. Bells should be
loud enough to be heard above the noise of trains. Either device should
be operated not less than one-half minute in advance of arrival of train.
The length of track circuit will vary with the grade and -with operating
conditions. On double track lines operation of warning devices is usually
in the normal direction only. Special consideration frequently must be
given installations at crossings in the vicinity of yards and switching
leads.

Wigwags should be positive in action. The arrangement should be
such that, when in working order, the disc will be concealed except when
a train is approaching. When the device is out of order the disc should
be in full view. Bells striking intermittently are more effective than
those ringing continuously.

Summary of the Requirements and Practice of the Various States
AND Canada Pertaining to Highway Grade Crossings

Alabama. — There are no uniform requirements in regard to Grade
Crossings. The matter was before the last Legislature, but owing to the
shortness of the session, the bill failed to pass.

Arizona. — No report.

Arkansas. — Road commissioners are required in the improvement
or construction of any highway, to locate it to cross the track at right
angles, or as near right angles as is practical. Any interested person may
enjoin the construction of the highway, if this is not done. So far as
learned, there are no fixed requirements pertaining to construction of
approaches.

California. — The Railroad Commission has control of the installa-
tion, alteration or abolition of Grade Crossings. There are no uniform
requirements applying to construction.

Colorado. — The Railroad Commission has jurisdiction over highway
crossings with railroads. Its requirements are as follows : State High-
ways— Width of roadway, 24 ft. ; grade of approach, level for 20 ft.
from center of track, then not more than six per cent. Other Public
Highways — Width of roadway, 16 ft. ; grade, as for State Highways.
Gravel or other surfacing is required, and in towns, planks are required
adjacent to rails.

Connecticut. — There are no uniform requirements or any regulations
regarding highway crossings. Each condition is considered by the Pub-
lic Utilities Commission of the state.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 289

Delaware. — There are no fixed requiremenls governing present cross-
ings. The State Highway Law prohibits the construction of new highway
crossings'with railways at grade.

Floriha. — There are no specifications in special reference to grade
crossings, but tlie grades on the highways, as a rule, do not exceed five
per cent; width of graded roadway, 30 ft.; width of hard surface, 16 ft.
Owing to the physical characteristics of the state, few grades are in
excess of three per cent.

Georgia.— There are no uniform requirements applying to construc-
tion of highway grade crossings.

Idaho. — A safe crossing is required. Legislation on this question in
1921 is anticipated.

Illinois. — Railroads are required b}' law to construct and maintain
highway crossings, so that the roadway at the intersection will be flush
to the rails. The grade of approaches must not exceed five per cent, unless
authorized by the Public Utilities Commission. On State or Federal aid
roads, the State Highway Department is making a uniform practice of
building the approaches practically level for a distance of 50 ft. each
side of the track, where this construction is at all feasible.

Indiana. — There are no statutory requirements in regard to construc-
tion of highway grade crossings other than that the crossing shall be good
and sufficient.

Iowa. — On the Primary Road System, which includes the main market
roads, the width of roadway is 28 ft.; grade of approach, six per cent;
width of crossing over tracks, 24 ft. It is customary, where practicable,
to construct the crossing level with the top of rail for 50 ft. each side
of the center of the track. On county roads, the width of roadway is
26 ft.; grade of approach, 6 per cent; width of crossing, 16 ft. to 20 ft.
On township roads, the roadway is 24 ft. wide; grade of approach, 6 per
cent; width of crossing, 16 ft.

Kansas. — Session Laws of 1919 provide that highway crossings shall
be not less than 24 ft. wide on county roads and 20 ft. wide on township
roads. They must be built level for 30 ft. on each side of the track,
unless County Commissioners find this feature unnecessarJ^ The grade
of approaches must not exceed 6 per cent.

Kentucky. — There arc no laws in regard to the construction of
highway crossings.

Louisiana. — No report.

Maine. — There are no uniform requirements. The Public Utilities
Commission prescribed the character of construction in each case that
comes before it.

Maryland. — On state highways the minimum width of embankment
is 24 ft., and the maximum grade 6 per cent. On other roads there are
no uniform requirements.

Massachusetts. — There are no uniform requirements in regard to
construction of highway crossings. Changes are authorized after hearing
before the authorities having jurisdiction.

290 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

Michigan. — The Public Utilities Commission has adopted specifica-
tions which require the width of the roadway to be not less than 24 ft.
and the grade of approach to be not more than 4 per cent. Plaftk adjacent
to the rails must be at least 16 ft. long.

MiNNPisOTA. — A suitable crossing of plank or other material, 22 ft.
wide, is required with approaches of the same width and grades not ex-
ceeding 5 per cent.

Mississippi. — There are no standards pertaining to the construction
of highway crossings except those of good engineering practice, as the
exigencies of the case permit.

AfissouRi. — No report.

Montana. — ^There are no uniform requirements as to construction.

NEBRASKA.-^Information received is not definite.

Nevada. — There are no uniform requirements. The Department of
Highways has charge and each case is a matter of mutual agreement
between the department and the railway.

New Hampshire. — There are no uniform requirements. Each case
is handled individually on its merits.

New Jersey. — There are no uniform requirements governing the con-
struction of grade crossings. All varieties of conditions exist. Each
crossing is considered as an individual case and worked out as safety
requires. On the state owned highway, the width of embankment is
30 ft. and the maximum grade is 6 per cent.

New Mexico. — No report.

New York. — On state highways the approach is laid out the width
of the highway and the grade is made the minimum possible after taking
into consideration the surrounding topography.

North Carolina. — Each crossing is designed on the merits of the
individual case.

North Dakota. — Each crossing is considered as a special problem
to be solved in a way to secure most advantageous results. General
standard of road construction is, minimum width of embankment, 24 ft. ;
ma.ximum grade, 6 per cent.

Ohio. — There are no statutory requirements in regard to the construc-
tion of grade crossings.

Oklahoma.- — The Corporation Commission has rules that grade cross-
ings must be level with the top of rails for 7^/2 ft. each side the center
line of the track ; maximum grade, 5 per cent ; minimum width, 16 ft.

Oregon. — There are no uniform requirements. State highways are
paved for a width of 16 ft. with a 2-ft. macadam shoulder on each side.
On these roads an effort is made to build at least 50 ft. of level approach
on each side of the track.

Pennsylvania. — The following standards are generally adhered to by
the State Highway Department: Width of embankment, 28 ft.; width of
roadway, 24 ft.; grade of approach, 5 per cent.

Rhode Island. — No report.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 291

South Carolina. — No report.

South Dakota. — The Board of Railroad Commissioners have juris-
diction. The law requires a good and sufficient crossing.

Tennf.ssf.e.^ — There are no uniform requirements in regard to tlie
construction of grade crossings.

Texas. — No report.

Utah. — There are no specific requirements. The Road Commission
tries to keep grade at 6 per cent or below. Main roads have pavement
18 ft. wide, with 4-ft. shoulders. Dirt roads are 24 ft. wide.

Vermont. — The Public Service Commissioners have jurisdiction. So
far as learned there are no imiform requirements. The standard width
of roadway for new highways is 21 ft.

Virginia. — Width of embankments, state highways, 24 -ft. ; count)
highways, 20 ft. Grade of approach, state highways, 5 per cent ; count\-
highways, 7 per cent.

Washington. — The State Highways Commission requires grade cross-
ings to be built level with the top of rail for a distance of 25 ft. each
side of the track, with approach grades of 5 per cent. The width of
embankments on primary highways is 28 ft. and on secondary highways
26 ft.

West Virginia. — The width of embankment on Class A roads is
23 ft., with 16 ft. pavement. The grade of approach is limited to 9 per
cent.

Wisconsin. — On the State Highway System, width of approach em-
bankments is not less than 24 ft. The grade is usually limited to 5 per
cent. There are no uniform requirements for other highways.

Wyoming. — There are no specific requirements; each case is handled
in accordance with local conditions.

Canada.

The Board of Railwaj- Commissioners have prescribed rules. Ap-
proaches must have a road surface not less than 20 ft. wide, with a
grade not in excess of 5 per cent. Planking or other filling is required
for a length of at least 16 ft. Where the embankment of the roadway
is more than 5 ft. high, a fence 4J^ ft. high is required on each side. A
10-in. board must be placed at the bottom of the fence to prevent snow
from blowing ofif the roadway.

(3b) Over- and Undergrade Crossings

During 1917 this Committee collected information in regard to the
laws of the various states, and also the practice relating to the separation
of highway grade crossings and the apportionment of the cost of the
work. This information was published in the Proceedings, Vol. 19,
pages 633 to 653. As part of the work of the Committee this year, this
matter is brought up to date.

No additional information has been received from the state of
Alabama.

292 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

There have been no changes in the laws in any of the following
states : Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jer-
sey, Nortii Carolina, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas,
Vermont, West Virginia and Wyoming.

In the following states changes have becMi made in the laws, new laws
have been passed, or the information is re-stated in more complete form:

California. — The Public Utilities Act of 1912 as amended in 1917
and 1919 gives to the Railroad Commission the exclusive power to order
construction, alteration, separation, relocation, abolition, etc., of grade
crossings and to apportion the expense or divide the work among the
interested parties. The Commission has power also to fix the compensa-
tion for 5inj' properties taken for such improvement being carried out
under its order, or damaged by reason of -the improvement, or during its
construction. In case any of the parties to an apportionment do not
make payment to other parties to the apportionment in the manner di-
rected by the Commission, the aggrieved party has the right to sue there-
for in any court of competent jurisdiction.

Delaware. — At the present time there are only a few grade crossings
in this state over the state highway and the railroad and the State High-
way Department have reached an agreement as to the elimination of
these crossings. Delaware has no railroad or Public Utility Commission.
The Public Utility law of 1911 applies only to the city of Wilmington.

Idaho. — Section 2464 of the Compiled Statutes of Idaho provides that
the Public Utilities Commission may order protection of grade crossings
by flagmen, bells, gates, or other suitable device, but the Commission has
not passed upon this section to determine whether or not, under these
provisions, the Commission may order a separation of grades.

Section 4808 gives railroads broad powers in taking land necessary
for grade crossing elimination work.

In Pocatello, the railroads have borne all the cost of the work, in-
cluding consequential damages. The cost of removing and replacing pav-
ing, walks, etc., has been borne by the abutting property owners, except
that portion located on or over carriers' tracks and right-of-way.

Indiana. — Secretary of the Public Service Commission advised in
1917 as follows: "There is a specific law granting control of separation
of grades to the Public Service Commission of Indiana. There has been
no decision of the Supreme Court of Indiana on this law. Chapter 75
of the Acts of 1915 provide certain powers to cities having a population
of 20,000. The expense is fixed or apportioned by law, the railway com-
panies bearing 75 per cent, the state nothing, the county 25 per cent and
the municipality and public service corporations nothing."

The Attorney-General now advises: "The Act of 1919, p. 119, pro-
vides that in constructing highways, the State Highway Commission may
separate the grades where a highway outside of cities and towns crosses
or intersects railroad, or it may -require the Public Service Commission
to act.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 299

"When any separation of grades is made, cither by agreement or by
order", the State Highway Commission shall pay one-half of the total ex-
pense of such separation and treat the same as a part of the cost of such
highway, the other one-half to be paid by the railroad whose tracks are
involved in such separation."

"After the separation is accomplished the State Highway Commis-
sion is to maintain the highway and the structures supporting it and the
Railroad Company is to maintain its roadway and track and the structures
supporting the same."

In Indianapolis the Railway Company paid 75 per cent of the expense
of grade elimination, the Street Railway and City 25 per cent.

In Fort Wayne the Street Railway paid IZJ^ per cent of the total
cost of some grade separation work done by the Wabash Railroad.

Kansas. — Section 5, Chapter 245, of Laws of Kansas of 1919, pro-
vides as follows: "That Section 18 of Chapter 264, Laws of 1917, be
amended to read as follows: Section 18. That it shall be the duty of
the county engineer and Board of County Commissioners, in designating
the county road system, to eliminate all steam or electric road grade
crossings and all other dangerous places on such highways so far as
practicable, by paralleling such steam or electric roads, constructing un-
dergrade or overhead crossings, or relocating the highways, or by the
use of such other means as may be necessary to properly safeguard the
traveling public. Provided, that the expense of eliminating railroad
crossings shall be divided between the railroad company and the county,
as the case may be, in a fair and equitable proportion, to be determined
by the State Highway Commission, which shall determine the necessity
for eliminating such crossing. When the elimination, protection or im-
provement of a railroad grade crossing, as finally determined to be neces-
sary by the State Highway Commission, shall require the relocation, laying
out, altering, widening or vacating of a highway, the Board of County
Commissioners may purchase or acquire by donation any land required,
and by order of said board shall cause the highway to be relocated, laid
out, altered, widened or vacated, and such order of the Board of County
Commissioners shall cause any land so procured to become a public high-
way without further action."

LoifisiANA. — The following advice is from the Secretary of the Rail-
road Commission of Louisiana: "This Commission has no jurisdiction
in the matter of grade crossings in cities and towns, and the subject has
never been agitated as to the rural communities. In any event, there is
no specific act of the Legislature or article of the constitution conferring
this authority on the Commission; and whatever jurisdiction it might have
in the premises is only inferential."

In New Orleans two viaducts have been constructed at the joint ex-
pense of the Street Railway Company and the Railroads.

Massachusetts. — The matter presented below is more complete than
given in the previous report. There has been no change in the law.

294 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

The railroad laws of Massachusetts provide for the appointment of a
special commission in each case of grade crossing elimination work, whose
duties shall include the apportionment of the cost among the various
parties interested. The commission shall meet at once, and if it decides
that the security and convenience of the public require the alterations to
be made, it shall prescribe the manner and limits thereof, and shall
detefmine which of the parties shall do the work, or shall apportion the
work between each of the railroad corporations and the city or town.
The railroad corporations shall pay 65 per cent of the total actual cost
of the alterations including the actual cost to any street railway company
of changing its railway, the cost of the hearing, the compensation of the
commissioners and auditors and all damages, except as otherwise pro-
vided. The commission may, subject to a right of appeal to the superior
court by the street railway company or by the commonwealth for a
revision by a jury of the amount of such assessment, assess upon any
street railway company made a party to the proceedings such percentage
of the total cost, not exceeding 15 per cent, as may, in the judgment of
the commission be just and equitable. The remainder of the total cost
shall be apportioned by the commission between the commonwealth and
the city or town in which the crossing is situated, and in making the
apportionment the commission shall take into account the benefits to the
city or town and its financial ability, and shall assess upon the city or
town such percentage of the total cost, not exceeding 10 per cent as may
in its judgment be just, and in case less than 10 per cent of the total
cost is assessed upon the city or town, the difference between the amount
so assessed and 10 per cent shall be assessed upon the railroad corpora-
tions in addition to the 65 per cent, or upon the commonwealth, or shall
be apportioned between the railroad corporations and the commonwealth.
The commission shall equitably apportion the 65 per cent and such addi-
tional sum as may be assessed, to be paid by the railroad corporation be-
tween the several railroads which may be parties to the proceedings. If
the crossing was established after the twenty-first day of June, 1890, no
part of the cost shall be charged to the commonwealth ; and such part
as thus becomes unapportionable shall be borne by the railroad corpora-
tion, the street railway company, if any, and the city or town, in addi-
tion to the other amounts payable by them, in such proportion^ as the
commission shall determine.

Where a grade crossing is eliminated by agreement between the
municipality and the railroad company, approved by the Department of
Public Utilities, the commonwealth pays 20 per cent of the cost and the
apportionment between the mimicipality and the company is a part of the
agreement.

Michigan. — The Railroad Laws of Michigan give to the council of
a municipality or corresponding governmental body of townships, coun-
ties, etc., the right to enter with railroads, railways and others interested,
into agreements covering the matter of grade crossing elimination and
the apportionment of the cost of such work. These agreements are sub-

Signs. Fences and Crossings. 295

ject to approval of the Railroad Commission, which body also has power
to order work and apportion cost in case agreements cannot be reached
by parties interested.

Under another law the State Highway Commission has jurisdiction
over highways in townships and unincorporated villages, and, in conjunc-
tion with the Public Utilities Commission, may order the separation of
highway grade crossings and apportion the expense between the railroads,
townships, counties and state. The State Highwaj^ Commissioner, who is
the custodian of all highway funds, fixes the amount to be paid by the
state, which amount must not exceed 25 per cent of the total cost.

In Detroit, usually the city bears the consequential damages to abut-
ting property, the street railway bears a part of the cost of changing its
facilities ; the other public service corporations bear the cost of chang-
ing their pipes, poles, wires, etc., and the railroads bear all the other
expense, including paving, walks, etc.

Montana. — Section 7, Chapter 148, Session Laws of 1919, provides
as follows :

That no railroad crossing, other than a grade crossing, shall be or-
dered by any board of county commissioners. The Board of Railroad
Commissioners may, however, upon petition or request in writing of any
board of county commissioners, order an overhead or underground cross-
ing at any place where a railroad crossing has not been constructed and
is required by the provisions of this act, provided in its judgment the
safety, necessity and convenience of the traveling public require such
crossing. When any such petition or request is presented, the Board of
Railroad Commissioners shall fix a date for hearing the same and in the
event an overhead or underground crossing is ordered, the board may,
in its discretion, require the same to be constructed and maintained by,
and at the expense of the railroad company, or may apportion the ex-
pense between the railroad company and the county in which the crossing
is located. The part of the expense apportioned to the county, if any,
shall be paid to the railroad company from the funds of said county
properly applicable to the payment of such expense.

Nebraska. — The laws of Nebraska contain numerous and contradic-
tory statutes regarding the matter of grade crossings and the State Rail-
way Commission is not sure that the courts would sustain the commission
in assuming all authority over grade crossings.

There is no provision for division of expense in grade separation
work and carriers, as a rule, bear all expense.

Nevada. — Sec. 18A, Chapter 109, of 1919 Statutes, reads as follows:

"After hearing and investigation of a formal complaint or complaints
by the state highw-ay department or the county commissioners of any
county, or the town board or council of any town or municipality, or
by any railroad company, the commission shall have the power to de-
termine and order for the safety of the traveling public the elimination,
alteration, addition or change of a highway crossing or crossings over

296 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

any railroad at grade, or above or below grade, including its approaches
and surface; changes in the method of crossing at grade, or above or
below grade; the closing of a crossing and the substitution of another
therefor; the removal of obstructions to the public view in approaching
such crossing or crossings ; and such other details of construction and
operation as may be necessary to make grade-crossing elimination, changes
and betterments for the protection of the public and the prevention of
accidents effective; and in this behalf the commission is herebj- authorized
and empowered to determine and order that the cost of such elimination,
removal, change, alteration or betterment as may be ordered shall be
divided and paid in such proportion by the state, county, town or munici-
pality and the railroad or railroads interested as shall be designated by
the commission."

New Hampshire. — There has been no change in the law. Some ad-
ditional information has been obtained and the report revised to comply
with it.

The Board of Railroad Commissioners, upon petition of a railroad
company, may authorize it to raise or lower a highway where it is
crossed by the railroad, for the purpose of separating the grades of the
two roads, or to change the location of the highway.

A town may, by vote, require a railroad company to raise or lower a
highway where it is crossed by the railroad, or to erect and maintain gates
across the highway, or to station a flagman there.

If the railroad company does not comply with such vote to the satis-
faction of the selectmen of the town within six months after receiving
a copy of it, the company shall forfeit one hundred dollars for each
month's neglect, unless it shall make application to the Board of Railroad
Commissioners, as provided in the following paragraph.

The railroad company may, within sixty days after receiving a copy
of the vote, apply by petition to the Board of Railroad Commissioners for
an examination of the crossing and a decision as to whether the public
good requires the change proposed, or any other change, to be made ;
and the commissioners shall make such order as they adjudge the public
good requires; and if the company does not comply with such order, it
may be fined not exceeding one thousand dollars. (See Public Statutes,
Chap. 159, Sees 13-18.)

There is no provision regarding division of expense. If the Com-
mission orders elimination, it is presumed by the Commission that the
railroad will bear the expense unless the municipality and the railroad
enter into a voluntary agreement for the apportionment.

New York. — There has been no change in the law, but Secretary of
the Public Service Commission has submitted a revised statement. Some
additional information is given pertaining to methods followed at Buffalo.

Sections 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 97 and 99 of Chapter 481, Section 93 of
Chapter 484 and Section 94 of Chapter 240 provide that upon petition
from municipalities the Commission may order separation of grades on
the following basis of expense :

Signs. Fences and Crossings. 297

Where new railroads are constructed across existing streets, railroads
bear 100 per cent.

Where new highway is constructed across e.xisting raihoads, railroads
bear 50 per cent and municipalities 50 per cent.

Where changes are made in an existing highway or structure other
than a state or county highway, the municipahty pays 25 per cent, the
state 25 per cent, and the railroad 50 per cent; provided that in case
the municipal corporation is a village having less than 1,200 inhabitants,
the share of the village must be paid by the town in which it is located.
If the highway is a state highway, the cost is divided equally between
the state and the railroad, in the case of a county highway, SO per cent
is paid by the railroad and 50 per cent by the state, county and town,
the amount payable by each being determined in accordance with the
manner in which each shared in the original cost of the highway.

Section 95 of the railroad law gives the Public Service Commission
power to institute proceedings looking toward the change in an existing
crossing whenever, in its judgment, public safety requires that a change
shall be made.

Any person aggrieved by a determination of the Commission may
appeal to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court within 60 days
and later to the Court of Appeals, if necessary. Appropriations of funds
for the use of the Public Service Commission are made by the Legislature
in accordance with requests from the Commission when the Legislature
deems them to be necessary.

Consequential damages, expense of changing sewers, water pipes,
etc., are included in joint account and distributed on proper percentages.
Public service corporations bear expense of their own facilities affected.
The maintenance of existing structures is on the basis of : overhead high-
way, framework and abutment by railroad, railroad approaches by munici-
palities, under grade crossings, bridge abutments by railroads, subway
and approaches by municipalities.

The cities of Buffalo, Syracuse and Niagara Falls have special laws.

Buffalo. — Where new streets are laid out across railroads the Depart-
ment of Public Works petitions the State Public Service Commission,
which orders manner and method of crossing, expense being borne 50
per cent by railroad and 50 per cent by city. Expense generally includes
paving across railroad's right-of-way.

Elimination of existing streets named in the law governing the Grade
Crossing Commission of the city of Buffalo is subject to contract made
between the commission and the railroads for each crossing eliminated.
The division of cost is also subject to contract, but in the main runs about
as follows :

All work within the street lines, including the abutments supporting
the railroad bridges, divided city, 35 per cent; railroads, 65 per cent.

All work on the right-of-way of the railroad companies paid for 100
per cent by the railroad.

298 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

All land and consequential damages divided city, 45 per cent ; rail-
roads, 55 per cent.

Syracuse. — City may order elimination of crossings subject to ap-
proval of Public Service Commission, expen.<:e being borne 50 per cent
by railroad, 25 per cent by city and 25 per cent by state; expense includes
all changes.

Niagara Falls. — No information available.

Ohio. — The Public Utilities Commission of Ohio has no jurisdiction in
the matter of grade crossing elimination. The power to deal with matters
of this nature is vested in municipalities.

Section 8883 of the general code, which was amended May 10, 1910,
reads as follows ;

"The cost of constructing the improvement authorized, including the
making of waj's, crossings of viaducts, above or below the railroad tracks,
and the raising or lowering of the grades of the railroad tracks and
side tracks for such distance as may be required by such municipality and
made necessary by such improvement, together with the cost of land or
property purchased or appropriated and damages to owners of abutting
property or other property, shall be borne 35 per cent by the municipality
and 65 per cent by such railroad company or companies. The municipality
shall have a right of action against any such railroad company for the
recovery of the 65 per cent and such costs payable by it with interest
from the time they become due. Such municipality and railroad company
may agree as to what part of the work shall be done by the railroad and
also fix the amount to be allowed or credited to the company for doing
the work. Such railroad company shall be entitled to deduct from its
65 per cent of the cost of the improvement the expense incurred by it
in the change of grade required by the municipality or made necessary
by it under such specifications, but only in case the amount of expense
has been agreed upon in writing between the municipality and the railroad
company. If the amount of work done by the company, or made necessary
by reason of such change of grade on lowering or raising its tracks,
exceeds 65 per cent of the cost of the improvement then it shall have
the right to recover the amount with interest in excess of 65 per cent of
the expenses in an action at law against the municipality.

There is another provision for the elimination of grade crossings by
agreement between municipalities or counties on one side and the railroad
companies on the other, whereby the railroad companies shall pay not less
than 65 per cent and the municipality or county not more than 35 per cent
of such cost; within these limits the apportionment may be fixed by
agreement hereinbefore provided for. The foregoing quotation is from
Section 8868, General Code.

Oklahoma. — Section 2, Chapter 53 of Acts of 1919, provides: "For
overgrade or undergrade public highway crossings over or under steam or
electric railroad or railway, the assignment of cost and maintenance shall
be left to the discretion of the Corporation Commission, but in no event

Signs, Fences and Crossings.

299

shall the city, town or municipality be assessed with more than 50 per cent
of the actual cost of such overgrade or undergrade crossings."

Oregon. — Sec. 4811, laws of 1917, provides: "The Commission shall
have the exclusive power, ... to require ... a separation of
grades at any such crossing . . . and to prescribe the terms upon which
such separation shall be made and the proportions in which the expense
of alteration or abolition of such crossings or the separation of such
grades shall be divided between the railroad or street railroad corpora-
tions affected, or between such corporations and the state, county, mu-
nicipality or other public authority in interest."

Pennsylvania. — Prior to 1914 cities and towns were authorized by
an act of June 9, 1874, to enter into contracts with railroad companies
for the elimination of grade crossings. The city of Philadelphia, under
this act, has an agreement with the various railroad companies for work
involving an expenditure of $25,000,000, of which the city is to assume
about one-half. Under the Public Service Commission law, effective
January 1, 1914, the Commission has exclusive power over the manner of
crossing of highway and railways. In the case of existing grade crossings
it may order such changes as it deems necessary, including separation,
either upon complaint or of its own motion, and may apportion the cost
including consequential damages between the railroad, the city and the
.<itate.

In 1917 additional legislation was passed to enable the Commission
to lay out new highways or abandon existing highways in boroughs and
townships. Its purpose was to reduce the number of grade crossings.
.\n appropriation of $200,000 was made to take care of the state's portion
of the expense of projects during 1917 and 1918 and a limit of 25 per cent
fixed bj' the state's share of any one project. A similar amount was made
available by later legislation for the years 1919 and 1920 and the limit on
the state's portion of the cost raised to 33'/3 per cent.

South Carolina. — The Legislature in 1920 amended the Act of 1915,
regulating grade crossings, to provide that railroad companies share in the
expense of reconstructing or relocating any highway appurtenant to the
elimination of a grade crossing. Section 1 of the amended statute pro-
vides as follows :

"The Railroad Commission is given full authority to provide such
rules and regulations with reference to the crossing of railroad tracks
by public highways as in its judgment will be conducive to the public
safet}% and furthermore, upon complaint shall investigate and may require
that any necessary crossings be made either above or below grade so as
to avoid, as far as possible, any grade crossings. Provided, that if the
Commission shall decide that such a crossing should be eliminated or
relocated, it will be authorized and directed to apportion, assess and. re-
quire the payment by such railroad company of its pro rata share of the
expense incident to the construction and grading of any highway or road
appurtenant to such elimination or relocation. Provided, further, that
the cost to be assessed against such railroad company shall not exceed

300 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

its pro rata share for more than one- fourth of one mile. Provided, fur-
ther, that in case of railroads independently operated, having less than
80 miles of road within this state, the cost to be assessed against such
railroad shall be such equitable proportion of the expense incident tt)
grading and constructing such appurtenant highway or road as tlic Com-
mission may determine, not exceeding its pro rata share for more than
one-eighth of a mile. And provided, further, that such crossings as are
eliminated by virtue of this section shall be closed as public highways or
travel places."

In 1917 the Atlantic Coast Line entered into an agreement with the
city of Florence for the construction of an underpass in an existing
street. The city agreed to pay for grading, paving and drainage and the
railroad company assumed the remaining cost.

South Dakota. — An Act passed by Legislature (Chapter 126), ap-
proved March 2, 1909, empowers the Mayors and Councils or Board of
Commissioners to require by ordinance railroad companies to erect, con-
struct, reconstruct, complete and keep in repair any viaduct or viaducts
upon or along such street or streets and over or under such track or tracks,
including the approaches of such viaduct or viaducts as may be deemed
and declared necessary for the safety and protection of the public, sub-
ject to the reversal by the Board of Railroad Commissioners. The act
empowers the Mayor and Council or Board of Commissioners to appor-
tion the expense as between two or more railroads, but also provides that
the city shall pay the consequential damages.

Sections 62 and 63 of Senate Bill 220, known as the Horsfall Road
Law, approved March 14, 1919, provides as follows :

"It shall be the duty of the Highway Commission and Board of
County Commissioners in designating the State Trunk and County High-
way Systems to eliminate all railroad grade crossings and all other dan-
gerous places on such highways so far as practicable either by paralleling
the railroad or by constructing undergrade or overhead crossings, or
relocating the highways or by such other means as may be necessary to
properly safeguard the traveling public; provided, that the expense of
eliminating railroad crossings shall be divided between the railroad com-
pany and the state or counties in a fair and equitable proportion. The
Board of Railroad Commissioners of South Dakota and the Highway
Commission shall determine the necessity for eliminating such dangerous
crossings. If lands are appropriated for the relocation of any state or
county highwa}', which relocation is deemed necessary to avoid one or
more railroad crossings or other dangerous places, the railroad shall pay
one-half of the total cost of construction of the improvement, including
the necessary lands. In the building of a subway or overhead crossing
on- a state or county highway when no right-of-way is needed the railroad
company must pay for all of such improvement within the right-of-way
and provide for the necessary drainage.

"The state or county shall do the necessary grading approaching and
leading from such overhead or subway undcrcrossing.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 301

"In the building of a subway or overhead crossing on a state or
county highwa}- when new right-of-way is necessary, the right-of-way
must be obtained by the Board of County Commissioners either by con-
sent of the owners, or by condemnation. The railroad company must pay
for all such improvement within the lines of right-of-way and provide
proper drainage. The state or county shali pay for the right-of-way
and necessary grading approaching and leading from such overhead cross-
ing or subway under-crossing. The clearance or overhead room of any
subway or undercrossing shall not be less than IS ft. The width or clear
roadway shall not be less than 24 ft. The approaches shall be straight
and under no circumstances shall these crossings contain curves.

"If the Highway Commission shall find it impossible to deal by agree-
ment with the companies concerned for a proper distribution and payment
of the cost of the work, the Highway Commission shall formally lay
before the Board of Railroad Commissioners of South Dakota all the
facts in the case, and the Board shall by order apportion the cost which
is to be paid by the company or companies concerned and the cost to be
paid by the Highway Commission or Boards of County Commissioners."

Utah. — The Public Utilities Act of 1917, Section 4811, provides as
follows :

"No track or any railroad shall be constructed across a public road,
highway, or street at grade without having first secured the permission of
the Commission. The Commission shall have the right to refuse its per-
mission or to grant it upon such terms and conditions as it may prescribe.

"The Commission shall have the exclusive power to determine and
prescribe the manner, including the particular point of crossing, and the
terms of installation, operation, maintenance, use and protection of each
crossing of a public road or highway bj' a railroad or vice versa, and to
alter or abolish any such crossing, and to require a separation of grades
at any such crossing heretofore or hereafter established and to prescribe
the terms upon which such separation shall be made and the proportions
in which the expense shall be divided between the railroad corporations
and the state, county, municipality or other public authority in interest.

"Whenever the Commission shall find that public convenience and
necessity demands the establishment, creation or construction of a crossing
of a street or highway over, under or upon the tracks or lines of any
public utility, the Commission may, by order, require the establishment
of such crossing."

Virginia. — County boards, or city or town authorities, may petition a
railroad company for the separation of grades. If the work is not started
in 60 days, they may appeal to the State Corporation Commission, which
after hearing will make a decision and in case of disagreement may
prescribe the character of the work.

That part of Section 3974 of the 1919 Code, relating to the distribution
of expense, provides as follows :

"When such improvement is to be made in any railroad, it shall be
made by the corporation operating the same, and the whole expense

802 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

tliereof shall be paid by such corporation. When it is to be made in a
county road, street or other highway, it shall be made by the corporation
whose track is to be crossed and the expense shall be borne equally by
said corporation and by the county, city or town having control of such
county road, street or other highway. Provided, that whenever an exist-
ing crossing of a highway by a railroad or of a railroad by a highway, at
grade, constructed since June 13, 1904, or hereafter constructed becomes,
in the opinion of the board of supervisors of any county or the proper
authorities of a city or town, a menace to the public safety, or the
elimination of such crossing becomes necessary for the improvement of
the highwa}-, and the costs thereof, and by whom and in what proportion
paid cannot be agreed on, the same shall be fixed and determined by the
State Corporation Commission in conformity with the principles of law
and equity.

"After said crossing has been constructed, the corporation whose
track or work is crossed shall maintain the same."

Washington. — The Public Service Commission has jurisdiction over
the elimination of grade crossings in all parts of the state, except within
the limits of cities of more than 20,000 population. Under the law, it has
power to apportion the cost to be borne b}' the interested parties, but
orders in such cases, like other orders of the Commission, are subject to
review in the court.

Municipalities have jurisdiction and power to order separation or
elimination of grade crossings within corporate limits. The practice varies
from 50 per cent to railroads and 50 per cent to municipalities to 100 per
cent of expense to railroads, with exception of consequential damages,
which has been borne by municipalities.

Wisconsin. — The Railroad Commission of Wisconsin has authority,
whenever a petition is lodged with it by the common council of any city,
tlie village board of any village, the town board of any town within which
the crossing is located, or whenever it is so lodged by any railroad com-
pany, after notice and hearing, to reach a determination as to alterations
of such grade crossings, or substitution of another crossing at grade, etc.,
and the Commission has the authority to fix the proportion of the cost
and expense of such alterations or removals to be paid by the railroad
companies. Whenever such project is part of a road improvement, being
carried out under joint funds, either state or federal, the Commission
may apportion the municipalities' share to be paid out of joint funds.
In the case of the improvement of an existing highway or the construction
of a new highway which results in the elimination of an existing highway,
the Commission, after hearing, may assess a railroad company a portion of
the expense if it finds that the railroad company is benefited. Where such
improvement is being carried out under joint funds the joint fund shall
be credited the amount of such assessment.

Another provision authorizes the Commission to take the initiative
when in its opinion public safety requires an alteration of any street or
crossing at grade by any railroad.

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 303

In regard to the practice as to the distribution of the cost of grade
separation, the cost of grade separation is not shared by the state, other
than as outUned above, except that tlie state bears the cost of investiga-
tion, plans and reports. The cost is assessed to the railroad companies
and the municipaHty, town or village. The proposition assessable to each
of the parties in interest is not fixed by law. It has iieen the practice of
the Railroad Commission of Wisconsin to assess a certain percentage
of the total cost of grade separation to each of the parties in interest.
The percentage has been varied to conform with changes and conditions
found to exist in different cases. Again, the Commission has apportioned
the cost of grade separation by outlining the work to be performed by
each of the parties in interest. Street and electric railways having loca-
tions upon highway crossings which are eliminated are required to bear
part of the cost of grade separation.

Canada. — The Board of Railroad Commissioners of Canada has very
wide powers and can order the separation of grades at highway crossings
or take such other action in the interest of the public as it deems ex-
pedient.

By Act of Parliament there is available to the Board the sum of
$200,000 per year for a period of ten years from April 1, 1919, for aiding
in actual construction work, for the protection, safety and convenience
of the public at highway grade crossings. The section of the Act relating
to the apportionment of the fund is as follows :

"The total amount of money to be apportioned and directed and
ordered by the Board to be payable from any such annual appropriation
shall not be in the case of any one crossing exceed 25 per cent of the cost
of the actual construction work in providing such protection, safety and
convenience, and shall not, in any such case, exceed the. sum of fifteen
thousand dollars, and no such money shall in any one year be applied
to more than six crossings on any one railway in any one municipality
or more than once in any one year to any one crossing."

The division of expense in a few cases which have come to the atten-
tion of the Committee has been about as follows :

Railroad 35% to 50%

Municipalities 35% to 40%

Government Grade Crossing Fund 15% to 25%

Elimination of Grade Crossings

The Committee on Roadway, as a part of its work during 1907,
prepared a bibliography on "Track Elevation and Depression in Cities,"
covering the years from about 1892 to 1907. This appeared in the Pro-
ceedings, Vol. IX, page 613.

The bibliography presented herewith was prepared by the Engineering
Societies Library and covers the years 1915 to 1920. It is intended to
include articles pertaining to the broader aspects of the grade separation
problem, with particular reference to the apportionment of the cost, rather

304 Signs. Fences and Crossings.

than detailed descriptions of individual projects. It will be noted that in
addition to the references to periodicals there are a number to court
decisions and the orders of Ptil)lic I'tility Commissions and that there is
a brief synopsis with each reference.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1915 — Assessinti costs of railway .Lrradc crossintr removal (editorial).
1915. (In Engineering News, v. 74, p. 370.)

On division of costs in grade elimination; very brief.
Bainbridge, C. N.

Study of grade crossing elimination in cities. 1915. (In Jour-
nal, Western Society of Engineers, v. 20, p. 628-70.)

The general features which will arise, and which must be con-
sidered by the engineer in studying a problem of grade crossing
elimination, in order to determine the most desirable and feasible
method to accomplish the end desired at the minimum erpensc ; in-
cludes discussion of apportioning of expenses and advantages and
disadvantages of elimination of grade crossings.

Abstract. 1915. (In Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, p. 45-48.)

Editorial. Public and grade separation. 1915. (In Railway
Age Gazette, v. 59, p. 41-42.)
Bainbridge, C. N.

Track depression project at Minneapolis. 1915. (In Railway
Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 1059-63.)

The industrial concerns maintained that the railway company
was liable for the cost of all changes to industries and industry
tracks made necessary to continue service on the lower level after
the main tracks had been depressed.

Chief engineers discuss grade-crossing law and cost distribution.
1915. (In Engineering Record, v. 71, pp. 455-56.)

Agree as to importance of subject and fairness of public par-
ticipation in expense; one doubts desirability of uniform law.
Eliminating railway grade crossing crossings in Los Angeles. 1915.
(In Engineering News, v. 74, p. 355.)

On the arrangement of viaducts in the industrial district of
Los Angeles ; very brief.
1915 — Elimination of grade crossings in Dallas, Texas; report. 1915. (In
Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 1087-88.)

A report on the situation in that city favors a belt line as a
better solution than track elevation.

Editorial. A substitute for grade separation. 1915. (In Rail-
way Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 1077-78.)

Factors in grade separation. 1915. (In Engineering News, v. 73,
pp. 422-23.) Grade separation problems of the city of Houston,
Texas.

Grade crossing elimination (editorial). 1915. (In Railway Age
Gazette, v. 59, pp. 634-35.)

On the economy of grade crossing elimination in Chicago and
advantages elsewhere.

Grade crossing elimination in North Toronto, Ontario. 1915. (In
Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 555-58.)

Includes data on apportionment of cost of improvement.
Reilly, L. B.

Elimination of grade crossings; apportionment of cost; man-
ner of obtaining elimination construction. 1915. (In Journal of
the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, v. 2, pp. 135-48.)

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 305

The subject is treated under the following headings; apportion-
ment of cost; manner of obtaining elimination; construction.

Rock Island track elevation work at Chicago. 1915. (In Rail-
way Age Gazette, v. 58, pp. 690-94.)

Detailed cost records of this work were unusually important
on account of the division of expense between the roads, and in
order to make the cost data of immediate value in directing opera-
tions a system was developed by which the books could be closed
every night.
Smith, C. E.

Needless grade separation required of railroads. 1915. (In
Engineering Record, v. 71, p. 674.)

Engineer of the . Missouri Pacific Railway discusses grade-
crossinaf law ; deplores unreasonable demand by the communities.
Stark, C. W.

Grade-crossing law and its effect on grade crossing elimination.
1915. (In Engineering Record, v. 71, pp. 327-29.)

Town and State should share expense ; fixed percentage basis
on entire work conducive to best solution of most separation prob-
lems. Table showing division of expense in the ten states that have
fixed proportions.

Editorial. Chaos in apportioning the cost of grade-crossing
elimination. 1915. (In Engineering Record, v. 71, p. 319.)
To promote safety at liighAvay crossings (editorial). 1915. (In
Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 1119-20.)

The standard remedy of the public authorities for crossing
accidents is elevation or depression of the tracks^f the railroads
can be made to stand the expense. If there is a chance that the
community may be reciuired to share the cost of an improvement
made for its benefit, the zeal of the public officials for grade sepa-
ration frequently wanes.
1915 — Track elevation on the Nickel Plate Railroad at Chicago. 1915.
(In Engineering News, v. 74, pp. 888-91.)

Conditions necessitated abandoning the original line and build-
ing an elevated line on a new location, the line has lo rise to cross
one railway, then descend to pass under two railways and then rise
again to connect with one of the latter.
Wonson, S. L.

Elimination of the Tower Grove crossings, St. Louis. Mo. 1915.
(In Journal, Association of Engineering Societies, v. 55, pp. 95-115.)

The elimination ordinance provided that the construction cost,
including the relocation of municipal sewers and water mains,
should be assumed by the railways and the damages to abutting
property bv the citv.

Abstracts. 1915. (In Railway Age Gazette, v. 59, pp. 799-802;
Engineering Record, v. 72, pp. 627-29.)
1916 — Extensive grade separation at Spokane, Wash. 1916. (In Railway
Age Gazette, v. 60, pp. 949-52.)

The Northern Pacific is raising its tracks and terminals to
eliminate numerous street crossings; an ordinance requires the rail-
way to elevate its tracks in the business district and to provide
suitable bridges over each street for a distance of two miles. It
requires privately owned public utility companies to make such
utilities conform to any changes made in the streets at their own
expense. All other costs of the work including damages to prop-
erty abutting on changed street grades and the expense of read-
justing or rebuilding municipally owned public utilities are to be
borne entirely by the railway.

306 Sij^ns. Fences and Crossings.

Grade crossing elimination at Cleveland. 1916. (In Railway Age
Gazette, v. 60, pp. 1335-37.)

The New York, Chicago & St. Louis will depress its tracks for
a distance of ZVt miles by a novel method; as this vifork has been
undertaken at the request of the city, 35 per cent, of the expense
under the Ohio law, will be borne by the city and 65 per c^nt. by
the railroad.

Grade crossing elimination in Camden, N. J. 1916. (In Railway
Age Gazette, v. 61, pp. 69-72.)

This project involves 100,000 cu. yd. of embankment, 25,000
cu. yd. of concrete and 1830 tons of structural steel. The total cost
is about $700,000, all of which is borne by the Pennsylvania Rail-
road except $13,000, or one-half of the cost of the bridges at Syca-
more Street and Whitman Street, which are required to be built by
the City of Camden after the passage of the original ordinance,
under the terms of which additional bridges, when required, were
to be paid for jointly by the railroad company and the city.
Improvements at Pawtucket and Central Falls, R. I. 1916. (In
Railway Age Gazette, v. 60, pp. 13-17.)

It has been provided by legislation that each city should pay
35 per cent, of the actual cost of eliminating grade crossings with
the tracks then existing and that the railroad should pay the re-
maining 65 per cent, of this cost and should also pay all additional
cost resulting from increasing the number of tracks over and above
the number previously existing.

Pennsylvania Railroad's improvements at Wilkinsburg, Pa. 1916.
(In Railway Review, v. 59, pp. 335-37.)

The Wilkinsburg improvements as a whole involved an ex-
penditure of $3,050,000, of which $2,750,000 was spent by the rail-
road and $300,000 was contributed by the city. About $1,000,000 of
the cost of the railroad was in new property acquired.
1916— Selmer, W. L.

Eliminating a group of nine grade crossings on the Long
Island Railroad. 1916. (In Railway Review, v. 58, pp. 536-43.)

Under the railroad law of New York State the Public Service
Commission has power to order the elimination of crossings at
grade on existing railroads. The cost of such elimination is di-
vided between the state, the city and the railroad, in the proportion
of one-fourth each by the city and the state and the one-half by
the company.

Trite but still true (editorial). 1916. (In Engineering Record,
V. 74. p. 697.)

Points cut briefly, that under the national percentage basis of
the New York law a comparatively satisfactory program of grade
separation is being carried out, in spite of defects in the law and
mistakes of administration.
1917— Elevation v?. depression, and track change vs. street change. 1917.
(In Engineering News, v. 78, pp. 129-30.)

A.R.E.A. Committee discusses advantages and disadvantages
of four main forms of grade separation.

Grade separation problem at Syracuse; Arnold report advocates
track elevation for the Lackawanna and depression of the New
York Central. 1917. (In Railway Age Gazette, v. 62, pp. 774-76.)

Arnold report advocates track elevation for the Lackawanna
and depression of the New York Central.
Wagner, S. T.

Elimination of grade crossings in cities. 1917. (In Journal
of the Franklin Institute, v. 184, pp. 715-16.)

Signs, Fences and Crossin

ing ir^t'ZnS- ^'""^ "" "'^^°'^ ''^ ^^h'^h a grade cro«,-

Wusf 'l9?7^'r'ln^Fn''-^'"*-''' ^^^ ^'^^^*,^ Lackawanna through
%Jr.r: J >^" Engineering News, v. 78, pp. 402-405 )

Ej^leT^^^^^^^ 1918. (In

share^Txpet: '' ''"'''" ^'"^ necessitates alteration; five parties
Odell, R. F.

niciparjtr„TlV'pp'"34r«) ^""'''' ''^ -f- '"«■ <'" ^"■

Watson, M. W

relocaSof :rhighU"ys'^ ''"^""^ °' '''''''^''' ^-^ead bridges and
''''~Revtw!"v.°^^p"9457°""^ "^^' ''^'"^^^- ^^^^^ (^^ Railway

grad?"cro':ingroT- ailroad?'^^^ '' '^""^^" ^^^^ ^ ^'--^^-n of

SSf'']9To'''a^/?'^--^'^^.^*^'^" ^°^t^ on Rock Island work in
p^ 1 c ^- " Engineering News, v. 82, pp 83-85^

Book figures are redistributed, freight charges and nfh.r .1

?^;:\tE,^^zi^i ^"8/;f 5.r5^T ^™'°"^'-
an &L."stss?/™^r,v'5r5^2T''""^ "■'■
city of=£eto^,^^c\„'Sd"\^^,rk.'/„°"™j r" "'■•<^'' "■^

program of construc.io^tclucUng grad epaTallL and '^?'™f'^'
geneSl arti?f "'"^ "'"'■"™' °' «"<'-= "»-"« elimination; a

.incSntN":"'';':^''';;'?;!^'';;;';' """^'"•■■'•""- ""■ "■• En-

repS'tThelp^p'o^tr/nfTf :'i^r""''°" ^'""-^^ "^■-« '"
Watson, M. W ' '

ing..^".T9^->(l1 S?d"Rlad^:V"r'v",7 ?' 'l^-^f ^""^ "<>-

.ion^-fX^osf i,:T;esrj,°i:3°' ■""-™ "- -* -« «-i»-

ImI)""' ""■ ^'" ^''8'"'"'"e 2n<i Contracting, v. 51, pp.

308 Signs. Fences and Crossings.

DECISIONS OF PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION AND
SUPREME COURT

1915 — Illinois Public Utilities Commission, State Public Utilities Com-
mission ex rel. Bloomington et al. vs. Illinois Central Railroad
Company et al. 1915. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,
1915, Pt. F, pp. 697-714.)

The cost of constructing a subway for the abolition of grade
.crossings in city streets, excluding changes in grade of railroad
tracks and changes in street car tracks outside the subway areas,
was apportioned 87j/^ per cent, to the railroad and \2'/2 per cent,
to the street railway, after deducting the expense of changes in
gas pipes, water pipes, sewer pipes, and other appurtenances re-
quired to be made at the sole expense of the city or gas utility;
all other expenses were required to be borne by the company doing
the work; and the city was required to assume the payment of all
property damages.

Illinois Supreme Court. Alton & Southern Railroad Company vs.
Vandalia Railroad Company. 1915. (In Public Utilities Report,
Annotated, 1915, Pt. D, pp. 941-957.)

Factors to be considered in determining the necessity for an
overhead railroad crossing.

Illinois Public Utilities Commission, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago & St. Louis Railway Company et al. vs. South Park Commis-
sioners. 1915. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1915, Pt.
B, pp. 150-57.)

The cost unless prohibitive, should not prevent the Commis-
sion from ordering the construction of bridges spanning proposed
subways, where the requirement of safety of the public is under
consideration, but esthetic features should not be considered when
they involve excessive and unreasonable expense.
Missouri Public Service Commission. William Murphy vs. Mis-
souri Pacific Railway Company et al. 1915. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1915, Pt. F, pp. 149-190.)

The abolition of a grade crossing and the construction of a
subway was ordered where there was a steep ascent to the railroad
right of way from the street in a rapidly growing community used
by many vehicles and pedestrians and the view in both directions
was obstructed. The cost of a separation of the grades at two
railroad crossings in a city was divided equally between the city
and the railroad companies.

New York Public Service Commission. William W. Wadsworth
vs. Erie Railroad Company. 1915. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1915, Pt. C, pp. 402-15.)

The New York Commission has jurisdiction to compel a rail-
road company to maintain and keep in repair an overhead bridge
and approaches which constitute an established farm crossing.
North Carolina Corporation Commission. Commissioners of Har-
nett County vs. Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Companj'. 1915. (In
Public Utilities Report, Annotated, 1915, Pt. A, pp. 635-36.)

The cost of constructing a steel bridge over the tracks of a
railroad company to accommodate a new county road was ordered
to be borne one-third by the county and two-thirds by the railroad
company.

Pennsylvania Public Service Commission. In re grade crossings
of Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad Company. 1915.
(In Public Utilities Report, Annotated, 1915, Pt. C, pp. 180-83.)

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 309

Upon ordering the abolition of certain grade crossings, the
railroad company was directed to paj- all costs, including compensa-
tion to adjacent property owners.
1915 — Vermont Public Service Commission. Selectmen of St. Johnsbury
vs. Boston & Maine Railroad. 1915. (In Public Utilities Report,
Annotated, 1915, Pt. A, pp. 641-42.)

The elimination of certain grade crossings was postponed be-
cause of the financial condition of the railroad company.
Wisconsin Railroad Commission. Town of Wilton vs. Chicago &
Northwestern Railway Company. 1915. (In Public Utilities Re-
ports, Annotated, 1915, Pt. B, pp. 230-33.)

Highway changes outside of a railroad right of way, necessi-
tated by a subway crossing, ordered by the Commission, were di-
rected to be made at the expense of the town, it appearing that
the grade of the highway would be greatly improved by the pro-
posed alteration, and that the advantages of a subway as against
an overhead bridge would accrue chiefly to the town.
1916— Cleveland, C. C. & St. L. R. Co. v. State Public Utilities Commis-
sion. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1916, Pt. F,
pp. 910.)

The mere operation of interurban cars over a railroad cross-
ing upon tracks used by a street railway does not render the
interurban company liable to pay any part of the expense of
separating the grades, since such expense, in the absence of an
agreement between the interurban company and the street railway
company must be borne by the latter.

Colorado Public Utilities Commission. Re Colorado & Southern
Railway Company et al. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1916, Pa. F, pp. 139-49.)

The Colorado Commission in ordering the elimination of a
grade crossing has no power to apportion to the county or munici-
pality any part of the expense.

Illinois Public Utilities Commission. City of Peoria v. Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy Railroad Company et al. 1916. (In Public
Utilities Reports, Annotataed, 1916, Pt. A, pp. 493-506.)

Apportionment of cost of viaduct for separation of grades,
between the city, street railway using the viaduct and the steam
railroad.

Illinois Public Utilities Commission. Illinois Central Railroad v.
City of Decatur et al. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports, Anno-
tated, 1916, Pt. A, pp. 987-991.)

Neither the county nor the township is a party in interest in
proceedings to apportion the cost of abolishing a grade crossing
wholly within the corporate limits of a city under the Illinois
statutes, and no part of such cost can be apportioned to either
merely because they may have a general interest in the safety of
the crossing.

Massachusetts Public Service Commission. Re selectmen of Win-
chester. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1916,
Pt. F, pp. 384-89.)

Petition alleging that a railroad bridge impedes and obstructs
the safe and convenient use of a highway, being of insufficient
height for the passage of vehicles under the bridge, etc.
Missouri Public Service Commission. Charles E. Knepp et al. v.
United Railways Company of St. Louis, 1916. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1916, Pt. E, pp. 56-100.)

Includes decisions by various Commissions on the elimination
of grade crossings, division of costs, etc.
Vermont Supreme Court. J. M. Sayers v. Montpelier & Wells

810 Signs. Fences and Crossings.

River Railroad. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,

1916, pp. 508-19.)

Proceedings growing out of the elimination of two grade
crossings on the lines of the Montpclier & Wells River Railroad
in the town of Newbury.
1916 — Wisconsin Supreme Court. City of Milwaukee v. Railroad Com-
mission of Wisconsin. 1916. (In Public Utilities Reports, Anno-
tated, 1916, Pt. C, pp. 592-95.)

Apportionment of cost for separation of grade crossings.
1917 — California Railroad Commission. Municipal League v. Southern
Pacific Company et al. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports, Anno-
tated, 1917, Pt. A, pp. 486-520.)

Relates to the elimination of grade crossings in Los Angeles.
California Supreme Court. City of San Jose v. Railroad Commis-
sion et al. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1917,
Pt. E, pp. 689-97.)

Division of costs in elimination of grade crossings.
California Supreme Court. Civic Center Association of Los
Angeles et al. v. Railroad Commission of California. 1917. (In
Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1917, Pt. E, pp. 697-709.)

Relates to abolishing grade crossings in Los Angeles.
EstabUshment of subways and viaduct crossings; elimination of
grade crossings. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,

1917, Pt. A, pp. 1062-69.)
Citation of cases.

Iowa Board of Railroad Commissioners. Richard Rossman v.
Interurban Railwav Company. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1917, Pt. A, pp. 234-37.)

An interurban railway may be required to substitute a viaduct
for a grade crossing which has become more dange'rous through
the advent of automobiles, although the crossing, at the time of
its construction, reasonably complied with the statute; the cost was
divided equally between the railway and the county.
Missouri Public Service Commission. City of Moberly v. E. B.
Pryor and E. F. Kearney, Receivers et al. 1917. (In Public
Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1917, Pt. B, pp. 425-35.)

Apportionment of cost of improving a subway crossing rail-
road tracks.

Missouri Public Service Commission. Village of Greentop v.
Wabash Railway Company, 1917. (In Public UtiUties Reports,
Annotated, Pt. C, pp. 42-45.)

A railroad will not be required to erect an overhead crossing
for a street over tracks, where it appears that the greater part of
the street has not been used by the public since the railroad was
built.

New York Court of Appeals. People ex rel. Town of Scarsdale
v. Public Service Commission of New York, Second District et al.
1917 (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1917, Pt. D, pp.
240-48.)

A town is not Uable under the New York statutes, for any
portion of the expense of building, within its limits, of the ap-
proach to a highway crossing over a railroad track where the
crossing itself is wholly within another town.
New York Public Service Commission, First District. Re Long
Island Railroad Company. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1917, Pt. F, pp. 41-45.)

Division of expense of elimmatmg grade crossmgs. The ex-
pense incurred in relocating the pipes of a water company when

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 311

eliminating a highway grade crossing forms no part of the cross-
ing expense, since the pubHc service corporations are required at
their own expense to rearrange their structures in a pubhc high-
way to conform with the grade as ordered.

Oregon Public Service Commission. Re location and establish-
ment of county road. 1917. (In Public Utilities Reports, Anno-
tated, 1917,. Pt. A, pp. 88-89.)

The crossing is extremely hazardous, but the Oregon Com-
mission has no jurisdiction over the elimination of grade cross-
ings, although it has power to prevent the construction thereof.
1917 — Pennsylvania Public Service Commission. W. F. Brice et al. v.
Pennsylvania Railroad Company et al. 1917. (In Public Utilities
Report, Annotated, 1917, Pt. F, pp. 547-54.)

A Commission is not justified in ordering the abolition of a
grade crossing, where the municipal authorities were not made
parties to the proceeding until after the testimony had been
taken, and no notice was given to adjacent property owners, and
no adequate plans showing the detail of the proposed improve-
ment or the approximate cost thereof.
1918— California Railroad Commission. Re Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway Company, 1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,
1918, Pt. E, pp. 450-51.)

On jurisdiction of Commissions over crossings, at grade or
over or under the railroad.

California Railroad Commission. Re City of Palo Alto. 1918.
(In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. D, pp. 776-85.)

The California legislature may lawfully authorize the Com-
mission to fix just compensation for the taking or damaging of
private property in the separation of grades which it has ordered
at a railroad crossing.

Indiana Supreme Court. Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend
Railway Company et al. v. Public Service Commission of Indiana.
1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. B, pp.
398-401.)

The Indiana Supreme Court refused to modify an order of
the Public Utilities Commission apportioning between the county
and the utilities the cost of an undergrade highway crossing of
parallel tracks of one steam and two interurban utilities, requiring
each to pay 75 per cent of the cost of the subway under its right
of way; the steam roads to construct one approach, and the inter-
urban road together, the other.

Missouri Supreme Court, State ex rel. Missouri, Kansas & Texas
Railway Company et al. v. Public Service Commission et al. ; State
ex rel. Wabash Railway Company v. Public Service Commission
et al. 1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. A,
pp. 96-109.)

The fact that only a portion of the width of a highway was
used by the public for a number of years as an underground
crossing, after the abandonment of a grade crossing, does not
show an abandonment of the remaining portion of the street so
as to prohibit the Missouri Commission from ordering the widen-
ing of the subway and the apportionment of its cost.
Missouri Supreme Court. State ex rel. St. Joseph Railway Light,
Heat & Power Company v. Public Service Commission. 1918.
(In PubHc Utilities Reports. Annotated, 1918, Pt. B, pp. 767-74.)

Apportioning the cost of grade crossing eliminations among
all of the parties in interest, including a street railway as well as
city and steam railroads.
New Hampshire Public Service Commission, City of Manchester

(A)

312 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

V. Boston & Maine Railroad. 1918. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1918, Pt. B, pp. 353-56.)

The New Hampshire Commission will not authorize a new
crossing at grade where it would be so dangerous as to make
adequate protection impossible ; nor will it authorize a new over-
pass or underpass crossing at large expense, where the railroad
is in financial difficulties and the Commission hast refrained from
ordering more important expenditures, and where other crossings
demand more immediate attention, especially where the country
is in a state of war, when the demands upon the railroad for
transporting men, materials and supplies are stupendous.
1918 — New York Public Service Commission, First District. Re New
York Central Railroad Companv ct al. v. City of New York.
1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. F, pp.
695-709.)

Railroad companies were relieved from complying with orders
for the elimination of grade crossings and the construction of
crossing improvements during war times where such construc-
tion was not necessary for the protection and development of
transportation facilities to meet the needs of the country's busi-
ness under war conditions, although the railroad companies alone
were responsible for the noncompletion of the work before the
war period.

New York Public Service Commission, Second District. Town of
Harmony v. Erie Railroad Company. 1918. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. E, pp. 705-710.)

On improving a grade-crossing elimination structure, appor-
tionment of cost.

New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, Third Depart-
ment. Re State highway No. 5459. 1918. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. C, pp. 590-96.)

Relates to the division of expense of the elimination of grade
crossings. The New York statute fixing the procedure for an
accounting between the parties liable for the expense of the estab-
lishment of a highway crossing over a railroad right of way
primarily paid by the railroad company, specially providing for
interest subsequent to the accounting where a railroad company
or a municipality fails to pay the amount due, but making no
provision for interest upon the failure of the Commission of
Highways, as the State's representative, to make payment, never-
theless contemplates that the state pay interest up to the time
the accounting has been actually completed, on the sum due from
it to the railroad company, which has acted in good faith through-
out the transaction.

Oklahoma Supreme Court. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
Company v. Corporation Commission of State of Oklahoma et al.
1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. C, pp.
598-611.)

Complaint that railroad does not maintain safe and suitable
crossings at its tracks crossing streets in the city of Guthrie,
Oklahoma, at or below grade.

Pennsylvania Supreme Court, Pittsburgh Railways Company v.
City of Pittsburgh. 1918. (In Public Utilities Reports, Anno-
tated, 1918, Pt. F, pp. 301-303.)

A preliminary injunction against the construction of a grade
crossing without the consent of the Pennsylvania Public Service
Commission which the court has the power to grant, should not
be granted "pending final hearing and disposition of the case,"
but should provide for its dissolution if the certificate of public

Signs, Fences and Crossings. 313

convenience is granted by the Commission ; since the Commission,
and not the courts, under the Public Service Company Law, has
original jurisdiction of the issues involved.

Texas Court of Appeals. Jeflf Bland Lumber "& Building Com-
pany V. Railroad Commission of Texas. 1918. (In Public Utili-
ties Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. F, pp. 709-718.)

The ov^rner of a lumber business that would be materially
affected if an order of a Commission to a railroad company to
remove its tracks so as to enter a city over the tracks of other
railroads should go into effect ; the original order allowing the
railroad to change the location of its tracks abolished two highway
grade crossings which were dangerous to public welfare.
191S — Washington Supreme Court. State ex rel. Hayford et al. v.
Public Service Commission. 1918. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1918, Pt. B, pp. 605-607.)

Proceedings for the purpose of eliminating a dangerous grade
crossing on the Great Northern Railway near Spokane ; two plans
were considered, — first, the construction of an underground cross-
ing, necessitating but slight change in the highway but requiring
considerable change in the railroad grade; second, the diversion
of the highway south of the railway.

Wisconsin Supreme Court. Chicago & Northwestern Railway Coni-
pany v. Railroad Commission of Wisconsin. 1918. (In -Public
Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1918, Pt. D, pp. 650-659.)

Decision on the question : Is the Railroad Commission em-
powered to wholly vacate street crossings, creating no new cross-
ings in place thereof ; can there be a valid vacation of part of a
street without the assessment and payment of damages to lot
owners on the street who are specially damaged by the vacation.
1919 — Illinois Supreme Court. Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway
Company v. Lake County et al. 1919. (In Public Utilities Reports,
Annotated, 1919, Pt. D, pp. 171-179.)

Apportionment of expense for alteration of grade crossing.
Massachusetts Public Service Commission. Re New York, New
Haven & Hartford Railroad Company. 1919. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1919, Pt. A, pp. 704-710.)

In the alteration of highway crossing a railroad, who shall
bear the expense of relocating structures.

Massachusetts Public Service Commission. Selectmen of North-
bridge V. New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company
et al. 1919. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1919, Pt. E,
pp. 408-412.)

The Massachusetts Public Service Commission has no power
to determine whether the cost of repairs to a bridge over the tracks
of a railroad should be borne by a municipality or by a street rail-
way company using the bridge, since in such a case its statutory
authority is limited to a determination of the manner and the limits
in which the work shall be done.

Missouri Public Service Commission. Re Citv of Joplin. 1919.
(In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1919, Pt. B, pp. 842-848.)

Division of costs in the elimination of grade crossings.
Montana Board of Railroad Commissioners. City of Whitefish v.
Great Northern Railwav Company. 1919. (In Public Utilities Re-
ports, Annotated, 1919,' Pt. C, pp. 924-927.)

The Montana Commission has no jurisdiction over railroad
crossings within the corporate limits of cities and towns. The city
of Whitefish petitions that the Great Northern Railway be compelled
to establish an additional crossing over its right of way.
Pennsylvania Public Service Commission. Enos H. Hess v. United

314 Signs, Fence s a ndC r o s s i ngs

States Railroad Administration et al. 1919. (In Public Utilities
Reports, Annotated, 1919, Pt. E, pp. 311-312.)

A statute giving a commission power to lay out, establish and
open new highways, or to abandon or vacate highways or portions
of highways, in connection with the abolition, abandonment, reloca-
tion or reconstruction of an existing grade crossing, does not au-
thorize the construction of a new public hif^hway and an overhead
crossing in order to afford access to a school.

Pennsylvania Public Service Commission. . Re Pennsylvania Rail-
road Company. 1919. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,
1919, Pt. E, pp. 645-47.)

Property located 1,200 feet from the railroad highway crossing,
such road is not adjacent thereto so as to entitle the owner to
damage resulting from inconvenience caused by the abolition of the
crossing.

Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals. Southern Railway Company
V. Commonwealth. 1919. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,

1919, Pt. B, pp. 460-481.)

Relates to the elimination of grade crossings.
1920 — Montana Board of Railroad Commissioners. Great Northern Rail-
way Company v. Board of County Commissioners. 1920. (In Pub-
lic Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1920, Pt. D, pp. 828-834.)

Discussion of procedure to be followed for procuring an over-
head or underground crossing.

New York Court of Appeals. People vs. Delaware and Hudson
Company. 1920, (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1920,
Pt. E, pp. 106-118.)

On illegal construction of grade crossing and in regard to its
elimination.

New York Service Commission, Second District. Re City of
Yonkers et al. 1920. (In Public Utilities Reports, Annotated,

1920, Pt. p, pp. 373-378.)

A railroad company is entitled to interest on sums expended
by it in behalf of a city in eliminating grade crossings, from the
time the accounting is made until the time payment is actually made.
New York Public Service Commission, Second District. Re New
York, Lackawanna &: Western Railway Company et al. 1920. (In
Public Utilities Reports, Annotated, 1920, Pt. D, pp. 183-186.)

Proceedings for elimination of grade crossing; claim for con-
tribution by the state towards increased cost disallowed.
New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, Third Department.
People ex rel. New York Central Railroad Company v. Public
Service Commission, Second District et al. 1920. (In Public Utili-
ties Reports, Annotated, 1920, Pt. B, pp. 967-72.)

Decision on liability for maintenance of an overhead crossing
of street over a railroad. A railroad company which applies to a
commission for a modification of an overhead crossing construction
order with reference to the maintenance of approaches and side-
walks, but which fails to appeal from the Commission's refusal
to modify such order and completes the construction must be
deemed to have accepted and be bound by the condition as to main-
tenance.

Wisconsin Supreme Court. Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Rail-
way Company v. Citv of Milwaukee. 1920. (In Public Utilities
- Reports._ Annotated, 1920, Pt. A, pp. 821-837.)

Decision that imder an order of the Railroad Commission that
a city assume responsibility for damages to adjacent property re-
sulting from the separation of street and railroad grades, the city
is not liable to the railroad company for damages to railroad prop-
erty, which is merely a taking by the railroad company of its own
property for railroad purposes.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE III— ON TIES

F. R. Layng, Chairman; W. A. Clark, Vkc-CJiairman;

W. C. Baisinger, O. H. Frick,

F. T. Beckett, G. F. Hand,

M. S. Blaiklock, R. M. Leeds,

F. Boardman, a. F. Maischaider,

Carl Bucholtz, * A. J. Neafie,

W. J. Burton, G. P. Palmer,

S. B. Clement, George E. Rex,

E. L. Crugar, L. J. Riegler,

L. A. Downs, Earl Sullivan,

John Foley, Committee.

To the American Railuay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Ties for
study and report :

1. Make critical examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on methods for installing and keeping records of test sec-
tions for obtaining data on the life of cross-ties.

3. Continue studj' and report on the effect of design of tie plates and
track spikes on the durability of cross-ties.

4. Study and report on the economics of the use of various classes of
cross-ties and various kinds of preservative treatment.

5. Report on trials of substitute ties.

6. Report on the relative merits of metal versus wooden ties.

Committee Meetings

The Committee was organized for this year's work by correspondence
in May, 1920, and meetings of the General Committee were held in Cleve-
land, July 12th, and in Toronto, Canada, November 16th, 1920.

The names of members in attendance have been given in the Minutes
of the meetings, which have been printed in the Bulletin.

(1) Revision of Manual

In Appendix A proposed changes in the Manual are given.

(2) Report on Methods for Installing and Keeping Records of Test

Sections for Obtaining Data on the Life of Cross-Ties

In Appendix B the Committee submits a report on this subject.

(3) Continue Study and Report on the Effect of Design of Tie Plates

and Track Spikes on the Durability of Cross-Ties

The Committee reports progress on this subject but submits no report
at this time.

315

316 Ties.

(4) Study and Report on the Economics of the Use of Various Classes
of Cross-Ties and Various Kinds of Preservative Treatment

Appendix C is a report on the above Subject.

(5) Report on Trials of Substitute Ties

Appendix D is the report on this.

(6) Report on the Relative Merits of Metal Versus Wooden Ties

A special report on this was prepared and forwarded to the Secretary,
and was published in Bulletin No. 227, July, 1920.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that the changes in the Manual in
Appendix A be approved and the revised matter be substituted for the
present recommendations in the Manual.

2. The Committee recommends that the reports in Appendices B, C
and D, and the special report in Bulletin No. 227, be received as informa-
tion.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends the following subjects for next year's
work.

1. Revision of the Manual.

2. Classifying ties for various kinds of service.

3. Care of ties after distribution.

4. Study and report on the results of improperly protecting ties from
mechanical wear.

5. Report on the economics of the use of various classes of cross-
ties and various methods of treatment.

6. Substitute tics.

Respectfully submitted,

TiiK Committee on Ties,
F. R. Layng, Cliainnan.

Appendix A
REVISION OF MANUAL

John Foley, Chairman;
i\l. S. Blaiklock,

F. R. Layng,
Geo. E. Rex,

Definitions

Sub-Committee.

Present Form

Strut Heart Tie — A tie having
no sapwood.

None.

Half-Round Tie — A slabbed tie
having greater width on lower
than on upper face.

None.

Heart Tie — A tie showing, on one
or two corners only, sapwood
which does not measure more than
one inch on either corner, on lines
drawn diagonally across the end
of the tie.

None.

Pole Tie — A tie made from a tree
of such size that not more than
one tie can be made from a sec-
tion ; hewd or sawed on two par-
allel faces.

Quartered Tie — A tie made from
a tree of such size that four ties
only are made from a section.

Proposed Form

All-Heart Tie — A tie having no
sapwood.

Boxed-Heart Tie — An "all-heart"
tie with the pith of the tree at or
near the centers of the ends of the
tie.

Half-Moon Tie — A tie hewed or
sawed on top and bottom only,
but with bottom of markedly
greater width than the top.
(Known also as "half-round" tie.)

Half-Round Tie — A tie hewed or
sawed on top and bottom only,
but with bottom of markedly
greater width than the top.
(Known also as "half-moon" tie.)

Halved Tie — A tie with the pith of
the tree at or near the bottom of
the tie, about midway between
the two sides.

Heart Tie — A tie with sapwood no
wider than one-fourth the width
of the top of the tie between 20-in.
and 40-in. from the middle of the
tie.

Heart-and-Back Tie — A tie with
the pitli of the tree at or near the
sire of the tie, about midway be-
tween the top and the bottom of
the tie. (Known also as "wing"
tie.)

Pole Tie — -A tie made from a tree
of such diameter that not more
than one tie can be made from a
cross-section. (Known also as
"rifle" tie and "round" tie.)

Quartered Tie — A tie with the pith
of the tree at or near a corner of
the tie.

317

318

Ties

None.

Sap Tie — A tie which shows more
than the prescribed amount of sap-
wood in cross-section.

Slabbed Tie — A tie sawed on the
faces onlv.

Split Tie — A tie made from a tree
of such size that by splitting two
or more ties can be made from a
section.

None.

Rectangui.ar Tie — A tie liewcd or
sawed on top, bottom, or sides.
(Known also as "pole" tie and
"squared" tie.)

Rifle Tie — A tic with the pith of
the tree at or near the centers of
the ends of the tie. (Known also
as "target" tie, and may be hewed
or sawed on two or four longitud-
inal surfaces.)

Round Tie — A tie with rounded
sides made from a tree of such
diameter that not more than one
tie can be made from a cross-sec-
tion. (Known also as "pole" tie
and "rifle" tie.)

Sap Tie — A tie with sapwood wider
than one- fourth the width of the
top of the tie between 20-in. and
40-in. from the middle of the tie.

Slabbed Tie — A tie hewed or sawed
on top and bottom only. (Known
also as "pole" tie and "round"

tie.)

Split Tie — A tie riven out of a

cross-section, which is generally

of sufficient diameter to yield two
or more ties.

Squared Tie — A tie hewed or sawed
on top, bottom, and sides. (Known
also as "pole" tie and "rectangu-
lar" tie.)

Squared-Pole Tie — A tie hewed or
sawed on top, bottom and sides,
made from a tree of such diam
eter that not more than one tic
can be made from a cross-sec-
tion. (Known also as "squared"
tie; and may be "rifle" or "target"
tie or "boxed-heart" tie.)

Target Tie — A tie with the pith of
the tree at or near the centers of
the ends of the tie. (Known also
as "rifle" tie, and may be hewed
or sawed on two or four longi-
tudinal surfaces.)

Triangular Tie — A tie with three
longitudinal surfaces, the widest
of which is the top of the tie.

Ties.

319

None.

Sawed Tie — A tie having both faces
a«d sides sawed.

Hewed Tie — A tie hewed on at least
two sides.

Shakes — Separation of the wood
fiber, due to the action of the
wind.

("hkcks — Small cracks in the wood
due to seasoning.

Face— The upper or lower plane
surface of a tie.

Wing Tie — A tie with the pith of
the tree at or near the side of the
tie, about midway between the
top and the bottom of the tie.

Omit.
Omit.
Omit.

Omit.
Omit.

Specifications

The replies to a request for copies of the specification for cross-ties
and the specification for switch-ties used by the railroads represented in
the Association showed that none of them are using the specifications in
the Manual.

The specifications for cross-ties which were submitted showed that a
majority of the railroads which replied were adhering quite closely to a
common standard.

The specifications for switch-ties which were submitted showed no
uniformity of practice.

A review of the specifications received is given in the following tabu-
lations, which record the references to manufacturing and physical re-
quirements. The tabulations show the variety in the terminology used,
the intcrchangeability of many of the terms, the superfluity of some of
the terms, and the dcsirabilitj^ of a standard nomenclature.

320

Ties.

Table 1 — Spkcifi cations for Cross-Ties

Physical Requirements

U;iil\v;iy

Date
of

IssiU'

"S.

6
"c

0)
C3

-a

■a

0
p

0
c
0

0
3

'3
(-

(£

£
0

"5
c
.a

0
0

0
c

-a
M

-a

3
P

c
c

-a
?

c 'f

0 -^

0 0

X X

-a

3
c

c
-i:

B
0

s
t

■V
t-,

0
£

B
3

0
s

•3

s
i

tt
"a

Ala. and Vicksburg

8-12-20
6-10-18
12-1-15

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

• ■

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

■■

X
X

■ ■

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

A. T. &S. F

A. B. & A

A. C. L

B. &0

4-5-19

6-11-18

7-1-19

6-11-18

7-20-10

4-22-20

4-1-20

7-1-20

5-1-20

3-18-19

4-00-10

9-1-18

12-1-1:5

4-12-20

2-21-19

3-1-20

7-1-20

7-1-14

B. & Ar

B. &L. E

Bing. & Garfield

B. & A

B. & M

B. R. & P

B. &S...

B. A. & P

Can. Nat'l

C.P

C. of Ga.. . .

X
X

C. of N.J

C. of Vt

C. H. & N

C. &0

C. & A

C. B. &Q

C.&E. I

C. G. W..

C. I. &L....

6-7-20
6-11-18
11-10-19
6-11-18

X
X
X

■ X

X
X

X
X
X
X

C. M.&8t. P

C. & N. W

C. R. I. &P

C. I. & W

C.C.C. &St. L

D. & H

6-11-18
7-15-20
6-11-18

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

D. L. &W

D. & S. L. . .

D. T. & I

D. &T. Sh. L

D. &>[. R

E.J. &E

9-4-20

10-1-19

9-17-19

6-11-18

4-1-20

6-1-20

2-24-19

■g-i-io"

3-1-20

E. P. &S. W

Erie

F. E. C

F. S. &W

F. W. &D. C

G. T. Pacf

G. T. System

G. N

G. C. & S. F

X
X

G. &S. I

H. V

I.C :...

I. H.B

T.&G. N

K. .t M

6-11-18
6-11-18
10-1-20
6-11-18
6-15-20
3-22-20

Tics

321

Table 1 — Continued

Manufarturing Requirements

Dimensions, Tliirknpss and Width

■0
c

-3

-*^

-d

c
c.

-0

8
B

-2

-/.

■^

■J.

C/J

<7J

'-O

■^

•o

■o

ira

--0

=°

■^

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

• ■

X
X

..!..

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

322

Ties.

Taju.e 1 — Continued

l{:iihv;iy

K. C. S

K. C.Ter'l

L. E. & Western

L.&H. R

L. V

L. I

L. A. &St. Lake ....

L. & N

M. C

Mich. Cent

M. &St. L

M. S. P. & S. Ste. M

M. K. &T

M. P

Monon. South

M. &0

Montour

N. C. &St. L

N. O. G. N

N. Y.C

C. &,St. L....

, N. H. & H. .

C. &W

N. Y
N. Y
N. Y

X. S

N. & W

N. P

O.S. L

O. W. R. R. & N

Penna. System

P. M

P. &L. E

Public Service

R. F. &P

S. L.-S. F

S. A. & A. P

S. A. L

Southern

S.P

S. P. &S

T. AN. O

T. &P

T. &0. C

T. St. L. & W

T. &B. V

U. P. S.vstem

Union R. R. (Memphis)
Union R. R. (Pittsburg)

Virginian

W. M

W. & L. E

Date

of
Issue

1-12-10

5-12-20

(5-11-18

4-12-16

6-11-18

10-5-20

2-1-20

4-1-20

10-23-18

3-1-15
3-1-20

3-1-20

10-1-12

6-11-18

1-1-20

10-22-19
10-24-18
8-1-18

3-1-20

6-00-17

6-11-18

6-00-13

3-1-20

9-1-14

6-11-18

4-20-20

5-1-20

.5-8-16

11-7-17

12-19-16

6-11-18

3-22-20

6-11-18

.3-1-20

6-11-18

4-6-20

3-1-20

6-11-18

Pliysicul Requircnicnt.>i

8 S

O X

Ties.

323

Table 1 — Continued

Manufacturing Rcquirciiicnt^*

Dimensions, Thiokness and Wiiltli

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1 X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

b
a-
m

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

"3
5

a
o
c-i

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

ffi

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

■fl

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

■3

X
X
X

e
2

"S
3

is
-Jl

o
6

ffl

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

"3.
-f.

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

■■o

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

•x

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

6
c

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Ira

c
v*

o
c

c
to

-Oi

3
X

A
o

X
X

-G

c
^"

X
X

324

Ties.

Table 2 — Specifications for Switch-Ties

Date

of
Issue

PliyNical Requiremonts

Railway

'.5

■a
a

X
X

a
o

o
>.

X
X

i>
•a

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

'$■

X
X

X
X
X
X

s
o

X
X

L-

X
X

ot
u

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

B
3

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

u
o

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

3
o
"S

Ala. & Vicksburg

A. T. &S. F

A. C. L

8-12-20
10-ir,-14

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

H. & 0

9-1-19

*H. &L. E

li. &M

B. R. &P

7-1-20

1-1-19

3-18-19

4-00-16

4-00-13 •

7-&-20

1-1-20

X
X
X

H. & S

Can. Nafl

C. P

C. of Ga

C. of N.J

C.AO

C. B. &0

C.&E. I

c. G. w :

C. M. &St. P

C. & N. W

6-16-16

1-1-11

10-8-19

X
X

C. I. & W

C. C. C. &St. L

X
X

X
X
X

D. & H

I). L. &W

1-1-17

D. T. &I

F. E. C

F. S. & W

X
X
X
X

F. W. & D. C

*G.N

3-00-10

G. T. System

9-1-16

G.&S. I

I. & G. N :

K. C.Ter'l

2-1-12....

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

L.E. & W

3-3&-15

1-1-19

4-12-16

L. & H

L. V

L. I

L. A. & St. L

10-5-20

L. & N

M. C •

M. &St. L

X
X
X

M. St. P. &S. Ste. M

M. K. &T

M. P

9-1-19

M. «&0

N. C.&St. L

N. Y. C

N. Y. C.&St. L :.

N. Y., N. H. & H

9-15-18
6-00-18
12-19-17
5-27-20

N. Y. 0. & W

N. S

8-21-18

X
X

X
X
X

N. P

0. S. T

1-18-13

Ties

325

Table 2 — Continued

Physical Requirements

Manufacturing Requirements

' Thickness
and Width

Lengtli
Differences

£
i

-a

3
0

X
X

;;

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

■£

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

-Jl

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

■6
c

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

c
£

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

a
u

'72

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

"a.

•Jl

X
X

T3
3

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

3
c

s
o

X
X

X . .

c3
o

c
c

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

o
t^

X
X

B
00

-a

-a
§

2
S

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

•■

X
X
X
X

326

Ties

Table 2 — Continued

Date

of
Issue

Physical Requirements

Railway

a
o

13
c

3
0
■J2

a
E

0
>

.s
s

■3

-*J

J3
M

X
X

-a
0
c

X
X

-a

"a
■n

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

a
s:
■j:i

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

'S.

S;
c
u

X
X

31
Ui

1
s

8
"0

-c

c
0

CO
X
X

0)
bf

X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

3
0
c

X
X

g
■g

-a

X
X

X
X
X

X
X

8-15-17

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

P.M.;. ;:::::::;::::::::;:::;;::::::::::

p. &L. E

12-1-11

5-1-20

4-2-19

6-1-14

5-1-19

5-8-16

R. F. &P

S. L. &S. F

S.A.L

Southern

S. P

S. P. &S

T.&N.O

12-19-16
2-00-19
3-12-15
7-29-20

X
X

T. P

T. &0. C

T. St. L. & W

U. P

Union R. R. (Memphis)

9-1-19

\'irginian

Wabash

X
X

VV. M

Ties

327

Table 2 — Continued

Physical Requirements

Manufacturing Requirements

Tiiickness
and Width

Length
Differences

c
c

o
c

03
0)

X
X

X
X
X

o
Q

■a
c

o
c

o
O

X
X

c
O

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

is
eg

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

"d.

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

-§

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

1
a

!^
(£<

X
X
X
X
X

c
o

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

8
a

X
X

c
"d,

c
a

X
X
X

X
X

-a

X
X
X

X
X

'S
o

"o
o

B
H

X
X

J3
o

o>
t^

X
X

J3
o

o
X

6
c

•a

X
X

o
.3

!£>

X
X

o
c

X
X

328 Ties.

The Committee presents the following "Specification for Cross-Ties"
and "Specification for Switch-Ties" and recommends that they be adopted
and be printed in the Manual in substitution for the specifications ap-
proved in 1916 and appearing on pages 243 to 246 of Volume 17 of the
Proceedings of the Association.

SPECIFICATION FOR CROSS-TIES

Material
Kinds of Wood

1. Before manufacturing ties, producers shall ascertain which of the
following kinds of wood suitable for cross-ties will be accepted : Ash,
Beech, Birch, Catalpa, Cedar, Cherry, Chestnut, Cypress, Elm, Fir, Gum,
Hackberry, Hemlock, Hickory, Larch, Locust, Maple, Mulberry, Oak,
Pine, Poplar, Redwood, Sassafras, Spruce, Sycamore and Walnut. Others
will not be accepted unless specially ordered.

Physical Requirements
General Quality

All ties shall be free from any defects that may impair their strength
or durability as cross-ties, such as decay, large splits, large shakes, large
or numerous holes or knots, or grain with slant greater than one in
fifteen.

Resistance to Wear

Ties from needle-leaved trees shall be of compact wood throughout
the top fourth of the tie, where any inch of any radius from the pith'
shall have not less than one-third summerwood in six or more rings of
annual growth, or not less than one-half summerwood in fewer rings.
Ties of coarse wood having, fewer rings or less summerwood will not be
accepted unless specially ordered.

Resistance to Decay

Ties for use without preservative treatment shall not have sapwood
wider than one-fourth the width of the top of the tie between 20 inches
and 40 inches from the middle, and will be designated as "heart" ties.
Those with more sapwood will be designated as "sap" ties.

Design
Dimensions

2. Before manufacturing ties, producers shall ascertain which of
the following lengths, shapes, or sizes will be accepted, and whether ties
are to be hewed or sawed and in either case whether on the sides as well
as on the top and the bottom.

All ties shall be eight (8) feet, eight (8) feet six (6) inches, or nine
(9) feet long.

All ties shall measure as follows throughout both sections between
20 inches and 40 inches from the middle of the tie :

Ties

329

Grade.

Sawed or Hewed Top,
Bottom and Sides.

Sawed or Hewed Top and
Bottom,

1
2
3

None accepted.

6" thick X 7" wide on top.

G" thick X 8" wide on top.

7" thick X 8" wide on top.
7" thick X 9" wide on top.
7" thick X 10" wide on top.

6"
6"
6"
7"
7"
7"
7"

thick X 6" wide on top.
thick X 7" wide on top.
thick X 8" wide on top.
thick X 7" wide on top.
thick X 8" wide on top.
thick X 9" wide on top.
thick X 10" wide on top.

Notes

(1) It is expected that each railroad will specify only the kind or
kinds of wood it desires to use.

(2) It is expected that each railroad will specify only the length or
lengths, shape or shapes, and size or sizes it desires to use; but each
railroad will use the standard designation for whatever size of tie it
specifies. For example, a railroad desiring 6 inch x 8 inch ties only
will designate them as Grade 3; a railroad desiring 7 inch x 9 inch ties
only will designate them as Grade 5. A railroad shall not designate 6
inch X 8 inch ties as Grade 1 and 6 inch x 6 inch as Grade 2, or 7 inch x
9 inch ties as Grade 1 and 7 inch x 8 inch as Grade 2. A railroad which
desires to use ties less than 6 inches thick or 6 inches wide on top, or ties
rejectable under the standard specification for other reasons, shall not
give to such ties a standard designation (1 to 6), but shall designate
them as Grade 0 or as "usable rejects."

(3) It is expected that railroads which specify both 6 inch x 8 inch
and 7 inch x 9 inch ties manufactured on top and bottom only and which
desire to separate the 6 inch from the 7 inch ties will designate the 7 inch
X 7 inch as Grade 3A.

Manufacture

All ties, except those of ,

(Specify kind or kinds of wood)
shall be made from trees which have been felled not longer than one

month.

All ties shall be straight, well hewed or sawed, cut square at the ends,
have bottom and top parallel, and have bark entirely removed.

Inspection

Ties will be inspected after delivery at suitable and convenient places
satisfactory to the railroad, which reserves the right. to inspect ties at
points of shipment or at destination. Ties will be inspected at points
other than the railroad's property whenever in the judgment of the rail-
road there is sufficient number to warrant it ; but the shipper shall provide
accommodations for the inspector while away from rail or steamer lines
and transport him from or to a railroad station or steamer landing.

Inspectors will make a reasonably close examination of the top, bot-
tom, sides, and ends of each tie. Each tie will be graded independently

330 Ties.

witlioiit regard for tht- grading of others in the same lot. Rafted or
boomed ties too muddied for read}- examination will be rejected. Tics
handled over hoists will be turned over as inspected.

Ties will be rejected when decayed in the slightest degree, except
that the following will be allowed : in cedar, "pipe or stump rot" up to
1^ inches in diameter and 15 inches deep; in cypress, "peck" up to the
limitations as to holes ; and, in pine, "blue sap stain."

A large hole in woods other than cedar is one more than Yi inch in
diameter and 3 inches deep within, or more than 1 inch in diameter and
3 inches deep outside the sections of the tie between 20 inches and 40
inches from its middle. Numerous holes are any number equalling a
large hole in damaging effect. Such holes may result in manufacture or
otherwise.

A large knot is one exceeding in width more than % oi the width
of the surface on which it appears; but such a knot may be allowed if it
occurs outside the sections of the tie between 20 inches and 40 inches
from its middle. Numerous knots are any number equalling a large knot
in damaging effect.

A shake is a separation of one ring of annual growth from another.
One which is not over 4 inches long or J^ inch wide will be allowed.

A split is a break across annual rings. One which is not over 10
inches long will be allowed provided a satisfactory anti-splitting device
has been properly applied.

A tie will be considered straight: (1) When a straight line along
the top from the middle of one end to the middle of the other end is
entirely within the tie; (2) when a straight line along a side from the
middle of one end to the middle of the other is everywhere more than
2 inches from the top and the bottom of the tie.

A tie is not well hew-ed or sawed when its surfaces are cut into with
scoremarks more than ^A inch deep or when its surfaces are not even.

The lengths, thicknesses, and widths specified are minimum dimen-
sions. Ties over 1 inch more in thickness, over 3 inches more in width,
or over 2 inches more in length will be degraded or rejected.

The top and bottom of a tie will be considered parallel if the differ-
ence in the thicknesses at the two sides or ends does not exceed one-half
(Yz) inch; that is, one side may be seven and one-quarter (7^4) inches
while the other is six and three-quarter (6^4) inches wide; or one end
may be six and three-quarter (6^4) inches w-hile the other is seven and
one-quarter (7^) inches thick.

All thicknesses and widths apply to the sections of the tie between
20 inches and 40 inches from the middle of the tie. All determinations
f)f width will be made on the top of the tie, which is the narrower of the
horizontal surfaces.

Ties which are oversize will be accepted as follows : 8 inch to 9 inch
X 9 inch to 12 inch as Grade 4; 9 inch to 10 inch x 9 inch to 12 inch as
Grade 3. Ties over 10 inches thick or over 12 inches wide on top will

Ties. 331

be rejected. Ties will be graded up by their smaller eiid.s and graded
down by their larger ends. The dimensions of the tic will not be aver-
aged.

Delivery

All ties, except those of

(Specify kind or kinds of wood;
shall be delivered to the railroad within one month after being made.

Ties delivered on the premises of the railroad for inspection shall be
stacked not less than ten (10) feet from the nearest rail of any track at
suitable and convenient places ; but not at public crossings, nor where they
will interfere with the view of trainmen or of people approaching the
railroad. Ties shall be stacked in alternate layers of two (2) and seven
(7), the bottom layer to consist of two (2) ties kept at least six inches
above the ground. The second layer shall consist of seven (7) ties laid
crosswise of the first layer. When the ties are rectangular, the two out-
side ties of the la.vers of seven and the layers of two shall be laid on
their sides. The ties in layers of two shall be laid at the extreme ends
of the ties in the laj^ers of seven. No stack may be more than twelve
layers high, and there shall be five feet between stacks to facilitate in-
spection. Ties which have stood on their ends on the ground will be
rejected.

Each stack shall have fastened to it a tag on which is written the
owner's name and address, the date when stacked, and the number of
ties of each kind of wood in the stack.

All ties are at the owner's risk until accepted. All rejected ties shall
be removed within one month after inspection.

Ties shall be stacked as grouped below. Only the kinds of wood
named in a group may be stacked together.

CL.A.SS U — Ties Which M.\y Be Used Untreated
Group Ua Group Ub Group Uc Group Ud

"Heart" Black "Heart" Douglas "Heart" Cedars "Heart" Catalpa
Locust Fir "Heart" Cypress "Heart" Chestnut

"Heart" White "Heart" Pines "Heart" Redwood "Heart" Red
Oaks Mulberry

"Heart" Black "Heart" Sassafras

Walnut

Class T — Ties Which Should Be Tre.\ted

Group Ta Group Th Group Tc Group Td

.A-shes "Sap" Cedars Beech "Sap" Catalpa

Hickories "Sap" Cypress Birches "Sap" Chestnut

"Sap" Black "Sap" Douglas Fir Cherries Elms

Locust Hemlocks Gums Hackberry

Honey Locust Larches Hard Maples Soft Maples

Red Oaks "Sap" Pines "Sap" Mulberries

"Sap" White Oaks "Sap" Redwood Poplars

"Sap" Black "Sap" Sassafras

Walnut Spruces

Sycamore
White Walnut

332 Ties

Shipment

Tics forwarded in rars or vessels shall be separated therein accord-
ing to the above groups, and also according to the above sizes if inspected
before loading.

SPECIFICATION FOR SWITCH-TIES

Material
Kinds of Wood

1. Before manufacturing ties, producers shall ascertain which of the
following kinds of wood suitable for switch-ties will be acceptable: Ash,
Beech, Birch, Cedar, Cherrj^ Chestnut, Cypress, Fir, Gum, Hemlock,
Larch, Locust, Maple, Oak, Pine and Redwood. Others will not be ac-
cepted unless specially ordered.

Physical Requirements
General Quality

All ties shall be free from any defects that may impair their strength
or durability as switch-ties, such as decay, large splits, large shakes, large
or numerous holes or knots, or grain with slant greater than one in
fifteen.

Resistance to Wear

Ties from needle-leaved trees shall be of compact wood throughout
the top fourth of the tie, where any inch of any radius from the pith
shall have not less than one-third summerwood in six or more rings of
annual growth, or not less than one-half summerwood in fewer rings.
Ties of coarse wood having fewer rings or less summerwood will not be
accepted unless specially ordered.

Resistance to Decay

Ties for use without preservative treatment shall not have sapwood
wider than one-fourth the width of the top between twelve (12) inches
from each end of the tie, and will be designated as "heart" ties. Those
with more sapwood will be designated as "sap" ties.

Design
Dimensions

2. Before manufacturing ties, producers shall ascertain what sizes
of ties will be acceptable and whether ties are to be hewed or sawed and
in either case whether on the sides as well as the top and the bottom.

All ties shall be seven (7) inches thick.

Ties sawed or hewed on top, bottom, and sides shall be not less
than nine (9) inches wade on top throughout the section between twelve
(\2) inches from each end of the tie. Ties sawed or hewed on top and
bottom only shall be not less than seven (7) inches wide on top through-
out the section between twelve (12) inches from each end of the tie.

Kach tie shall be of a length specified below :

Ties. 333

(Bill of Material)

1. It is expected that each railroad will specify only the kind or
kinds of wood it desires to use.

2. It is expected that each railroad will specify only the shape" or
shapes and size or sizes it desires to use.

Manufacture
All ties, except those of .

(Specify kind or kinds of wood)
shall be made from trees which have been felled not longer, than one

month.

All ties shall be straight, well hewed or sawed, cut square at the ends,
have bottom and top parallel, and have bark entirely removed.

Inspection

Ties will be inspected after delivery at suitable' and convenient places
satisfactory to the railroad, which reserves the right to inspect ties at
points of shipment or at destination. Ties wiH be inspected at places
other than the railroad's property whenever in the judgment of the rail-
road there is sufficient number to warrant it; but the shipper shall provide
accommodations for the inspector while away from rail or steamer lines
and transport him from or to a railroad station or steamer landing.

Inspectors will make a reasonably close examination of the top, bot-
tom, sides and ends of each tie. Each tie will be judged independently,
\vithout regard for the decisions on others in the same lot.

Ties will be rejected when decaj^ed in the slightest degree, except
that the following will be allowed: in cedar, "pipe or stump rot" up to
one and one-half (V/2) inches in diameter and fifteen (15) inches deep;
in cypress, "peck" up to the limitations as to holes; and, in pine, "blue
sap stain."

A large hole in woods other than cedar is one more than one-half
(14) inch in diameter and three (3) inches deep within, or more than one
(1) inch in diameter and three (3) inches deep outside the section be-
tween twelve (12) inches from each end of the tie. Numerous holes are
any number equalling a large hole in damaging effect. Such holes may
result in manufacture or otherwise.

A large knot is one exceeding in width more than one-quarter (}i)
of the width of the surface on which it appears; but such a knot may be
allowed if it occurs outside the section between twelve (12) inches from
each end of the tie.

334 Ties.

A shake is a separation of one ring of annual growth from another.
One which is not over four (4) inches long or one-quarter (^) inch
wide will be allowed.

A split is a break across annual rings. One which is not over ten
(10) inches long will be allowed, provided a satisfactory anti-splitting
device has been properly applied.

A tie will be considered straight: (1) When a straight line along
the top from the middle of one end to the middle of the other end is
entirely within the tie; (2) when a straight line along a side from the
middle of one end to the middle of- the other end is everywhere more
than two (2) inches from the top or the bottom of the tie.

A tie is not well hewed or sawed when its surfaces arc cut into with
scoremarks more than one-half (14) inch deep and when its surfaces
are not even.

The lengths, thicknesses, and widths specified are minimum dimen-
sions. Ties over one (1) inch more in thickness, over three (3) inches
more in width, or over two (2) inches more in length will be rejected.

The top and bottom of a tie will be considered parallel if the differ-
ence in the thicknesses at the two sides or ends does not exceed one-half
(14) inch; that is, one side may be seven and one-quarter (7^4) inches
while the other is six and three-quarter (6%) inches wide; or one end
may be six and three-quarter (6^) inches while the other is seven and
one-quarter (7%) inches thick.

All thicknesses and widths apply to the section of the tie between
twelve (12) inches from each end of the tie. All determinations of width
will be made on the top of the tie, which is the narrower of the horizontal
surfaces.

Delivery

All ties, except those of

(Specify kind or kinds of wood)
shall be delivered to the railroad within one m-onth after being made.

Ties delivered on the premises of the railroad shall be stacked not
less than ten (10) feet frorh the nearest rail of any track at suitable and
convenient places; but not at public crossings, nor where they will inter-
fere with the views of trainmen or of people approaching the railroad.
Ties shall be stacked at least six (6) inches above the ground. No tie
shall be unsupported for more than ten (10) feet of its length. The ties
in each layer of ten (10) or more shall be not less than one (1) inch
apart, and such layers shall be separated by stacking strips at least one
(1) inch thick and not more than four (4) inches wide. If ties are used
to separate the layers of ten (10) or more, and they are rectangular, such
strip ties shall be laid on their sides and the two (2) outside ties as near
as possible to the extreme ends of the ties in the layers of ten (10) or
more. No ties shall be permitted to overhang more than two (2) feet.
No stack of ties shall be wider than ten (10) feet.

Ties. 335

Each stack shall have fastened to it a tag on which is written the
owner's name and address, the date wlien stacked, and the nnmber of
tics of each kind of wood in the stack.

All ties are at the owner's risk until accepted. All rejected ties shall
be removed within one month after inspection.

Ties shall be stacked as grouped below. Only the kinds of wood
named in a group maj- be stacked together.

Class U — Ties Which May Bic Used Untreated
Group Ua Croup Uh Group Uc Group Ud

"Heart" Black "Heart" Douglas "Heart" Cedars "Heart" Chestnut

Locust Fir "Heart" Cypress

"Heart" White "Heart" Pines "Heart" Redwood

Oaks

Class T — Ties Which Should Be Treated
Group Ta Group Tb Group Tc Group Td

Ashes "Sap" Cedars Beech "Sap" Chestnut

"Sap" Black "Sap" Cypress Birches Soft Maples

Locust "Sap" Douglas Fir Cherries

Honey Locust Hemlocks Gums

Red Oaks Larches Hard Maples

"Sap" White Oaks "Sap" Pines

"Sap" Redwood

Shipment

Ties forwarded in cars or vessels shall be separated therein accord-
ing to the above groups, and also according to the above sets or lengths
if inspected before loading.

Appendix B

(2) REPORT ON METHODS OF INSTALLING AND KEEP-
ING RECORDS OF TEST SECTIONS FOR OBTAINING
DATA ON THE LIFE OF CROSS-TIES

W. A. Clark, Chairman; O. H. Frick,

W. C. Baisinger, R. M. Leeds,

E. L. Crugar, Sub-Committee.

The -work was carried on by collecting information and opinions
through correspondence and interviews ; also by meetings of the Sub-
committee. Some members of the Sub-Committee also met at Madison,
Wis., with members of the American Wood Preservers' Association, the
Wood Preservation Committee of the A.R.E.A. and representatives of the
Forest Products Laboratory.

The advisability of obtaining data on tie life by means of test sec-
tions is so generally admitted that no argument on that point is considered
necessar}', but it may be well to point out the purposes in view, then to
describe some of the methods in use and make recommendations leading
toward uniform practice.

When a road uses only one kind of ties, it is not necessary to initiate
any elaborate scheme to determine the life of ties on various sections of
the road, for the information is of little practical value. Such cases are
now rare, however. Railroads that formerly used only one kind of ties
are now using several kinds. Many roads use treated ties with different
kinds of wood and different methods of treatment.

It is highly important to know what life and comparative value is
obtained from these various different kinds of ties in the same locaUty
and in localties having different climatic and traffic conditions. Without
reliable information of this kind, we are unable to purchase or treat ties
economically or distribute them wisely.

The Association has decided that the method of test sections is the
best way to obtain the necessary data. The methods of installing the
test sections and of collecting and reporting the data on different railroads
are not uniform, although the work of the Forest Products Laboratory
has tended toward uniform methods of reporting.

Some large roads have installed only one or two test sections. Otli-
ers have installed at least one on each roadmaster's district. Some have
put in only a few ties of each kind and few kinds; others, not less than
a hundred of each kind and many different kinds. In some cases, the
test sections are inspected and reported on by the department supplying
the ties; in other cases this is done by the Engineering Department and
in others by the Operating Department.

On some roads the ties in the test sections are installed "out of face,"
on others, the test sections are marked off and the ties in the track are

336

Ties. 337

numbered and described according to the best information available. The
latter method is varied on some roads by disregarding the ties already in
the track and keeping a life record of the ties used for renewals.

The principal criticism of the test section method of obtaining data
on tie life has been that it often gave abnormal results. This criticism,
if merited, is probably due to the fact that the ties are in most cases
selected, the maintenance is above the standard, and the renewals are
watched with unusual care. The main object of the tests is comparative
data, however, and the test sections as usually installed give this com-
parison, but it is believed that the tests might be made more nearly rep-
resentative if care were taken to keep the conditions as near as possible
to average actual practice.

Of forty railroads canvassed by this Sub-Committee, only five sub-
mitted data to show that a systematic record of test sections had been
kept; namely, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, Great Northern, Balti-
more & Ohio, Pennsj'lvania and Northern Pacific. Several other roads
are keeping a more or less complete and comprehensive record of this
kind.

Recommendations
Installing Test Sections

(1) In locating test sections, it is of first importance that a piece of
track be selected that has no switches and is not likely to be disturbed
by new construction or abnormal rail renewals.

It is not essential but it is recommended that the test ties all be put
in at once "out of face," as this accelerates the gathering of the infor-
mation and without greatly increasing the expense, as the good ties re-
moved can be used elsewhere.

All of the different kinds of ties in a test section should, so far as
possible, be installed under the same conditions of curvature, grade and
drainage.

The Committee recommends tha't not less than 100 ties of each kind
under test be installed. If installed in multiples of 100, the percentages
are readily obtained. If too few ties are put in, a few abnormal failures
may make the test misleading.

Each tie should be numbered and most roads think it necessary to
mark each tie with its number, and in some cases with kind of timber
and date of insertion. If a reliable record is kept in the office, however,
it scarcely seems necessary to mark the tie with more than its number.
The test sections should be marked by suitable monuments at each end.

Inspection of Test Tracks

(2) It is recommended that installation and records of the test sec-
tions be under the supervision of a technical man, experienced in that
kind of work, who is qualified to make accurate observations and keep
good records, so that the tests will be continuous and not affected by
changes in the personnel. Regular inspection should be made of the test
sections at least once a year. Ties should not be removed except in

338 Tics.

emergencies without the approval of the official responsible for the rec-
ord and should never be destroyed until inspected by him or his repre-
sentative.

Tie Record

(3) The essentials of the record are covered by two forms: one
being a report (Form No. 1) giving the location and principal data, such
as traffic, weight of rail, kind of ballast, kind of tie, treatment, etc., and
the other a record of the inspections (Form No. 2) showing the condition
of each tie at each inspection.

For convenience in recording the information on Form No. 2, a set
of abbreviations is recommended, similar to the following : N.S. — Rep-
resents joint ties; B. — Broken but still in service; B.D. — Badly bruised
account derailment ; C. — So decayed as to warrant renewal ; P.D. — Partly
decayed but still serviceable, etc.

If many kinds of ties are under test in the test sections, a chart
showing the location of the different kinds will be helpful and it is neces-
sary to have a full record of the treatment of each different lot of ties
under test. It is also advisable to send to all, who are in any way re-
sponsible for the tests, a set of rules or instructions, governing the in-
stalling, maintaining and inspecting of the test sections. These instruc-
tions will vary with the organization of the road and the extent of the
tests.

In case the ties in the test sections are not put in "out of face," but
the existing ties in the track are considered as test ties, the forms must
be modified accordingly. Or if the test sections are to be built up by
keeping a record of the ties used in renewals, still different forms are
needed.

As renewal "out of face" is recommended in installing test sections,
only the one set of forms is offered, though it is agreed that reliable rec-
ords can be secured by anyone of the three methods.

The Committee earnestly hopes that more roads will install test sec-
tions and begin keeping accurate records which will be of value to them-
selves and to the Association.

Ties. 339

Form No. 1.
NORTH & SOUTH RAILROAD

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTAL TEST TIE SECTIONS

District Division

Location

Kind of Ballast

Tangent or Curve %

Tie Plates

Weight of Rail

Rail Fastenings

Rail Changed When

Weight of Rail Originally in Track

Size of Ties

Kind of Timber ;

Where Treated ^ ;

When Treated

How Treated

When Put in Track

Number Originally Put in Track

Number Still in Track Last Inspection

When Last Inspected

Traffic

Remarks:

340

Ties.

NORTH & SOUTH RAILROAD

INSPECTION OF EXPERIMENTAL TIES

Location

Between M. P and M. P

Date Placed in Track

Form Xo.

Tie

Condition
When Laid

Condition at Date of Inspection

No.

(Insert year at top of each column)

Appendix C

(4) STUDY AND REPORT ON THE ECONOMICS OF THE

USE OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF CROSS-TIES AND VARI.

OUS KINDS OF PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT

W. J. Burton, Chairman; A. F. Maischaider,

F. T. Beckett, G. P. Palmer,

Sub-Committee.

Meetings of this Sub-Committee were held in St. Louis on June 8th
and October 18th, 1920.

The assignment has been construed by the Sub-Committee as intend-
ing that "classes" refers to both size of tie and kind of wood.

An investigation of existing data indicates that not only is satisfac-
tory tie life data far from plentiful, but, also that much of it has been
obtained, primarily, for the purpose of justifying treatment and without
very much regard to the question of size of tie or kind of wood. Some
of the more recent tie data is one-sided, in that certain variables, espe-
cially the treatment details, are recorded with particularity out of propor-
tion to the provisions for other equally important or even more important
variables. Such service test data as there is, however, is too limited to
permit satisfactory* conclusions on the subject assigned.

Some of the many variables which influence ihe life of ties are:

Kind of wood

Dimensions

Preservative treatment

Ballast

Fastenings

Climate

Traffic —

tut wrong conclusions might easily be drawn if these are based on pres-
ent data exclusively. For instance, it is reasonable to presume that ties
7 inch X 9 inch will out-last 6 inch x 8 inch ties when subjected to iden-
tical conditions, but, owing to the fact that the larger ties are more fre-
quently used under heavy traffic, the available statistics, which do not
adequately take into account the traffic, indicated the apparent absurdity
that the smaller ties will out-last the larger.

Having in mind this incomparability of much of the limited data
existing, as well as to elicit discussion, the Committee sent out a ques-
tionnaire dealing with the subject, and asking for opinion data where
actual results were not available.

It would seem from the returns that in some cases "conventional"
ideas as to life of ties of certain kinds are reported, and it is also appar-
ent that the variable of traffic, which is very difficult to handle, must
receive much greater attention before proper comparisons or conclusions
may be made.

A tabulation of the replies will be found in table "A." They were
further condensed by simply averaging the figures and the results are
given in the following table :

341

342

Ties

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Ties. 343

This table is produced principally for tlie purpose of pointing out the
fact that, without takiiiR into account such variables as traffic and climate,
conclusions, as, for instance, between ties 7 inches thick compared with
those 6 inches, arc out of the question.

E.xhibit A contains a digest of the rci)lies to tin- questionnaire.

There is evidently a considerable lack of agreement among the engi-
neers replying as to the functions of the tie. Question 3, for instance,
was intended to bring out discussion as to the relative desirability of
beam strength and bearing area. The 7 inch x 7 inch tic, which is cut
from a tree slightly smaller than that required for the 6 inch x 8 inch tie,
has a beam strength (moment of inertia) practically 50 per cent, greater.
The additional inch of width, as bearing surface, for both the rail and
ballast, is considered by many as of greater advantage than this 50 per
cent, increase in beam strength.

A comparison of the moments of inertia of the several grades of
cross-tics is made in the following table :

Grade Si^c Area of Cross-S'cctioii Moment of Inertia

(a)

Inches

Incl)cs

Sq. In.

Sq. in.

In.

None

6x6

46.37

123

6x7

51.12

126

139

6x8

56.20

144

156

7x7

63.00

228

7x8

68.23

229

254

7x9

74.46

257

280

d3 D-b

(a) Calculated with formula 1= ( + b) where D ^ diam-

12 3
eter of tree, b= width of face of tie and d = thickness of tic. This
gives results slightly (3 per cent.) greater than by mathematically exact
formula.

Similar^, there is a disagreement as to whether a 6 inch x 8 inch tie
ofifers greater or less protection against failure from mechanical wear
than the 7 inch x 7 inch tie. One argument is that the additional inch in
depth of the latter permits of adzing to that extent, while another thought
is that the increased rail bearing area will result in less wear.

There are other angles to the question when viewed from the stand-
point of maintaining track alrcad}^ existing, such, for instance, as the
effect of introducing 7-inch tics in track tied with 6-inch tics.

Conclusions

In view of the lack of data and the conflicting ideas, the Committee
desires to report progress on the subject, but to draw no conclusions this
year. The information in tlie exhibits is presented as having value in
considering the subject.

(A)

344

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Ties.

353

Exhibit A

Assuming that tlic dift'crciit sizes (grades) of tics will be received
more or less mixed, in application to track, which would you prefer put-
ting together —

(a) Ties of the same width on top, or

(b) Tics of the same thickness, and why?
Those favoring (a), ties of the same width on top:

Railroad

Reported By

Rea.sons

A.B. & A

Bangor & Aroostook .
BinRham & Garfield. .

C. G. W

D. & H

D. T. «&!

L. L. Beat

More uniform bearing.

H. C. Goodrich

C. G. Delo

James'MacMartin. . . .

H. B. VVatters

A. Montzheimer

J. L. Campbell

H. N. Rodenbaugh . .

John V. Hanna

R. L. Young

R. M. Leeds

To obtain full bearing .surface for tie plates and rail.

More uniform spacing.

No preference.

TTniform spacing, uniform bracing.

E. J. & E

E. P. &S. W

F. E. C

K. C. T

Lake Superior &!....
L. & N

So as to secure equal bearing. This might be
accomplished in case ties were of diiTerent
widths by judicious spacing, but it would be
difficult, if not impossible, to secure uniform
bearing.

No preference.

.Vccount uniform bearing and better to maintain
tracks.

For new work on account of better bearing for rail
and tie plates for main line work and getting the
small ties into sidetrack work.

Not material except in rock ballast.

Tamping area more uniform and weight distrib-

N. & W

J. E. Crawford

W. C. Gushing

H.J. Pfeifer

F. B. Freeman

J. G Gwyn

uted to ballast equally. Resistance to mechan-
ical wear greater.
Prefer putting together ties of same width on top

rather than of same thickness, as some advan-
tage may be gained in renewing ties from this
method, although believe it is immaterial
whether or not ties are separated in this manner.
It is believed the bearing will be more uniform.

T. R. R. A. of St. I...

Boston & Albany

D & R G

A more uniform track will be secured by using

the ties as they come.
Account of standard spacing of ties, prefer same

width to get uniform bearing throughout panel.

Texas & Pacific

C. & N. W

R. H. Gaines

W. J. Towne

E. Stim.son

To get uniform spacing.

For renewals would use the ties mixed but for new

B. &0

work would prefer to keep separated.
With specifications providing for only 1' more

than standard thickness, would prefer ties of
the same width, as this would give uniform
bearing.
In order to obtain more uniform bearing support

Nor. Pacific

Bernard Blum

Those favoring (b), ties of the same thickness:

AlgomaCent. &H. B.

R. S. McCormick. ...

To obtain better surface.

Ann Arbor

L. J. Allen

Easier to keep track in surface.

Atl. Coast Line

L. L. Sparrow

Difference in width may be corrected by spacing.

B. &0. Ch. Term...

G. P. Palmer

To obtain better bearing.

Boston & Maine

F. A. Merrill

Account of frost.

Canadian Pac

J. M. R. Fairbairn .

In order not to distort bed of track.

Cent, of Ga

C.E. Weaver

.More important to have uniformity of thicknrs.s,
in order to have tie beds in the same plane.

C. M. &St. P

E. S. Pooler

Because of more uniform strength.

C. R. I. &P

C. F. Ford

For sake of uniformity.

D. & Hudson

J. MacMartin

No preference.

Duluth & Iron Rg

W. A. Clark

Account more uniform disturbance of ballast.

D W. & Pac

J L. Pickles

E. P. &S. VV

J. L. Campbell

No preference.

Grand Trunk

M. S. Blaiklock

Because bearing on ballast would be on a uniform
plane and be more easily tamped, ties would be
uniformly resisting and give more uniform and
longer waves in deflection of rail.

354

Ties.

355

Exhibit A

Oris r (ON 2 — (Coulinucd)
Those favoring (b), ties of the same thickness:

Railroad

Reported By

Reasons

C. C. C. &St. L

C. A. Paquette

Better tamping can be obtained.

H. & L. E

F. R. Layng.

When renewals are made there is less disturbance

of the tamped bed and less labor required to

insert the new tie.

B. Herman

Better sub-drainage and uniform support. Less

labor to renew. Loss disturbance to roadbed

in renewals.

S. P. Lines .

J. D. Isaacs

J. n. Isaacs

Better surface and drainage.

S. P. Co. (Pac. Svs.)..

Southern Pacific Co., Pacific System, has two

.standard ties, 7"xl0" for primary main lines and

7"x9" for .secondary main lines and branch lines.

These standards are rigidly adhered to and

specifications do not permit of more than 1'

variation in width, or !/' over in thickness for

fir ties, or | " one way in redwood or cedar ties.

Ties of the same thickness should be used to

keep track more uniform and maintenance less

difficult.

W. C. F. & N

T. E. Rust

To obtain uniform depth of ballast. Ties of
varying widths can be spaced to compensate.

N. V. C. &St. I

C. E. Denny

Ties of same thickness, better surface can be
maintained on established bed.

G. C. & S. F

F. Merritt

To secure uniform depth of surfacing material

under the tie.

C. B. & Q

A. W. Newton

Prefer ties of same thickness. This insures better

track conditions and maintains uniform ballast

depth under ties— assuming that ballast is

generally of the same depth over a given stretcli

of track.

G. &S. I

H. V. Gardner, .Ir .. .

.\ccount not disturbing bearing.

G. F. & A

A. S. Butterworth . .
A. Crable

Ease of surfacing.

Hocking Valley

So that bed under ties will be uniform.

I. &G. N

F. S. Schwinn

Account desirable to maintain uniform thickness

of ballast.

K. C. T

John V. Hanna

For renewal purposes same thickness as those

already in track, in order that disturbance of

tie beds might be a minimum.

L. E. & W

J. K. Conner

This would result in less disturbance to the road-

bed, assuming that ties of the .same thickness

were available when repairs and renewals were

Lake Superior & I ... .

R. C. Young

Not material except in rock ballast.

Long Island

.1. R. Savage

Account of more uniform bearing surface.

Maine Central

G. F. Black

Account of frost.

Michigan Central

Geo. H. Webb

.\ccount of least disturbance to old bed in renewals
— bearing surface of rail on ties may be kept
uniform per rail length by increasing or decreas-
ing number of ties per rail irrespective of widths.

M. K. &T

F. Ringer

E. A. Hadley

Account better surface.

M. P

Smoother track with less disturbance of tamped

ballast bed.

M. &0

B. A.Wood

S. B. Rice

F. G. Jonah

Better surface.

H. F. &P

Account of the rigidity of the thick ties.

St. L.-S. F

Renewals can be made with less disturbance, of

old tie bed.

S. A. I

J. L. Kirby

Account of bearing.

Teniis. & N. 0

S. B. Clement

Ties can be renewed more readily and in the
spring when the frost is coming out of the road-
bed a more uniform bearing can be obtained
If there is an appreciable difference in the thick
ness of adjoining ties, the thicker ones will have
a solid bearing on the frozen ballast, when the
thinner one is resting on yielding ballast free
from frost.

356

Ties

Exhibit A

QUKSTION 3

Assuming that you were to receive only ties with rounded sides of
grade 3, which would you prefer, all 6 in. by 8 in. or all 7 in. by 7 in.,
and why?

Those favoring all 6 in. by 8 in. ties :

Railroad

Ann Arbor.

A. B. & A .
n. &0. C. T.

C. P. R

C. of Georgia .

C. R. I. &P.

D. T. &!..

D. W. &P.

E. J. &E.,

F. E. C.

G. &S.I..
G. F. &A.
I. &G. N.

K. C. T

L. E. & W...
Long Island .
L. &N

Michigan Central.

M. K. &T

P. R. R

St. L.-S. F

T. R. R. A. of St. L.

W. C. F. & N...
N. Y. C. &St. L.

Boston & Albany .
G.C. &S. F

C. C. C. & St. L.

Texas & Pacific.
B. & L. E

S. P. Lines.
C. & N. W.

H. &0

N. P

Reported By

L. J. Allen.

L. L. Real...
G. P. Palmer.

J. M. R. Fairbairn.
C. E. Weaver

C.F.Ford

H. B. Watters. . .

J. L. Pickles

A. Montzheimer.

H. N. Rodenbaugh.

W. H. Gardner, Jr.
A. S. Butterworth.
F. S. Schwinn

J. V. Hanna . . .
J. K. Conner. .
J. R. Savage. .
R. M. Leeds...

Geo. H. Webb.

F. Ringer

W. . Gushing.

F. G. Jonah .
H. J. Pfeifer.

T. E. Rust ...
C. E. Denney.

F. B. Freeman.
F. Merritt

C. A. Paquette.

R. H. Gaines.
F. R. Layng..

J. D. Isaacs. . .
W.J. Towne...
E. Stimaon . . . .
Bernard Blum .

Rea.sons

Better t8p surface for holding tie plates and better
bottom surface for bearing in ballast.

More bearing surface.

Seven by seven inch tie should be eliminated or
placed in a new class. Two and one-half cents
per tie lost sorting No. 3 ties now.

For branch line track.

Preferable account 14% more bearing area on tie
bed.

Tie with 8' face will permit the u.se of larger tie
plate and better distribution of the load.

Without tie plates and .spacing for 6'x8".

Account more Surface on tie.

The 7"x7" tie too narrow for the thickness and will
not give as good a bearing as the G'xR".

Account better bearing, additional 1" in depth
not sufficient to warrant the use of the 7'x7"
as against the G'xS'.

Stronger and less liable to break under load.

Greater bearing face.

Greater bearing surface per tie, better support
for rail.

Better bearing for rail, tie plate or ballast and
having slightly less sapwood.

Assuming that ties in track were all 6'x8'. This
size has sufficient cross section for strength.

If plated, account provision for mechanical wear
for the length of the spike. If not plated, 7'x7".

More ballast tamped under ties. Tie acts a.s a
beam only in center bound track, or where ties
are swinging.

Less ties per mile required to give necessary per-
centage of bearing surface of rail on ties per rail
length.

Greater width of bearing surface, reducing me-
chanical wear.

Account greater width although deficient in beam
strength. The B'xS' tie is not satisfactory for
heavy traffic. Ties should be 7"x9" or not less
than 7"x8'.

Because we expect to use a tie plate wider than 7".

A 6' tie is thick enough to take a .spike and an 8"
bearing area is more desirable than a 7" bearing.
The only feature that would make a 7' tie better
is its lesser liability to break under the rail.

No Bea.son given.

Better surface can be maintained on established
bed.

In gravel ballast, for larger base.

With same number of ties per mile the fi'xS" ties
would afford greater supporting surface.

Additional bearing surface is preferred to the
additional depth.

More bearing surface needed.

Would only use these two classes on light traffic
lines or side tracks, so would prefer all 6'x8"
because use of wider tie will assist in main-
taining surface.

Account increase bearing.

More bearing surface.

With treated ties and a wide tie plate the B'xS'

ties are preferred. With untreated ties the 7'x7'

tie is preferred.

Ties.

357

Exhibit A
Question 3— (Continued)
Tiiose favorins: all 7 in. bv 7 in. ties :

Railroad

Algoraa Cent. & H. B .

.A.. C. L

Bangor & Aroostook . .

C. P. R

C. G. W

C. M. &St. P.

D. & H

D. T. &I....

D. &I. R..,.

E. P. &S. W.
Grand Trunk.

H. V

Lake Superior & I .

Long Island . . .
Maine Central .
M. P

M. &0..
N. &W.

R. F. &P

S. A. L

Temis. & N. O.

Boston & Albany,
C. B. &Q

D. & R. G.

Southern . . .

Nor. Pacific.

Reported By

R. S. McCorniick.

L. L. Sparrow

M. Burpee

J. M. R. Fairbairn.

C. G. Delo

E. S. Pooler

James MacMartin. .

H. B. Watters..

W.A.Clark

J. L. Campbell. ,
M. S. Blaiklock.

A. Crable....

R. C. Young. .

J. R. Savage. .
G.F. Black..
E. A. Hadley.

B. A. Wood....
J. E. Crawford .

S. B. Rice

J. L. Kirby....
S. B. Clement

F. B. Freeman.
A. W. Newton.

J. G. Gwyn.
B. Herman..

Bernard Blum .

Reasons

A 6' tie not thick enough for heavy rolling stock.

Six inches not thick enough.

The six by eight would present best resistance at
first, and the seven by se^•en would permit more
adzing. The seven by seven would probably
give a year or two longer service.

For main line track.

Thickness preferable to face.

Prefer all T'x?" account greater strength.

Account of increased life due to additional inch
in thickness.

With tie plates and closer spacing.

Because of greater stiffness.

Because it is larger.

Greater stiffness, more sectional area, consequent-
ly less rail deflection.

The 6*x8" ties too thin for use of large spikes and
too liable to split.

Because this size^may be adzed and still liold
spikes.

If not plated. If plated, prefer the 6"x8".

Because they last longer.

If in new track with 7" ties, account of greater
strength as a beam.

Spike holes soon work through a 6" tie.

The 6" tie is too thin to stand heavy traffic and
soon breaks after weakened any by decay.

Account length of spike.

No reason given.

Greater strength. Within respective limits,
greater stiffness is more desirable than greater
bearing area.

In stone ballast for better hold.

Our preference is 7"x7" tie as compared with
6"x8° pole ties — assuming that they are manu-
factured under Government Grades — as we
would surely obtain a better quality of tie.

Probable longer serviceable life.

Less failures by breaking under load and less
liability of driving sliver out of bottom of t e
by spiking.

With a 7" wide tie plate, would prefer all 7"x7" ties,
if untreated, in order to get longer life on account
of decay. With treated ties, prefer the 6'x8" tie.

Question 4

Under the same traffic and other service conditions, will a grade 5
tie last longer than a grade 3 tie of the same kind, treatment and method
of fastening, and why? How much longer do you estimate the life of
the grade 5 tie expressed in percentage of the total life of the grade 3 tie?

Grade 5 will last longer :

Ann Arbor.

A. B. & A

A. C. L

Bangor & Aroostok . .
Bingham & Garfield .
Central of Georgia. . .

C. G. W

C. M. &St. P.
C. R. I. &P...

L. J. Allen.

L. L. Beal

L. L. Sparrow . .
Moses Burpee. . .
H. C. Goodrich
C. E. Weaver. . .

C. G. Delo..
F. S. Pooler.
C. F. Ford..

One-third longer because of greater amount ol
material.

More bearing surface and larger cross section.

100% longer because larger — no data.

20% longer account 40% more heart wood.

2.5%, at least, account extra bearing and larger tie.

15 to 20% conservative estimate. Greater amount
of stoclc and strength in tie.

20 to 25% longer. Stands to reason.

20% longer account more material in it.

20% at least. Failure due either to decay or
mechanical wear and generally decay is more
rapid because of mechanical wear. The No. 5
tie being stronger by reason of increased thick-
ness, and of greater area, will withstand rail
wear better than the No. 3 tie.

358

Ties

Exhibit A

Question 4 — (Continued)

Railroad

D. &H..

D. & I. R.

E. J. &E..

Cirand Trunk.

G. &S. I.

G. F. &A
II. V

I. &G. N.
K. C. T...

Lake Superior & I .

Long Island

Maine Central

Michigan Central. .

M. K. &T

M. P

M. &0

N. &W

P. R. R

R. F. &P..

St. L.-S. F

Teinia. & N. O. .
T. R. R. A. of St
N. Y. C. & St. L
Boston & Albany

C. B. &Q.

Reported By

James MacMartin

W.A.Clark

A. Montzheimer, .

M. S. Blaiklock. .

W. H. Gardner, Jr.

A. S. Buttcrworth .

A. Crable

F. S. Schwinn

J. V. Hanna

R. C. Young

J. R. Savage

G. F. Black

Geo. H.Webb

F. Ringer

E. A. Hadley

B. A. Wood

J. E. Crawford

W. C. Gushing

S. B. Rice.

F. G.Jonah...
S. B. Clement.
H.J. Pfeifer...
C. E. Denney.
F. B. Freeman

A. W. Newton,

Reasons

Increased life about \6%.

Smaller percentage of sapw<x)d.

30 to 35% longer berau.'ie of greater bearing and will
not weaken as soon as the grade 3. The vibra-
tion of trains will not work on grade 5 tie up and
down in t he balla.st a.*; much as with a smaller tie.

Some woods of slow decay (cedar), larger .sized
ties give longer life; larger size also give greater
resistance to bending and coasequently less split-
ting and disintegration. Some experiments with
cedar and hemlock demonstrated that 7'xO'
cedar would la.st 5 years longer than 6'x8", and
hemlock two years longer, both untreated.

25%, about, longer as there is inore material and
also more surface to resist rail cutting.

15%. no rca.son given.

20% for hewed ties, no difference if sawed. Hewed
ties last longer because more timber left after
sapwood has decayed.

25% or two years. Better timber as a rule, as well
as more timber.

15% or 1 year. Less sapwood proportionately and
less likel.v to be split and cut up by the rail. In
case of cutting by rail or tie plate, there is more
timber to go on in adzing down.

20% longer in resisting mechanical wear, but tim-
ber in No. .') ties is not usually as good as in No. 3
ties.

20% longer account more wood.

Somewhat longer account of mechanical wear.

Gives firmer foundation to rail, resulting in less
working of track. Also, in case of severe cutting
by rail inore adzing may be done and still allow
spikes sufficient hold.

25% increased bearing surface reduces mechanical
wear.

30% account greater ^■olume of timber, the decay,
in general, advancing inwardly from the surface.

20%. No reasons given.

Grade 5 will last one year longer than a 7'x7'
grade 3, and two years longer than a 6'x8'
grade 3.

(1) Being stronger, the tendency to shatter and
split will be less; (2) being wider, it will not be
cut so much by base of rail; (3) having greater
bearing area, it will not be damaged as much by
frequent tamping.

A hewn grade 5 tie will last longer because the sap-
wood of the grade 3 will decay, making the tie
too small. A sawed grade 5 will last longer, if
cut from young timber, but when cut from old
timber, it will not. Highland timber will last
longer than lowland timber. The life of the
No. 5 hewn ties about 110% of that of the No. 3
ties.

25% longer in case of untreated white oak, account
more mature timber.

10% where the number of ties per rail length is the
same.

More material in grade 5 tie and more of it can
decay before it is necessary to remove from track

30% longer account less luible to cutting by base of
rail.

30% if unplated, account greater resistance to
mechanical wear to end bearing and decay. If
plated, life about the same.

It appears to us that longer service will be obtained
from a grade 5 than a grade 3 tie.' However, we
have had an unusually large number of grade 5
ties that were so much over size as to make their
handling very expensive. The ideal tie is 7'x8'
maximum.

Ties.

3E>9

Exhibit A
Question 4 — (Continued)

Railroad

C. C. C. &St. L

D. & R. G

Texas & Pacific

B. & L. E

Soutliern

S. P. Lines

B. &0

S. P. Co. (Pac. Sys.).

Reported By
C. A. Paquette..

J. G. Gwyn

R. H. Gaines. .. .
F. R. Layng

B. Herman

J. D. Isaacs

E. Stimson

J. D. Isaacs

Reasons

Grade 5 ties will last longer on account of greater
bearing area. As a rule, larger ties outlast
smaller ones for this reason about 20%.

Because of retaining transverse strength for longer
periods. About 25<^o-

Grade 5 has more volume and hence greater sta
bility. Probably l.'i to 20^'; .

Estimate a grade 5 tie will last 25% longer on light
traffic lines and ZZ14% longer on heavy traffic
lines. On heavy traffic lines beam strength
becomes a more important factor.

Grade 5 will last at least 25% longer, both grades
untreated, account volume of sound material
without sap and greater resistance to weather
and mechanical wear.

Grade 5 should last 15 to 20% longer than grade .3,
account more timber to resist decay and wear.

Grade 5 will last about 15% longer account in-
creased bearing surface and decreased bending
moment.

Grade 5 tie should last longer under same traffic,
etc., because decay is more rapid in a vertical
direction and cross sectional area is greater.
Estimate is about 25% longer life for grade 6
(7"xQ ) tie over a grade 3 (6'x8') tie.

No difference :

Algoma Cent. & H. B.
C. P. R

L. E. &\V

L. & N....

Temis. & N. O. . .
Boston & Albany .
C. &N. W

N. P

R. S. McCormick
J. M. Fairbairn. . .

J. K. Conner

R. M. Leeds

S. B. Clement. . . .

F. B. Freeman

W. J. Towne

Bernard Blum . . . .

Practically same life, as they fail by decay.
Usually depends on amount of sapwood on tie and

kind of wood. Small cedars do not rot as fast

as larger ties.
Opinions of Roadmasters. Not true where ties

fail by rail wear.
Both being sufficient for traffic, not much dififer-

ence in life. Track more easily maintained on

No. 5.
Where bearing area per rail length is the same,

there is no difference.
If plated. If unplated, the grade 5 tie will last 30%

longer than the grade 3 tie.
Would depend largely on the kind of timber. A

small black or red oak or elm will break ea-sier

under the rail than a large one of the same kind.
This question presupposes treated ties. Do not

know whether either grade would last longer

than the other. Probable that a grade 5 tie

would last longer, but have no data to express

percentage of increase.

Question 5
\\'ith a given amount and kind of timber per mile in cross-ties, which
will last longer, ties 6 in. thick or ties 7 in. thick, and why?
Ties 6 in. thick will last longer:

Central of Georgia .

D. T. & I.

I. & G. N
K. C. T .

C. E. Weaver.

H. B. Waiters

F. S. Schwinn .
J. V. Hanna . .

Treated 6' ties will last longer, as the crushing
effect of the load is greater in the 7' tie, and
where ties fail by mechanical wear, the in-
crease in width over depth, within reasonable
limits, is valuable. Where ties fail by decay,
the 7' tie will last longer.

If unplated and under heavy traffic. If plated,
the 7' tie will last longer.

Account greater bearing surface.

Doubts if much difference, but ties tt' thick with
broader face give better bearing both to rail
and tie plate and the ballast beneathj

360

Ties

Exhibit A

Question S — (Continued)
Ties 6 in. thick will last longer :

Bailroad

L.&N

Michigan Central .

M. K. &T

B. & L. E

C. & N. W.

Reported By

R. M. Leeds

Geo. H. Webb. . .

F. Ringer

F. R. Layng

W. J. TowTie.

Reasons

Greater face, larger bearing surface, and more
resistance to mechanical wear.

With poor ballast and yielding road bed 6' ties will
last longer. With first class ballast and well
drained roadbed, longer life will be given by
7" ties.

Depends on ballast and roadbed conditions. On
firm roadbed and good ballast 6' tie lasts longer;
on soft roadbed where loss by breakage is
greater in proportion than loss by mechanical
wear, 7' tie lasts longer.

On light traffic lines resistance to deflection may
be sacrificed somewhat, in order to secure a
wider tie and thus distribute the load over a
greater area of roadbed. On light traffic lines,
the advantage of additional depth should be
less apparent so that it might be possible to
select a 6" tie with a wide face and closer tie
spacing that would give as long life as a 7' tie.

Think the additional lumber would give as good
results in 6" ties.

Ties 7 in. thick will last longer :

Algoma C. & H. B.
Ann Arbor

A.C.L

B. &0. C. T

Bangor & Aroostook
Bingham & Garfield

C. P. R

Qentral of Georgia .
C. G.W

C. M. &St. P

C. R. I. &P

D. &H

D. T. & I.

R. S. McCorrhick.

L. J. AUen

L. L. Sparrow

G. P. Palmer

M. Burpee

H. C. Goodrich...

J. M. R. Fairbairn

C. E. Weaver

C. G. Delo

F. S. Pooler

G.F.Ford

James MacMartin.

H. B. Watters.

Thicker tie and more "bone" when decay starts
to make necessary renewal of same.

Greater amount of material to resist breaking and
decay.

Six inch ties too light.

Greater strength as a beam and making allow-
ance for cutting.

Partly because of better wood and partly because
they permit adzing to restore the working face.

Larger and stand shocks better under heavy
traffic. Tie 8"xl0' really preferred.

It is found that with untreated ties, such as Jack
Pine and Hemlock, decay occurs first in the ex-
posed portion of ties above ballast line, and there-
fore the extra inch in the ballast adds to the
life of the tie. The most important advantage,
however, is due to the cushion effect of the
thicker tie in frozen ballast or track in rock
cuts resulting in less stress in the rail and rolling
stock, and thus providing an easier riding track.

Where ties fail by decay. Otherwise, the 6' tie
will last longer.

Stands to reason a 7' tie will last longer than a
6' tie.

Greater strength perpendicular to grain.

It will depend very largely on standard of main-
tenance. Unless track is well ballasted and tie
plates are used, the T tie would probably give
a longer life.

Sound rail cut ties should be removed from main
line when cut IJ' under the rail, when they
should be turned and used in sidings. A main
track tie 7' thick when being relaid in siding
has 5i' thickness, which is ample for side track
use; a 4i' thickness is hardly sufficient. Having
in mind the adzing and mechanical wear, the
shortened life of a tie of this thickness increases
cost of side track tie renewals.

If plated. If unplated, the 6" tie will last longer
under heavy traffic.

Ties.

S61

Exhibit A

QuKSTiON 5 — (Continued)
Ties 7 ill. thick will last longer :

Railroad

Reported by

E. J. &E

A. Montzheimer

F. E. C

H. N. Rodenbaugh..

Grand Trunk..

M. S. Blaiklock

G.&S.I

H. V

W. H. Gardner, Jr. .
A. Crable

Lake Superior & I

Long Island

Maine Central

Michigan Central

R. C. Young

J. R. Savage

G. F. Black

Geo. H. Webb

M. K. &T

F. Ringer. . .

M. P

E. A. Hadley

M. &0

B. A. Wood

N. & W

J. E. Crawford..

P. R. R

W. C. Gushing

R. F. &P

St. L.-S. F

S. A.L

Temis. & N. 0

W. C. F. & N

S. B. Rice

F. G.Jonah

J. L. Kirby

S. B. Clement

T. E. Rust

N. Y. C.&St. L

C. E. Denney

Boston & .■\lbany

F. B. Freeman

' B. & Q

,\ \\ Newton

2.C. i'St. L

C. A. Paquette

& R. G

. exas & Pacific

r.. &L. E

J. G. Gwyn

R. H. Gaines

F. R. Layng

Reasons

Will be damaged less by spikes than the 6' ties.
We find spikes do not break through the bottom
of 7" ties the way they do occasionally with fi'
ties. When this occurs, the tie starts to decay
from the bottom, which, of course, greatly
shortens the life of the tie.

More thickness to take mechanical wear of rail
cutting and from ballast due to working track.
Greater resistance to splitting and cutting due
to spiking. Longer life due to resistance against
natural decay not noticeable.

Account of holding spike after being rail cut and
resist decay longer.

Account being stronger.

Six inch ties break under the rail after slight loss
of wood due to decay.

May be adzed and still hold spike.

More strength and provision for mechanical wear.

Will stand more adzing.

With first class ballast and well drained roadbed
longer life given by 7" ties. With poor ballast
»nd yielding roadbed, the 6' ties will last longer.

Depends on ballast and roadbed conditions. On
soft roadbed where loss by breakage is greater
in proportion than loss by mechanical wear, 7'
tie lasts longer. On firm roadbed and good bal-
last, 6' ties last longer.

Account greater strength as beams. Thus a
7'x7' tie is about 40% stronger as a beam than a
6'x8' tie, but is cut from a tree slightly smaller
than the tree required for the 6'x8' tie.

Because of spike holes and mechanical wear.

Stronger ties.

Beam strength in ties is necessary and 6' is too
thin except for less important side lines and yards.

Account thickness, makes more rigid track.

Usually cut from more mature timber.

Account beaming.

Assuming that ites will have at least 7' face.

If unplated, the 7" tie will stand more adzing and
last longer. If plated, the 6' tie will last as
long and give better distribution on subsoil and
better support for rail.

Ties 7" thick will stand more mechanical wear,
have stronger hold in ballast and less liable to
breakage.

With a given limited amount of timber per mile,
I would prefer 7"x7"; the difference in spacing
would be slight, but the increased life, due to a
stronger end bearing, would be considerable.
The 7'x7' ties would have fewer broken ends.

Ties 7' thick will last longer because rail wear and
adzing for rail relaying tends to reduce thick-
ness of tie and there are times when it is neces-
sary to replace ties that are not rotten, but are
weak because of this adzing or rail wear.

Assuming .same width of tie for each thickness,
the 7" ties will probably last longer in poorly
ballasted track, as such ties will not be so liable
to break. In well ballasted and drained track
there would likely be not much difference in life.

Because of longer resistance to breaking.

More strength.

Resistance to deflection more essential on heavy
traffic lines than on light traffic lines. On heavy
traffic lines, if total quantity of timber assigned
to a mile of track is large enough, so that ties are
not spaced too far apart, 7" ties should last
longer than 6' ties.

362

Tics.

Exhibit A

QuKSTioN 5 — (Contimied)
Ties 7 in. thick will last longer :

Railroad

Reported By

Reasons

Southern

B. &0

S. P. Co. (Pac. Sys.)..

Nor. Pacific

B. Herman

E. Stimson

J. D. Isaacs

Bernard Blum , ,'. .

Spikes will not penetrate so deeply. Strength is
greater in direction of thrust froni present day
heavy loads and more of the tie remains as
mechanical wear' goes on.

.\ccount less bending moment.

Beacu.se decay i.s vertical rather than longitudi-
nal.

Inclined to think that 7' ties will last longer, as

they give a stiffer bearing, and owing to the
deeper section afford more resistance to decay
with untreated timber.

No difference :

L. E. ifeW

J. K.
T. E

Conner.

Rust

None given.

W.C.F.&N

If plated, the 6" tie will last as long and give better

ilistribution on subsoil and better support for

rail. If unplated, the 7" tic will stand more

adzing and last longer.

S. P. Lines

J. D.

Isaacs

Believe that there will be practically no difTerence
in the life of ties 6" thick and 7' thick with the
same amount and kind of timber per mile. Ties
7" thick will be a little stronger but will suffer
more from mechanical wear, particularly on
curves, on account of smaller rail bearing area.

Appendix D

SUBSTITUTE TIES

L. J. RiEGLEK, Chairman; Carl Bucholz, L. A. Downs, Earl Sulli-
van. Sub-Committee.

Bulletin No. 227 for July, 1920, contains a report of this Committee
on the "Relative Merits of Metal versus Wooden Ties." This subject
was referred to Section II — Engineering, of the American Railway Asso-
ciation by the Executive Committee, and assigned to the Committee on
Ties by the General Committee on November 21, 1919. Prompt consid-
ciation and a comprehensive and conclusive report at the earliest prac-
ticable date was requested. The report was completed and submitted on
January 26, 1920.

The Committee again calls attention to the desirability of extensive
tests of substitute ties. Onlj^ by extensive tests and gradual development
can a satisfactory substitute tie be produced. The Committee therefore
urges that railroads provide adequate facilities for making such tests
and that the Engineering Department take an active interest in and follow
them up with a view of developing defects and determining what im-
provements, if any, may be made in the ties under test.

Inspection of Substitute Ties

Several members of the General Committee, at the request of Presi-
dent Safford, inspected an installation of Champion Steel Ties in the east-
ward freight track of the Atglen and Susquehanna Branch of the Penn-
sylvania Railroad west of Lenover, Pa., on Jul}' 2, 1920. These, ties had
only been installed during the two weeks preceding, and nothing as to
their merits had been developed, at time of inspection.

The following description is for pui^pose of record:

Nine hundred ninety-five of these ties were installed in the eastward
low-grade Pennsylvania track (A. & S. Branch) between Atglen and
Lenover stations, during the two weeks prior to June 30, 1920. The ties
are placed 14 to each 33-foot rail length of track and support 130-lb.
Pennsylvania section rail on cinder ballast. Type 3, Pennsylvania Stan-
dard Tie Plates, Plan 61301 -B, lO^^ inch x 10^ inch with shoulders, are
used, the 105'2-inch dimension being parallel to the rail. Vaughn Anti-
Creepers are used on about every third tic. The rail is fastened to the
tie with two driven spikes for each rail.

This tie is similar in design to the Peerless tie, installed in Chicago
& Alton Railroad at Chicago, and described on page 498, of Volume 18,
A.R.E.A. Bulletin. It consists of an inverted steel "T" section, upon
which two wooden blocks are bolted to support each rail, and to which
the rail is fastened by ordinary- driven spikes. The steel member is 8 feet
long, y^ inch thick, 5 inches high and 10 inches wide, on the base, and

.363

364 Ties.

weighs 136 lb. In some cases, two ^ inch x 5 itich x 5 inch angles arc
riveted together, in which case the weight is 180 lb.

The wooden blocks are 18 inches long, 6 inches iiigh and 5 inches
wide, all white oak, untreated, but painted on top side with a coal tar
or pitch solution. One 1-inch bolt and two H-inch dowel pins are used
to hold the blocks together and to the steel member, the bolt being im-
mediately under the rail.

The ties are being subjected to a heavy service, slow speed freight
traffic.

The following reports are a continuation of those collected by the
Committee for a number of years. There is also a tabulation of all the
substitute ties within the knowledge of the Committee now being tested :

The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad System

Kind — Baird, Bronson, Carnegie, Hanna, La Guna, Universal.
Reported by C. F. W. Felt, Chief Engineer-System.
Date, August 30, 1920.

Three Baird Steel Ties at Newton, Kansas

The above ties were installed in eastbound main track, 50 feet cast
of Signal 1854, prior to March, 1910.

Inspected June 22nd, 1920.

The ties are in fair condition, except for rust. The sides of the ties
are getting quite thin near the center of track.

Eleven Bronson Steel Ties at Chillicothe, Illinois

These ties were originally installed in Chillicothe yard on December
ISth, 1914, and taken up and moved to a point in the eastbound track, 200
feet west of M. P. 128, on July 27th, 1916.

Inspected July 28th, 1920.

Eleven ties still in service.

At the time of this inspection, there was a flat spot in the curve
where these steel ties are located, also a low spot on the inside rail of
the curve for the length of the steel ties installed. This same condition
has been found at each inspection of these ties.

The nuts are missing from six of the twenty-two clamp bolts used
on these ties.

These ties are badly rusted on the sides.

Track is not bonded where these ties are used ; therefore no insula-
tion is attempted.

Carnegie Steel Switch Ties at Newton, Kansas

Forty-five (45) Carnegie steel switch ties and two head blocks were
installed in a switch in south side of yard, opposite coal chute. Original
installation made on April 30th, 1913. All but 11 of the ties were de-
stroyed by a derailed engine on or about October 1, 1913.

Thirty-five (35) new ties were installed in place of those destroyed
in September, 1914.

Ties. 365

Inspected June 22, 1920.

All bolts for fastening the rails to the ties have been renewed since
last inspection, and heavy washers added to assist in holding the clips
in proper position.

Forty-six (46) ties are still in place.
315 clip bolts found.
2 bolts missing.
33 clip bolts loose.
Ties rusting badly and wear under the rails becoming severe.
Traffic over the switch not very heavy.

Eight Hanna Cement Ties at Rivera, California

These tics were installed in main track, in front of the Hanna Lum-
ber Company's office, on November 31, 1912.

Still in track.

Inspected May 18th, 1920.

Tie No. 1 broken under left rail, and twice between rails.

Tie No. 2 broken once between rails.

Tie No. 3 broken twice between rails.

Tie No. 4 broken twice between rails.

Tie No. 5 in good condition.

Tie No. 6 broken twice between rails.

Tie No. 7 cracked under one rail.

Tie No. 8 cracked under one rail.

The ties marked "broken" have cracks clear through them, but
the pieces are held together by the reinforcing rods.
Forty-six La Guna Concrete Ties at Vegala, California

The above ties were installed in main track, opposite station sign of
Vegala in spring or summer of 1917.

Inspected May 18, 1920.

Only 33 of these ties are still in main track, each fourth tie having
been removed and wood ties substituted, as a matter of precaution.

Two of the ties removed were complete failures, the concrete having
broken up under one or both rails.

Eleven (11) of those removed were reinserted in side track opposite
the original installation. Of those remaining in the main track, Nos. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 show cracks under one or both rails. Nos. 7 and 9 are
breaking up at the right-hand end; Nos. 19, 11 and 12 are cracking and
spalling under the rail ; Nos. 13 and 14 are spalling at the left-hand end ;
No. IS is spalling under the rail; Nos. 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27 and
29 are spalling at the left-hand end; No. 15 is spalling under the rail;
Nos. 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27 and 29 are spalling and disintegrating at
the ends; No. 30 is spalling at the center of track; No. 31 is spalling at
the end and center; No. 32 is breaking up under the rails. This shows
two complete failures, and 25 partial failures as having already occurred
out of the original installation of 45 ties installed. All of the ties reported
as "spalling" have the concrete broken up enough to expose some of the
reinforcing rods to the weather.

366 Ties.

106 Universal Metallic Tie Company's Steel Ties at Florence, Kansas

These were placed on a curve west of Braddock, Kansas, M.P.
173/0064 on April 1, 1911; were taken out of track because of difficulty
of maintaining line and surface, and replaced in the eastbound main track
on tangent, in front of passenger depot at Florence, Kansas, on or about
June 10th, 1912.

These ties are still in service. Not recently inspected.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad

Kind— Boughton, Hardman, Metal Tic Company.

Reported by Earl Stimson, Chief Engineer Maintenance.

Date, August 31, 1920.

The Boughton steel tie in track at Akron has been removed, due to
fastening becoming broken.

All of the Hardman ties have been removed from track at We.^t
Baltimore, this being done in the summer of 1919, account of their having
failed by crushing as well as some of the steel bands giving way. The
50 metal ties are still in track and in good condition at Martinsburg,
W. Va.
Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad

Kind — Carnegie.

Reported by H. T. Porter, Chief Engineer.

Date, August 16, 1920.

During May and June of this year, we received from the mills ap-
proximately 25,000 new steel ties weighing 204 pounds each, the length
of ties being 8 feet 6 inches. These ties are of the same section which
we have used heretofore, and are known as Carnegie Steel Company,
M-29, estimated weight 24 pounds a foot. Since making our last report
we have developed nothing of interest, so that the above information is
all that we have to furnish the Tie Committee at this time.

Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway

Kind — Carnegie.

Reported by C. A. Paquette, Chief Engineer.

Date, August 16, 1920.

In the winter of 1906 three thousand Carnegie steel ties were applied
on our westward track about six miles east of Greensburg, Iiid. This is
a high-speed point. Part of these ties are on tangent and a part around a
one degree curve. Since their application one tie was removed in 1918
and eight in' 1919. In all cases the ties were taken out because they
broke down under the rail. Trouble is beginning to develop in tightening
the clip that holds the rail to the tie; the bolt holes in the top flange of
the tie are becoming so worn that the bolts cannot be properly tightened ;
the ties are showing considerable rust, particularly in the top flange, due
in part to brine drippings, and are getting thin, some of them, particu-
larly the joint ties, bending up. This is particularly noticeable on the
low side of the curve. These ties have been in service about thirteen
years.

Ties. 367

This type of substitute tic seems to me to have been the best yet
ottered, but the section is not heavy enough, particularly as it is diminished
at the rail by the punching of two holes in the top flange on each side
of the rail base for the clip bolts. In order to get a longer life out of
the tie it is necessary to protect it by some covering that will .resist brine
drippings and protect it from rust.

Denver & Salt Lake Railroad

Kind — Shane.

Reported by V. B. Wagner, Chief Engineer.

Date, July 26, 1920.

In our previous reports to you in connection with this matter, we
stated that there were twenty-six Shane ties in place on the Northwestern
Terminal Railway main line, near Mile Post 1, Denver. These ties are
at the present date in good condition, the original number of twenty-six
still being in service. There are no other substitute ties in place on this
property.

Duluth & Iron Range Railroad

Kind— Carnegie.

Reported by W. A. Clark, Chief Engineer.
Date, July 26, 1920.

There are no changes since last year's report. We have no other
substitute ties under trial.

Duluth, Missabe & Northern Railway

Kind — Carnegie, Kimball.

Reported by W. H. Hoyt, Chief Engineer.

Date, July 23, 1920.

We have about 22,000 Carnegie steel ties in use since 1908 and 1909.
We have removed up to date about 100 of these ties, taking out about
thirtj' last year. The balance of them are all in track under heavy tr.ifiic.

Ties removed were broken down in the web under the rail or the
flange w^as torn out on account of creepage, otherwise, we have had no
trouble and the balance of the ties are giving good service.

At Virginia, Minnesota, we have thirty special steel ties of the Kim-
ball design which have been in our track about six years. These are giv-
ing very satisfactory service and there has been no change made in them.

Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railroad

Kind— Bates, Carnegie.

Reported by Arthur Montzheimer, Chief Engineer.

Date, July 24, 1920.

We have very little information additional to that contained in reports
which were published in Volume 14, page 749, Vol. 15, page 751, and
Volume 16, page 530.

The Bates concrete ties seem to be in the same condition as they
have been for several years and are giving very satisfactory service.

368 Ties.

Erie Railroad

Kind — Carnegie.

Reported by R. S. Parsons, General Manager.

Date, October 5, 1920.

Relative to substitute ties applied at Jamestown, N. Y., in September,
1909. The last of these ties were removed from track in August, 1919,
on account of failure. The majority of them were crushed under the rail
seat, many were broken, and all were badly deteriorated so as to be of
no further service.

Florida East Coast Railway

Kind — Percival.

Reported by H. N. Rodenbaugh, Chief Engineer.

Date, July 24, 1920.

Reports no change in conditions since report on page 544 of Bulletin
223, Volume 21.
Lake Champlain & Moriah Railroad

Kind — Carnegie.

Reported by Paul S. Brinswade, Assistant Secretary.

Date, August 3, 1920.

We beg to inform you that these ties are still in use and are giving
good satisfaction.

Lake Erie & Western Railroad

Kind — Buhrer.

Reported by J. K. Conner, Chief Engineer.

Date, August 4, 1920.

There is no change in the report for the L. E. & W. We still have
five Buhrer concrete ties in our track at Tipton, Indiana, which were
installed in August, 1903.

Long Island Railroad

Kind — Carnegie, Combination Concrete and Steel.

Reported by J. R. Savage, General Superintendent.

Date, August 6, 1920.

Of the 30 Carnegie ties put in track at Hicksville in May, 1900, 24
are still in service and in good condition, except that the rail fastenings
liave become so worn as to necessitate renewal.

Of the 34 combination concrete and steel ties installed at L^ug l.-;land
City in 1911 and 1912, 26 were removed on October 19th las year, due
to the concrete cracking and falling to pieces. The remaining eight are
beginning to show the same trouble, and will probably be taken out of
the track in the very near future.

Pennsylvania System — Eastern Region

Kind — Standard Steel Ties, Maryland Steel Ties, Champion Steel
Ties.

Ties

369

Reported by W. G. Coughlin, Chief Engineer, M. of W.

Date, August 11, 1920.

Champion Steel Ties. — 995 installed in June, 1920, in eastward
freight track, A. & S. Branch, Philadelphia Division, west of Lenover,
Pa. Tie consists of an inverted "T" of rolled steel with two wooden
blocks under each rail (described on page 498, A.R.E.A. Bulletin, Volume
18). The approximate number of loaded cars per day over this track is
2350 at slow speed.

Maryland Steel Ties. — 25 installed September, 1919, in eastward
freight track, A. & S. Branch, Philadelphia Division, at Lenover, Pa.
The approximate number of loaded cars per day over this track is 2350
at slow speed. This tie is illustrated on this page. It is of cast steel,
8 feet 6 inches long, 7 'inches high and 10 inches wide on the base
under the rails and 2J/4 inches wide at the middle. The rails are fastened
to the tie by standard track spikes driven in grooved holes with sinuous
sides.

(~)\( )\(~)\(—Mr-^\r~^

Maryland Steel Tie — Maryland Metal Cross Tie Company.

Standard Steel Ties. — 500 installed June, 1915, in eastward freight
track, A. & S. Branch, Philadelphia Division, east of Lenover, Pa. A
few of the wooden blocks have required renewal ; otherwise, the ties are
in good condition.

370 Ties.

Pennsylvania System — Central Region

Kind — Carnegie Steel Switch Tie, Mechling and Smith Steel Tic,
Riegler Concrete Steel Tie, Snyder Composite Tie.

Reported by W. D. Wiggins, Chief Engineer, Maintenance of Way.

Date, November 2, 1920.

Carnegie Stefx Switch Ties. — Eight sets installed October, 1911, in
Pitcairn Yard, Pittsburgh Terminal Division. About 90 per cent, have
been removed at various times on account of damage from derailments.
The remaining 10 per cent, are badly corroded and bent and should be
removed before winter.

Mechling and Smith Steel Ties. — One hundred installed October,
1910, in Wilkinsburg Yard, Pittsburgh Terminal Division, 20 removed in
1915; due to bad condition of wood blocks; 11 removed in 1919 due to
being damaged by a derailment ; 8 removed in 1920 due to their poor
condition; 61 still in track but not giving good service as the gage cannot
be properly maintained.

Riegler Concrete Steel Tie. — Fifteen installed May, 1908, in. No. 1
Westward Passenger Track, west of Emsworth, Pittsburgh Terminal
Division, transferred to No. 3, Eastward Freight Track in December, 1914,
and are still in track. The ties have been subject to a heavy service
high-speed main line traffic for twelve years and seven months. Report
made on page 545, Volume 21, of the Proceedings states that two were
badlj- cracked on top, but the integrity of ties did not seem to be affected
and that the first eastward tie showed signs of crushing under the north
rail. Inspection made October 29, 1920, shows three ties cracking on top,
but the integrity does not seem to be aflfected, the first eastward tie has
been repaired and is in good condition, the reccivintj joint tie shows signs
of crushing under the south rail at joint, and cracks were found at ends
of two other ties between the steel and concrete. Otherwise the ties are
in good condition.

Snyder Composite Tie. — 821 installed October, 1907, in Derry Yard,
Pittsburgh Division. All in track and giving satisfactory service.

One thousand six hundred installed October, 1907, in Conemaugh
Yard, Pittsburgh Division. Between 1914 and 1916, 280 were removed
on account of being damaged by derailments and on account of extension
to interlocking. One thousand three hundred and twenty ties still in
track and giving satisfactory service.

At both locations the ties are rusting and shell wearing thin. The
clips and bolts are badly rusted and in case of rail renewals it will be
necessary to cut them off and install new fastenings.

Pittsburgh & Lake Erie Railroad

Kind — Atwood Standard.

Reported by A. R. Raymer, Chief Engineer.

Date, September 10, 1920.

The ties described in Bulletin No. 227, Volume 22, A.R.E.A., July,
1920, on pages 47, 70 and 71, known as the Atwood Concrete Steel Ties,

Tics. 371

are still in use at McKees Rocks, Pa., and are giving good service. All
of the ties are still in service. On December 31, 1919, Mr. Atwood, in
describing these ties for the information of another engineer, stated as
follows :

"The fastening used to fasten the rail to the ties is not what it should
be. I am, therefore, enclosing a sketch showing a form of rail fastening,
which, in my estimation, will prove entirely satisfactory and give all the
freedom of application and renewal that is had by the use of the ordinary
track spike. The essential feature of the track fastening is a cotter pin
which is driven like an ordinary spike. This pin can be withdrawn like
an ordinary spike."

The only defect noticed to date is on account of these fastenings.
We may be obliged to change the fastenings or remove the ties as the
present fastenings are not entirely satisfactory.

The twenty Standard steel ties placed in the main track of this rail-
road at Glassport, Pa., on May 4, 1914, are still in service. The wood
fillers of these ties have been recently renewed. This is the only part of
these ties that required any attention.

Pittsburgh, Shawmut & Northern Railroad

Kind — Carnegie.

Reported by J. N. Thompson, Secretary to Receiver.

Date, August 5, 1920.

Since the last report, it has been necessary to remove fifty of these
ties account of web crushing. This leaves still in track about 550 ties.

We have no other substitute tie under trial.

Riverside, Rialto & Pacific

Kind— Wolfe.

Reported by Arthur McGuire, Chief Engineer, L. A. & S. L. R. R.

Date, September 3, 1920.

There are 58 of these ties now in track. Two of them have been
broken and replaced with redwood ties. One of the concrete ties is com-
mencing to crumble under the rail and will have to be changed out soon.
Some of the screw spikes are loose and will have to be plugged and
spikes screwed in. Balance of ties look all right.

Southern Pacific Company

Kind — Goodlett.

Reported by W. H. Kirkbridge, Engineer of Maintenance.

Date, August 12, 1920.

The first of these ties, twelve in number, were placed in the main
switch lead, West Oakland yard, in 1914. On the first day one of the ties
failed and was taken out, a second tie failed within three days, and
within the course of a year all of these ties were removed from the
track as completely failing.

The second lot placed in the same switch lead on November 27, 1917,
27 in number, commenced to fail by cracking under the rail, and at the
present time there are 17 of these ties in the track. Recent inspection

372 Ties.

shows that 11 out of the 17 are cracked and broken under the rail, and
there are only four of the ties remaining in the track that are in good
shape, and it is necessary to place wooden ties between the concrete ties
in order to hold track in gage.

These ties are located at a point where they are subject to very
heavy traffic.

Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis

Kind — Chamberlain.

Reported by H. J. Pfeiffer, Chief Engineer.

Date, October 5, 1920.

Ten Chamberlain ties were installed in a switch track near 21st Street.
The rail is 80-lb. A.S.C.E. section and the ballast cinders. The traffic
over ties is light and at slow speed, the track in question being a sub-
track used for the storage and cleaning of passenger equipment. A photo-
graph and a drawing of the installation is on following pages. The tie
is of concrete, 8 feet long, 10 inches wide, 8 inches thick under the rails
and 6 inches thick at the middle. Two longitudinal steel reinforcing bars
of special design are used. The rails are carried upon 4 inch x 6 inch x
18 inch wooden blocks set into concrete and held in place by 54-inch
bolts. These bolts extend entirely through the tie, blocks and rail clips
and serve to fasten the rail to the tie.

Ties.

373

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a :ff- ■ . s> ■

20J \- &!"-■: i.<i ■-•-■■yf.O:^:-

Reinforced Concrete Tie, Patented by M. E. Chamberlain, St. Louis.

Chamberlain Concrete Tie.-^, Terminal Railroad Ass'n of St. Louis.

374

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE XV— IRON AND STEEL
STRUCTURES

O. E. Selbv, Chainnaii ,

F. AURYANSEN,
J, A. BOHLAND,
W. S. BOUTON,

A. W. Carpenter,
M. F. Clements,
J. E. Crawford,
O. F. Dalstrom,

F. O. Dufour,
Thomas Earle,
W. R. Edwards,

G. A. Haggander,
R. L. Huntley,
P. G. Lang, Jr.,

B. R. Leffler,

F. E. Tl'RNEAure, Vice-Cliainuai
P. B. Motley,

c. d. purdon,
Albert Retchmann,
A. F. Robinson,
H. N. Rodenbaugh,
J. M. Salmon,
I. L. Simmons,
I. ¥. Stern,
H. B. Stuart,

G. E. Tebbetts,

Dr. J. A. L. Waddell,
H. T. Welty,
*Paul VVolkel,

Committee.

To the American Railzvay Engineering Association :

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee on Iron and
Steel Structures for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes :

(a) Revise the rules and unit stresses for classifying and rating
existing bridges.

2. Report on methods of protection of iron and steel structures
against corrosion.

3. Submit specifications for erection of steel railway bridges.

4. Report on the relative economy of various types of movable
bridges :

(a) Revise the specifications for movable bridges.

5. Report on column tests :

(a) Continue with program of^ column tests at the Bureau of
Standards.

6. Report on the design, length and operation of turntables :

(a) Report specifications for the design of turntables and turn-
table pits.

7. Report on ballast floor bridges and methods in use for water-
proofing:

(a) Report principles for detailed design of ballast floors, flash-
ing, drainage and reinforcement for waterproofing purposes.

8. Prepare specifications for steel highway bridges.

375

*Died December 28, 1020.

(A)

376 Iron and Steel Structures.

9. Report un the electric welding of connections in steel structures,
conferring with the Committee on Electricity.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in: Cleveland, June 4; Mont-
real, August 12 and 13 ; Chicago, November IS and 19. A meeting of
the Sub-Committee on Specifications for Movable Bridges was held at
Chicago, December 16 and 17. A meeting of the Committee is called
to be held at Cleveland, Februarj' 10 and 11, 1921.

The Committee records with deep regret the loss of Mr. VV. H.
Moore, for eight years an active member, by death on September 5,
1920. Resolutions of regret are recorded in the Minutes and a memoir
was published in the Bulletin.

The Committee has also lost by death another of its valued members —
Mr. Paul L. Wolf el, who died December 28, 1920.

(1) Revision of the Manual

In Appendix A are given the Rules and Unit Stresses for Rating
Existing Bridges which are ofifered as a conclusion for printing in the
Manual. A tentative draft of these rules was published in Bulletin 228
and the discussions received were considered in the revision. These dis-
cussions are abstracted in Appendix B. Rules for the classification of
bridges will be reported next year.

In these days of rapidly increasing engine loads and high interest
charges on capital, the importance of care and uniformity in the rating
of bridges cannot be emphasized too strongly.

(2) Methods of Protection Against Corrosion

The Committee has nothing to report on this subject and does not
recommend its reassignment.

(3) Specifications for Erection

A Sub-Committee (John A. Bohland, Chairman) has worked on this
subject actively during the year and it is expected that specifications will
be reported for adoption next year.

(4) Specifications for Movable Bridges

The specifications published in Bulletin No. 204, and the discussions
abstracted in Bulletin No. 228 are still under consideration by the Sub-
Committee (B. R. Lefifler, Chairman). On account of its importance and
the volume of the work, this subject is expected to form the principal
topic of the Committee's work next year. Further constructive sugges-
tions are solicited.

^___^ Iron and Steel Structures. 377

(5) Column Tests

No progress vn this work has been made this year because of con-
ditions in the Bureau of Standards.

(6) Specifications for Turntables and Turntable Pits

This subject is in the hands of a Sub-Committee (J. E. Crawford,
Chairman) and the Committee expects to report on it next year.

(7) Principles for Detailed Design of Ballast Floors, Flashing, Drain-
age and Reinforcement for Waterproofing Purposes

The principles published in Bulletin 223 and submitted as information
to the 1920 convention have been revised and are offered as a conclusion.
They appear in Appendix C.

(8) Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges

This subject has been assigned to a Sub-Committee of which H. T.
Welt}- is Chairman, and the preparation of the specifications is in prog-
ress. Detailed information of the weights and wheelbases of motor
trucks has been secured.

(9) Electric Welding of Connections in Steel Structures

This new subject is in the hands of a Sub-Committee (Geo. H. Teb-
betts, Chairman). Some information has been secured but the Committee
has nothing to report.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that the Rules and Unit Stresses for
Rating Existing Bridges as printed in Appendix A be approved and pub-
lished in the Manual.

2. The Committee recommends that the Principles for the Detailed
Design of Flashing, Drainage, Reinforcement and Protection for Water-
proofing Purposes appearing in Appendix C be approved and published
in the Manual.

Recommendations for Future Work
The Committee recommends that the following subjects be reassigned:

1. Classification of bridges.

2. Specifications for erection of steel railway bridges.

3. Specifications for movaljlc railway bridges.

4. Column tests.

5. Specifications for turntables and turntable pits.

6. Specifications for steel highway bridges.

7. Electric welding of connections in steel structures.

378 Iron and Steel Structures.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES

The Committee desires to call attention to the fact that the Specifica-
tions for Steel Railway Bridges adopted at the 1920 convention are avail-
able in pamphlet form and to urge upon the railways and engineers in
consulting practice their use in designing and for receiving bids. Modi-
fications which may be desirable for individual conditions need not do
away with their basic use.

Respectfully sul)mitted,

Thk Committee on Iron .\.\d Steel Structures,

C). E. Selby, Chairman.

Appendix A

RULES AND UNIT STRESSES FOR RATING EXISTING
BRIDGES

Warrick R. Edwards, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

(1) In fixing the carrying capacity of any bridge under traffic, its loca-

tion, design, details, material, workmanship, behavior, and
physical condition must be taken into account.

(2) Before recalculating an existing bridge, a careful inspection should

be made to determine :

(a) Whether the actual sections and details conform to the

drawings.

(b) The loss of metal due to corrosion and wear. This de-

termination should be made Ijy calliper measurements,
after thorough removal of scale.

rivets, worn pins, crooked or damaged members,
cracked metal, etc., should be carefully noted.
Particular attention should be given to the position of the track
with respect to center line of the bridge, and to undesirable
details, such as forked ends of compression members, eccen-
tricity in riveted joints and connections, unequal stress in
tension members, etc.

(3) In recalculating bridges for increased loading, the equipment in

actual use, or which it is proposed to use, shall be taken for
determining the live load stresses. Where the design or de-
tails are such as to cause unusual eccentric or secondary
stresses, these stresses shall be taken into account. It is
recommended that stresses in members subject to marked
secondary effects be determined by strain gage measurements.

(4) In spans exceeding 150 feet in length, and in viaduct towers, the

effect of lateral (or wind) force shall be taken into account.
The lateral force shall consist of a moving load equal to 15
pounds per square foot on the vertical projection of the
structure on a plane parallel with its axis, and a moving load
of 400 pounds per linear foot applied 8 ft. above the base of
rail.

(5) On curves, the centrifugal force, based on actual speed of opera-

tion, and assumed to act 6 ft. above the base of rail, shall be
taken into account.

(6) Where speeds may exceed 15 miles per hour, the dynamic incre-

ment of the live load shall he added to the maximum com-
puted live load stresses and shall be determined by the
• fornuila,

379

380 Iron and Steel Structures.

300

I = S , in which

300 +

100
1 = impact or dynamic increment to be added to the

live load stress.
S ^= computed maximum live load stress.
L = the length in feet of the portion of the span which
is loaded to produce maximum stress in the
member.

(7) If a bridge is so located that speeds are definitely limited, or where

absolute control of speed can be secured, 50 per cent, of the
impact given by the above formula shall be used when the
speed is between 10 and 15 miles per hour, and 25 per cent,
when the speed is less than 10 miles per hour. If the bridge
is located where the locomotive must be started, the speed
increased, or the brakes applied, full impact shall be used in
the calculations.

(8) Impact shall be added to stresses produced by centrifugal force,

but not to those produced by lateral forces.

(9) For bridges on curves, and at other places where tracks are oflf

center, consideration shall be given to the increased load car-
ried by any truss, girder, or flot)r member due to the eccen-
tricity of the load.
(10) The limiting stresses resulting from the loads and forces mentioned
in the preceding articles, in combination with the actual dead
load, shall not exceed the following, in pounds per square
inch :

IVrought
Open-Hearth Iron and
Steel Bessemer Steel

Axial tension (net section) ■. . . .26000 22000

1 1

Axial compression (gross section) , 24000- 80 — 21000- 70 —

r r

but not to exceed. ..... 20000 17000

1 = length of the mepiber in inches,
r = least radius of gyration of the mem-
ber in inches.
Tension in extreme fibers of rolled shapes
(except rolled beams), built sections

and girders (net section) 26000 22000

Tension in extreme fibers of rolled beams

(net section) 24000 20000

Compression in flanges oi plate girders and

1 1

I-beams (gross section) 26000-300 — 22000-250 —

b b

but not to exceed 24000 21000

1 = length of the unsupported -flange, be-
tween,lateral connections or knee
braces,
b = flange width.

^ Iron and Steel Structures. 381

Tension in extreme fibers of pins (figured bj'
assuming stresses concentrated at cen-
ters of bearings) 50000 40000

If the members are packed closely on the
pin, the bending stress need not be
considered imless the tension in ex-
treme fiber exceeds 60000 lbs. per sq.
in. for open-hearth steel, or 50000
lbs. per sq. in. for wrought iron and
Bessemer steel.

Shear in plate girder webs and rolled beams

(gross section) 18000 15000

Shear in rivets and pins .22000 19000

Bearing on rivets, pins, outstanding legs of
stiflfener angles, and other steel parts
in contact 44000 38000

The above-mentioned values for shear and
bearing shall be reduced 20 per cent,
for countersimk rivets, floor connec-
tion rivets, and turned bolts.

(11) In members subject to stresses produced by a combination of dead

load, live load, impact, and centrifugal force with lateral
forces, or bending due to lateral action, unit stresses 25 per
cent, greater than those given in Article 10 may be allowed ;
but, in such cases, the unit stresses due to dead load, live
load, impact and centrifugal force alone shall not exceed
those given therein.

(12) In hangers having an unequal distribution of load, and in hangers

or hip verticals consisting of a single member, consideration
should be given to the necessity for reducing the allowable
unit stress to meet this condition.

(13) Stresses in plate girders shall be computed either by the moment

of inertia of their net sections; or by assuming that the
flanges are concentrated at their centers of gravity. In the
latter case, one-eighth of the gross section of the web, if
continuous or properly spliced, may be used as flange section.
For girders having unusual sections, the moment of inertia
method shall be used.

(14) When the stresses exceed the foregoing limits, or when the design

or physical condition makes it necessary, the structure shall
be strengthened or renewed.

Appendix B

DISCUSSIONS ON RULES AND UNIT STRESSES FOR

RATING EXISTING BRIDGES— AMERICAN RAILWAY

ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION— BULLETIN 228

Discussions by

F. Auryansen, Bridge Engineer, Long Island Railroad, Jamaica, N. Y.
John A. Bohland, Bridge Engineer, Great Northern Railway, St. Paul,

Minn.

A. W. Carpenter, Assistant Valuation Engineer, New York Central Rail-

road, New York, N. Y.
J. E. Crawford, Chief Engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway, Roanoke,
Va.

G. A. Haggander, Bridge Engineer, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Rail-

road, Chicago, 111.

H. J. Hansen, Office Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway,
Chicago, III.

J. B. Hunley, Engineer Bridges and Structures, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago & St. Louis Railwa}', Cincinnati, Ohio.

B. R. Leffler, Engineer of Bridges, New York Central Railroad, Cleve-

land, Ohio.

C. D. Purdon, Consulting Engineer, St. Louis Southwestern Railroad, St.

Louis, Mo.

D. B. Steinman, Assistant Engineer, New York Central Railroad, New

York, N. Y.
F. E. Turneaure, Dean, College of Mechanics and Engineering, University

of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
H. T. Welty, Engineer of Structures, New York Central Railroad, New

York, N. Y.

382

Iron and Steel Structures. 383

Article 1

Insert in parentheses, after the word "location," the words "as de-
termining its use." (Carpenter)

Article 2

In clause (a) add the words "or other working data." For some
items there are no drawings available.

In clause (c) after the words "worn pins," add the words "bent and
crooked members." (Carpenter)

Article 5

It seems to me that this article should be very carefully considered
before adoption. I have reviewed the rule as it applies to a number of
existing bridges, and find that if a bridge was not quite strong enough to
carrj' an E-60 locomotive at full speed, by reducing the speed to 14 miles
an hour it would carry safely an E-70 locomotive, and by reducing speed
to 9 miles an hour it would carry safely an E-84 locomotive.

Personally, if a bridge were not safe to carry an E-60 locomotive at
full speed, I would not care to run an E-84 locomoti-ve over it at any
speed; and it would seem to me that 60 per cent impact at a speed be-
tween 10 and 15 miles an hour, and 40 per cent impact at speeds below-
10 miles an hour, would give safe and satisfactory results. (Crawford.)

I think the last sentence should be omitted. I cannot conceive of
an\' bridge located where a stop, or change in speed, might not occur at
some time. (Hunley)
Article 6

This article specifies that impact shall be added to stresses produced
by centrifugal force, but not to those produced by lateral force. As cen-
trifugal force is essentially a lateral force, I suggest that impact be elimi-
nated. (Hansen)
Article 8

It seems to me that 400 lb. per linear foot is a very heavy wind load.
If applied to a train of cars of 8 ft. average depth of side, it would
amount to 50 lb. per sq. ft. on the car sides, which would only be realized
in a hurricane which would in all probability stop the operation of trains.

The A. R. E. A. 1920 specifications provide for a corresponding load
of 700 lb. per linear foot. This must provide for something more than
wind. The New York Central Lines specifications, 1917, provide for a
corresponding load of 360 lb. as a wind load, and that is for designing
purposes. I should think that 200 lb. would be sufficient for the exami-
nation of old bridges. (Carpenter)
Article 10

In m}' opinion, the unit stresses provided in the proposed rules are
too high, and the unit stresses to which we work are considerably more
conservative.

The last sentence in paragraph 3, page 507 of the Manual, reads as
follows :

384 Iron and Steel Structures.

"The bridge, however, will be subjected to a greater amount
' of motion and wear of parts having a lower margin of safety,

less efficiency, and a shorter life."

I feel that the high unit stresses proposed will result in a shorter life,
and it will require continual and most careful inspections to determine
when the time arrives at which these high unit stresses should be no longer
applicable, and feel that we should be more conservative and make a con-
siderable reduction in the permissible unit stresses. (Bohland)

I believe the heading "Open Hearth Steel" should be qualified so as
to show that it refers to the usual soft grades used for structural work, or
some note explaining this should be appended.

I believe there is very little difference in the strength of columns of
structural steel of the soft grade that has been commonly used in bridge
work, and those of wrought iron. Wrought iron columns of the old
Phoenix type were (and still should be if any exist) especially strong.
(Carpenter)

I feel that the wrought iron and Bessemer steel bridges are rated a
little too low, and that these bridges should not be rated more than 10
per cent below the Open-Hearth Steel bridges. (Crawford)

I have looked up some stresses in old bridges as requested in Bulletin
228. Seven cases have been worked out covering bridges carrying various
classes of power. These seven cases were picked at random. I find from
the results obtained that our present practice checks very closely with the
proposed rules. (Haggander)

The limiting stresses as listed in this article should prove consistent
with safety and economy. It must not be overlooked, however, that the
adoption of a high limiting stress calls for careful investigation and sound
judgment in regard to details, character of design and physical condition
of the bridge, in connection with observations made in the field as to the
general behavior of the structure under load, that can be exercised only
by conscientious engineers experienced in handling this class of work.

A unit stress of 26,(X)0 lb. per sq. in. is rather high for members in
a steel truss intended for service over an indefinite length of time. It
may be permissible in some cases to employ a unit stress of 26,000 lb.
per sq. in. for a limited length of time, until the structure can be strength-
ened or renewed, but considering imperfections in material and details,
and also bearing in mind that the calculated stresses may be considerably
augmented by secondary stresses and unequal distribution of load in
built-up members and eyebars, it is a question if it may not be advisable
to reduce the limiting stresses to 24,000 lb. for steel and 20,000 lb. for
wrought iron truss members.

The effect of unequal distribution of load and secondary stress is not
so pronounced in plate girder flanges as in truss members, and the
26,000 lb. per sq. in. for steel and 22,000 lb. for wrought iron may not
prove excessive for this class of structure.

The problem of rating bridge pins is a difficult one to solve, due
mainly to the absence of tests on short beams with the loads applied
similar to those on bridge pins. The problem, however, can hardly be

Iron and Steel Structures. 385

satisfactorily solved by raising the allowable unit fiber stress on pins to
60,000 lb. per sq. in., which is above the ultimate strength of wrought
iron, and in many cases also beyond the breaking strength of steel. It
would be preferable to adopt a method conforming more closely to the
actual conditions encountered in practice than does the ordinary method
now prevailing.

This question can hardly be definiteh' settled except by a series of
tests, but it may be safe to take a moment arm as short as the actual
distance between bars plus 34 i"-> for rating pins in existing bridges.
Instead of adding a constant quantity to the clear distance, it may be more
desirable to make this quantity a function of the thickness of the bars.

There can be no great objection to designing pins for new truss
bridges by the prevalent method, for the additional cost of providing too
large a pin is comparatively small, but, when the problem is one of rating
a pin in an existing bridge, the question becomes more serious on account
of the heavy expense in connection with strengthening a pin joint.

In view of the expense in connection with changing out old pins, I
feel that the question is of sufficient importance to be followed up by a
series of tests to determine the moment arm that should be used in
designing and rating pins. These tests should conform as closely as may
be to the actual conditions encountered in designing new or investigating
old bridges. The cost of conducting such tests will be small as compared
with the money that may actually be saved by throwing additional light
on the subject, and I suggest that some tests along this line be included
in next year's program of the A. R. E. A. (Hansen)

In plate girder spans, it is evident that the proposed rules will give
a comparatively high rating for webs, end stiffener bearing, and flange
rivet bearing, and a low rating for the compression flanges.

In truss spans they will give a comparatively high rating for all mem-
bers.

It seems to me that the rules give results just contrar}' to safe prac-
tice. A girder span is quite a rugged structure and a sudden failure can
result only from a failure of all its parts at one time, while with a truss
span just the opposite is true; the failure of any one member may result
in the collapse of the span.

The stresses permitted by the formula for axial compression are too
high. They will apply usually to truss ratings, and I think will give results

1
on the unsafe side. If the formula 20500-80 — is compared with the

r
1 1

formula 17500-78 ^it will l)c noted that, with = 100, the proposed

r r

formula will permit stresses 30 per cent in excess of those we are using
on our road. (Hunley)

Attention should be called to the stress in pins to the effect that the
unit stresses apply only to pins on which eyebars, or similar members,
are closely packed. Some precautionary statement should be made to

386 Iron and Steel Structures.

prevent someone applying thcpc high unit stresses for a pin loaded in
isolated points.

The unit stresses for shear in plate girders and the unit stresses for
bearing on pins, rivets, etc., should be separated from the remainder of
the stresses, and a statement made to the effect that these unit stresses
should not be considered in discarding a structure, provided that the
other unit stresses are of ccmparatively low value. I do not believe any
engineers would throw out girders on account of high web shear or rivet
bearing if the flange stresses were low. I would regard these unit stresses
in shear and bearing as of secondary importance. They should be used
as indicators or signs to look for loose rivets or marked deformation
of webs. (Leffier)

I think the unit stress of 22,000 lb. on iron is high, in view of the
fact that most bridges having iron members specified an elastic limit of
26,000 lb. and this would be 84 per cent (Purdon)

According to the studies of the A. S. C. E. column tests by Mr.

Hovey, the ultimate strength is represented by p = 38000 — 70 — for light

r
1
columns, and by p = 35000 — 72 — for heavy columns. Taking Y^ of the

r
average of these two formulas as a proper value for rating old bridges,

we have p = 24000 — 47— (See Fowler's paper).

1
This would indicate that the — reduction for columns in the present

1
sub-committce report is too severe, and the formula 24000 — 50— (in-

r
1
stead of 24000 — 100 — ) is recommended for axial compression. (Stein-

r
man)

I have compared the results obtained by the use of the old and the
new impact formulas with special reference to the unit stress of 26,000 lb.
per sq. in. Using this stress as a basis, on the theory that the old im-
pact formula is used, and then calculating the unit stress which would
exist in the same structure using the new impact formula, gives approxi-
mately the following results :

Equivalent Unit Stress Using
Span Length New Impact Formula

100 ft 26,000 lb.

1.50 ft 24,800 lb.

200 ft 24,000 lb.

250 ft 23,300 lb.

300 ft 23,000 lb.

These are approximately the unit stresses which would exist in the
chord members of trusses of .specific span lengths for single track bridges

Iron and Steel Structures. 387

and for Cooper's E-50 loading. That is to say, if, under the old impact
formula, a 200-ft. span truss showed a total actual working stress for
dead load, live load and impact of 26,000 lb. per sq. in., the sarrie truss,
using the new impact formula and the same loading, would show a stress
of about 24,000 lb. per sq. in. Longer .spans would show somewhat smaller
stresses and shorter spans higher stresses, the 100-ft. span being the same
in both cases, because the impact formula gives the same result at this
span length.

Of course this comparison is only of value in relating old and new
practice, but it does show that the proposed stress of 26,000 lb. will allow
considerabl}- heavier loads on the longer truss than the old practice. I
would raise the question, therefore, whether or not 24,000 lb. is a more
reasonable figure for this purpose. (Turneaure)

Referring to comment by Mr. Steinman, the reduction factors pro-
posed are identical with those in specifications for new work, whereas it
would seem that they should be somewhat larger, in view of the greater
unit stress.

I entircl}' agree with Mr. Leffler that attention should he called to
the fact that the high unit bending stress permitted in pins should apply
only to pins on which the eyebars or similar members are closely packed.
(Welty)

Article 13

This article should be changed to read: "The stress in the gross
section of the compression flanges of plate girders, etc."

It does not seem to me that reduction of compressive flange stress is
justified to the extent given in the proposed formula. (Auryansen)

1 ' 1

I see no legitimate excuse for abandoning an — formula for an —

r b

formula. It is true that it is a little easier to apply, but the results are
not consistent.

No permissible stresses arc given for flanges of rolled beams. These
should be included. (Hunley)

In Bulletin No. 168 of the University of Illinois Engineering Experi-
ment Station is found a record of some tests that were made on the
buckling strength of I-beams in bending. The following gives the main
substance of this Bulletin. In the following suggestions that I am mak-
ing, I am assuming that the same approximate results would be found for
plate girders. Let fi :=^ ultimate extreme fiber stress in pounds per square
inch. The ultimate bending moment for failure equals fi multiplied by
the section modulus of the beam.

Bulletin No. 168 of the LTniversity of Illinois gives the equation fi =
1
40,000 — 60 m — , in which m is a constant having a value of Ys for
r

1
I-beams. Then f, = 40,000 — 40 — . Now divide the stress fi by a factor

1
of safety of 2.5 to obtain a working unit stress f. Then f = 16,000 — 16 — .

388 Iron and Steel Structures.

The report allows an increase of ^ in the tension flange stress for allow-
able maximum overload. On this basis, the average allowable maximum

1
unit stress in the compression flange should be 26,000 — 26 — .

r
b 1

Now r = — closelv. The formula then becomes 26,000 — 100 — closely.
4 " • b

1
The sub-conimittec gives 23,000 — 100 — . If the Universitv of Illinois

b
Bulletin is right, the suggested formula of the sub-committee is too severe.

Since the sub-committee has considerably increased the constant in the
second term of the column formula, I suggest a somewhat similar treat-

1 1

ment of 16,000 — 16 — and recommend the formula 26,000 — 150 — as the

r b

maximum allowable unit stress in compression flanges of plate girders

and I-beams.

In the old A. R. E. A. specifications no particular reason is given for
the flange formula given in Article 30, but there is no doubt that the re-
straining influence of the web to side buckling was .taken care of by
modifying the second term. In this connection, see Article 9, page 149 of
"Design of Steel Bridges," bj' Kunz.

It seems to me, however, that the experiments given in Bulletin 168
of the University of Illinois are a better guide in selecting a formula than
anything we have, and I will not change my recommendation in this
respect; I am simply trying to show the steps that were taken in deriving
the formula given in the old A. R. E. A. specifications.

Looking at it from the standpoint of Bulletin 168 or from the method
of treatment pursued in the old A. R. E. A. specifications, I think it is
evident that Article 13 needs considerable revision. (Lcffler)

The permissible extreme fiber stress in beam or girder flanges should
be somewhat larger, not smaller, than the permissible direct stress in
struts or ties. The main reason for this is the reinforcing action by ad-
jacent fibers which have a lower stress.

The slenderness reduction constant (coefficient of • — ) should be less

r
for beam or girder flanges than for columns. The main reasons for this
are partial restraint bv the web and stiffeners, and the tapering stress.

1
This principle is properly observed liy reducing the proportion of the —

r
coefficient about 13 per cent.

The sub-committee report for rating old bridges prescribes 24,000 —

1
100 — for columns. Accordingly to be consistent, a proper value for

_^ Iron and Steel Structures. 389

compression in girder flanges would be about. 26,000 — 94 — , taking the

r
foregoing principles into account. This is approximately equivalent to

1 1

26,000 — 400 — for plate girders, and 26,000 — 350 — for I-beams (instead
b b

1
of 23,000 — 400 — as now proposed),
b

1
Adopting the value p = 24,000 — 47 — (see discussion on Article 10)

r
as correct for columns, the appropriate value for girder flanges would

1
be about 26,000 — 44 — , which is approximately equivalent to 26,000 —
r
1 1

190 — for plate girders, and to 26,0(X) — 170 — for I-beams. This is very
b b

1
near the value (26,000 — 150 — ) suggested by Mr. Lefller, and based on

b
the I-beam tests at the University of Illinois. In order to be on the safe

b
side, as there is quite a range of variation of the ratios — for dififerent

r
1
beams and girders, I would recommend p =: 26,000 — 200 — for rating

b
compression flanges of beams and girders. (Steinman)

1
In the case of plate girders, a reduction factor of 400 — would usually

1:.
not determine the strength of the girder. For a girder with cover plates,
and assuming the top and bottom flanges alike, I believe the unit stress in
tension would govern, even with such a large reduction factor. For
I-beams, where the net area of the bottom flange would usually be the
same as the gross area of the top flange, the reduction factor would have
more bearing. In such construction, however, it would seem that a lower
unit stress should be used than in the plate girder. I am inclined to think

1
that a reduction factor of 400 — is all right, but would suggest increasing

h
the basic unit stress from 23,000 to 26,000 lb. (Welty)

Article 14

It is not clear that the net sections of "flanges are concentrated at
their centers of gravity." I would suggest the following wording instead:
"or by assuming that the net flange areas are concentrated at their centers
of gravity." (Auryansen)

The expression "including compression side" appears to be the same
as in the 1920 General Specifications, but I believe it is ambiguous. I
presume the intention is to define the net section as that which is obtained

390 Iron and Steel Structures.

by making proper deductions from the gross sectional area, for rivet holes
on both tension and compression sides of the neutral axis. Perhaps a
shorter expression can be found. The one that now stands certainly ap-
pears to me to be very defective. (Carpenter)

I think it would be well to make it clear that, where girders are rated
by the moment of inertia method and the web is not continuous, the web
splice should be rated for moment as well as shear. (Hunley)

Results of Application of Rules and Unit Stresses for Rating Exist-
ing Bridges — Bulletin 228

Bridge 1 — Through girder span, 71 ft. 6 in.

Compiilcd Allowable

Girders, flange stress, full impact 21,500 17,400

Floor beams, flange stress (14-ft. panel) 22,400 21,200

Bridge 2 — Skew, through girder span, 60 ft. on 6 deg. curve. Speed
limit 20 mi.

Computed Allozcable

Girders, flange stress 22,000

Centrifugal, 10 per cent 700

■ 22,700 17,600

Floor beams, flange stress (13 ft. 6 in. panel) .... 23,100 21,200

Approach girders (35-ft. deck span) —

Flange stress 23,700

Centrifugal, 10 per cent 900

24,600 20,600

Bridge 3 — Deck girder swing span, unequal arms; channel span, 60 ft.,
assumed as simple span.

Computed Allozuable

Girders, flange stress, full impact 26,500 18,200

Girders, flange stress, half impact 20,900 18,200

Bridge 4 — I-beams, three to each rail, skew, on 4 deg. curve; span
27 ft. Superelevation of beams and track, 6 in.

Computed Allowable

Flange stress 18,200

Centrifugal (15%, each beam one-sixth)... 9,600

27,800

As single I-beams 27 ft. long 6,100

As triple I-beams (width = sum of widths of 3

flanges) 17,000

As single I-beams, unsupported length 7 ft 18,300

Centrifugal force should not be included, because the girders are
superelevated, making the resultant load parallel with the webs.

Bridge 5 — Columns of viaduct. One web 8 in. by 7/16 in. and four
6 in. by 28 lb. Z-bars. Length, 14 ft.

Computed Alloivable
Axial stress 11,200 17,900

Iron and Steel Structures. 391

Bridges 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 — In no case does the shear in plate girder
webs exceed the values allowed by the rules.

Bridge 6 — Deck truss span, 170 ft. Built 1892.

Computed Allowable

Stringers, flange stress (wrought iron).... 21,000 22,000

Floor beams, flange stress (wrought iron) 21,200 22,000

U2-U3 (wrought iron) 17,400 17,000

L3-L4 (steel evebars) 21,500 26,000

L3-U4 (wrought iron counter) 20,700 22,000

U4-L5 (steel eyebars) 28,000 26,000

Bridge 7— Deck truss span, 160 ft. Built 1893.

Computed Allotvable

Stringers, flange stress (steel) 25,300 26,000

Floor beams, flange stress (steel) 22,000 26,000

U2-U3 (steel) 19,500 19,300

L0-L2 (steel) 22,500 26,000

U2-L3 (steel eyebars) 26,600 26,000

Bridge 8 — Through truss span, 110 ft., wrought iron. Built 1885.

Computed Allozvahlc
Maximum tension 19,500 22,000

Bridge 9 — Through truss span, 140 ft., wrought iron. Built 1876.

Computed Allozuable
Maximum tension 21,300 22,000

Bridge 10 — Through truss span, 176 ft., wrought iron. Built 1878.

Computed AUoivable
Maximum tension 19,900 22,000

Bridge 11 — Through truss span, 112 ft., wrought iron. Built 1882.

Computed Allowable

Maximum tension (one-fourth impact) 17,000 22,000

Maximum tension (full impact) 24,000 22,000

Bridge 12 — Through truss span, 154 ft., wrought iron. Built 1879.

Computed AUoivable

Maximum tension (half impact) 19,000 22,000

Maximum tension (full impact) 22,700 22,000

Bridge 13 — Through truss span, 148 ft., wrought iron. Built 1887.

Computed Allowable

Maximum tension ("one-fourth impact) 17,900 22,000

Maximum tension (full impact) 24,200 22,000

Bridge 14— Through truss span, 154 ft., steel. Built 1897.

Computed AUoivable

Maximum tension (one-fourth impact) 20^900 26.000

Maximum tension (full impact) 29,700 26,000

892 Iron and Steel Structures.

Bridge 15 — Deck girder span, 34 ft. 8 in., Bessemer steel. Built 1896.

Rating
Rating by by Pres-
Rules ent Practice

Web shear E-76.2 E-68.2

End stiffeners, bearing E-81.9 E-77.5

End stiffeners, compression E-60.2 E-77.3

Flange rivets, bearing E-55.5 E-50.1

Flanges, tension '. E-56.9 E-56.9

Flanges, compression E-49.3 E-57.7

Bridge 16 — Deck girder span, 7i ft. 6 in., Bessemer steel. Built 1895.

Rating
Rating by by Pres-
Rules cut Practice

Web shear E-71.8 E-64.3

End stiffeners, bearing E-45.0 E-42.5

End stiffeners, compression E-33.9 E-43.0

Flange rivets, bearing E-95.0 E-89.5

Flanges, tension E-55.0 E-55.0

Flanges, compression E-47.8 E-56.8

Bridge 17— Deck girder span, 43 ft., Open Hearth steel. Built 1899.

Rating
Rating by by Pres-
Rtiles ent Practice

Web shear E-79.2 E-63.0

End stiffeners, bearing E-55.6 E-50.3

End stiffeners, compression E-47.4 E-59.4

Flange rivets, bearing E-69.0 E-62.5

Flanges, tension E-59.0 E-59.0

Flanges, compression E-51.7 E-60.2

Bridge 18 — Through truss span, 159 ft. 6^ in., Bessemer steel. Built

1896.

Rating
Rating by by Pres-
' Rules ent Practice

End post E-58.7 E-45.3

Top chord E-S3.5 E-42.5

Bottom chord E-37.6 E-33.4

Hip verts E-41.9 E-37.6

Posts E-66.6 E-53.0

Diagonals E-47.2 E-42.0

Counter E-29.1 E-26.4

Pin E-57.6 E-43.8

Bridge 19 — Through truss span, 123 ft., Bessemer steel. Built 1882.

Rating
Rating by by Pres-
Rules ent Practice

End post E-27.3 E-20.0

Top chord E-26.9 E-22.4

Bottom chord E-24.9 E-22.0

Hip verts E-31.7 E-27.0

Posts E-51.1 E-39.3

Diagonals E-25.8 E-22.8

Counter E-50.8 E-46.0

Pin E-34.6 E-26.7

Iron and Steel Structures. 393

Bridge 20 — Tlirough truss span, 147 ft., Bessemer steel. Built 1882.

Rating

Rating by by P res-
Rules ent Practice

End post E-29.2 E-21.4

Top chord E-28.9 E-21.6

Bottom chord E-26.7 E-23.5

Hip verts E-30.8 E-27.7

Posts E-40.8 E-30.2

Diagonals E-26.3 E-23.2

Counter E-40.1 E-36.5

Bridge 21 — Through girder span, 87 ft., Bessemer steel. Built 1895.

300

Impact

L + 300

Computed Alloivable

Girder flanges 17,500 22,000

Stringer flanges (14 ft. 2 in. panel ) 13.900 22,000

Floor beam flanges 20,300 22,000

Bridge 22— Through truss span, 200 ft. Built 1888.

300

Impact

L + 300

Computed Alloivable

Stringer flanges (wrought iron), 25-ft. panel.... 17,200 22,000

Floor beam flanges ( wrought iron) 15,200 22,000

LO-Ul (wrought iron) 13,500 13,900

U1-L2 (steel) 22,600 26,000

U2-L3 (steel) 24,000 26,000

U3-L4 (steel) 23,400 26,000

U4-L3 (wrought iron counter) 14,600 20,000

U3-L2 (wrought iron counter) 13,300 20,000

Ul-Ll (steel) 19,600 26,000

U2-L2 (wrought iron) 16,500 10,500

U3-L3 (wrought iron) 13,300 10,000

• U4-L4 (wrought iron) 7,100 10,000

L0-L2 (steel) 22,600 26,000

L2-L3 (steel) 22,900 26,000-

L3-L4 (steel) 22,300 26,000

U1-U2 (wrought iron) 14,500 15,200

U2-U3 (wrought iron) ; . . . 14,300 15,200

U3-U4 (wrought iron) 14,400 15,200

Bridge 23— Through truss span. 123 ft. 2 in. Built 1907.

Computed Alloivable

Stringer flanges (25-ft. panel ) 20,100 26,000

Floor beam flanges 17,700 26,000

LO-Ul 12,900 16100

U1-L2 19,800 26,000

U2-L2 22,200 26,000

Ul-Ll 15,800 26,000

U2-L2 2,900 13,500

L0-L2 21,700 26,000

L2-L3 21,300 26,000

U1-U2-U2 13.100 16.700

894 Iron and Steel Structures.

Bridge 24 — Through truss span, wrought iron. Built 1889.

Computed Allowable

Stringers, top flange (25-ft. panel) 19,200 14,700

Stringers, bottom flange 19,200 22,000

Stringers, web shear 11,400 15,000

Floor beams, lop flange 17,700 16,200

Floor beams, bottom flange 12,400 22,000

Floor beams, web shear 7,900 15,000

U1-U2 16,000 17,000

U2-U3 20,700 17,000

U3-U4 21,100 17,000

U4-U5 22,900 17,000

L0-L2 20,700 22,000

L2-L3 21,300 22,000

L3-L4 20,600 22,000

L4-L5 20,600 22,000

LO-Ul 12,200 13,600

L2-U2 11,400 14,300

L3-U3 11,400 14,600

L4-U4 10,000 12,600

L5-U5 ■• 9,200 13,300

U1-L2 24,300 22,000

U2-L3 •- 24,800 22,000

U3-L4 ■ 25,900 22,000

U4-L5 21,600 22,000

U5-L4 20,500 22,000

^ U4-L3 25,300 22.000

Ll-Ul 17,300 22,000

Appendix C

PRINCIPLES FOR DETAILED DESIGN OF FLASHING,

DRAINAGE, REINFORCEMENT AND PROTECTION

FOR WATERPROOFING PURPOSES

F. AuRYAXSEN, Chairman, Sub-Committee.
General.

1. The following applies only to membrane waterproofing, as the
"integral method" is not recommended for waterproofing railroad bridge
floors.

2. The structure should be designed so that it can be waterproofed
and it should be adaptable to waterproofing by ordinary methods and
materials.

Good workmanship being vital to the success of waterproofing,
the design should be such tlia^ extraordinary precautions or methods
will not be necessary to secure good results.

3. Strength and stiffness are desirable features in a structure which
is to be waterproofed.

The lack of these^ may permit destructive stresses in the water-
proofing. Very shallow floors, such as shown in Figs. 3 and 4,
should be avoided wherever possible.

4. The structure and its construction and expansion joints, drainage
and waterproofing, should be designed together, considering their separate
and combined functions, so that each will help to secure a waterproof
structure.

If any necessary- feature is overlooked, it may be difiicult, if not
impossible, to provide a remedy after trouble appears.

5. Due regard should be had for the available methods and materials
of construction.

Traffic conditions, climate and prevailing markets or supplies,
might thus control the design. Wherever possible, waterproofing
under traffic should be avoided.

6. All waterproofed surfaces should be easily accessible, and as
simple and smooth as possible ; hence features should be avoided which
would increase the difficulty of securing waterproof construction, such
as open spaces, joints; holes, seams, or projections.

The deck bridges shown in Figs. 15 and 16 lend themselves
more readily to successful treatment than the trough floors. Figs. 2,
3 and 4, or the through bridges, Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11 and 13.

7. Concrete bridge floors should he of ample strength and thickness
and of dense non-porous construction.

Special attention .should be given to providing the correct amount
and disposition of the reinforcement, and to securing the proper
amount of water used in mixing. See Figs. .^ to 10, 13, 13 and 16.

39.5

396 Iron and Steel Structures.

8. Where contraflexure would injure the waterproofing, special de-
tails should be provided, such as clastic joints. See Figs. 7 and 15.

9. Minimize the number of construction joints in the structure, pro-
vided an ample number of workable expansion joints can be introduced.

Concrete bridge floors should, where practicable, be built in one
continuous operation for each track.
Drainage.

10. Adequate drainage should be provided by means of suitable
grades which will shed water by the easiest or most direct route. One
per cent, is a minimum desirable grade, but the grades away from points
which are diflicult to waterproof, should be correspondingly increased.

While sewer and gutter grades may be considerably less than
one per cent., bridge floors, especially if ballasted, are subject to
clogging by ashes, cinders, etc., and hence require steeper slopes to
secure satisfactory drainage. See ^igs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 and 15.

11. Avoid pockets which cannot be easily drained.

Water with onlj- a slight head may find an outlet through the
waterproofing, which otherwise might be tight. Standing water is
undesirable on a waterproofed bridge floor, from its destructive
effect, both as a solvent and also on account of frost action.

12. Where gutters or pipes are necessary, they should be of durable
material, of ample size, easy of access to install and maintain, and pro-
tected against clogging or damage.

The grades should be enough to secure quick and entire escape
of the water. Corrugated metal pipes are satisfactory where exposed
to alternate freezing and thawing. Where sudden considerable varia-
tions in temperature occur, it is not desirable to encase drain pipes
in concrete. Cleanouts and manholes should be provided where pipes
cannot otherwise be cleaned. See Figs. 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15 and 16.

13. Provide free exits for the harmless escape of drainage.

Such drainage should not be allowed to disfigure the structure
nor to injure persons or property. Icicles may be prevented by a
basket of rock salt inserted in the top of the drain pipe. (See Figs.
3, 4, 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16.)

14. Avoid features which W'Ould induce or permit capillary action.
For example, where the waterproofing extends up under the top

of flange or beneath a flashing angle, it is very desirable to make the
water drip oflf the edge, rather than allow it to follow the under
surface and be drawn into the crack. (See Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 16.)

15. Where possible, locate edges and joints above the highest prob-
able water level.

Edges of the waterproofing, cither at parapets or where it joins
the webs of through girders, should be at least as high as the base
of rail, and preferably higher than the top of rail. Joints in the floor
should be located so that the grades slope away from the joint.

Iron and Steel Structures. 397

Reinforcement.

16. Reinforcement of the structure should be suitably disposed, and
ample in strength to prevent cracks or distortion which would injure the
waterproofing. (See Figs. 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15 and 16.)

Reinforcement should be protected against destructive agencies
such as electrolysis, brine, etc.

17. Cloths, felts or fibers should be capable of holding the water-
proofing pitch where placed and should be durable, strong and flexible.

18. Wire mesh or sheet metal reinforcement for the membrane
should be of durable material, flexible where necessary, and intimately
bonded or introduced so that. the waterproofing and reinforcement act
together. (See Figs. 7 and 15.)

19. Necessary breaks in the surface of waterproofing or flashing,
such as for drain pipes, or at construction or expansion joints, should be
reinforced with extra flashing material. (See Figs. 7 and 15.)

Flashing.

20. Metal flashing shall be of material which is non-corrosive, and
shall be insulated or protected against electrolytic action at points of
contact with steel members of the structure. (See Figs. 5, 7, 8, 13 and
15.)

21. Flashing should be of material which can be applied readil)', and
should retain the position in which it is placed when subjected to actual
conditions of service and temperature.

22. Flashing should be firmly attached in its proper position, so that
it cannot easily be displaced or removed. (See Figs. 13 and IS.)

23. The edges of waterproofing and flashing should be protected
against drip, percolation and capillary action. (See Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11, 13 and 15.)

24. Joints between concrete and other material should be grooved
and filled with an elastic expansion joint cement. (See Figs. 1 and 9.)

Protection.

25. Waterproofing and flashing should be protected, as soon as pos-
sible after installation, against mechanical injury, excessive temperature,
chemical action, and deterioration caused by exposure to light and air.

26. The protecting covering should be dense, hard, durable and easy
to apply.

It is recommended to use on flat surfaces either:

(a) Brick laid in cement mortar or served with hot pitch.

(b) Plain or reinforced cement mortar.

For surfaces with considerable slope, mastic is not satisfactory,
being difficult to apply and also to retain in place.

398

Iron and Steel Structures

Sea/ wif/i ^sphaifK Cement ^

^Reinforcement -y^

]f\ / ^
/ IVaferproof/ng

, Pitch a// surfaces
/ tonrsrd drains g'in/2'

Concrete''

F/G./

tVaterproofing ,

\l}J}^

Concrete'

Ni.^

rorm gfooye around
fieandpourwifh/iof

fxpansion Joint

Cement.^

^iYooden Wedges Creosofed, Spiked fo Tie.
O Ties dressed down fo size and creosoied
. ^ (i8ii>s.percu. ft). Sides and bofioms of fie s
% mopped m'/iicoai far pi/ch before pouring
concrefe arourx^ ff7em.

f/6.2

3'z

Tie carried by s^i/ie

f/G.3

/ onyitc/dina/ Grade ^K,

^ » # f ^ ^Bituminous
Melal Culler ^^^t^c

Iron and Steel Structures.

399

<?^s

^Drains on/yaf£xp3ns/dn Jo//i(

f/G.4 \

/■'^- 4 Concrete, J Sfonej
^'Min. 3 f Center) J
4f"Max.af6/referJ

K '0§\.N

^' fiods 6"C.foC. wir«d to^' Sfoyv

JVat/ess
\ than 6^

F/G.5

Wire//ett/ng
IVaterproofing

j'Bars-^^_^

I'Bsrs about
^4' centers

^"Bars-

-j 'Bars to pass througft 3 Stiffener
Ang/es and be tapped t8 "

F/G.6

400

Iron and Steel Structures,

3e"tVireMesh
{Confinuovs)
A.S.&MreCo.

sfyie.oee

Mortar

tVire4fes/?

t¥afarproofing

Melal Flai-hinS

/■•^j'S Concrmt-e

DerAiL c^cp Col umn
Bent

I I 'I I I •rT~r

L — .^il^Jl--H

F/G.8

I '-§'Sq.Tmsfed
Pods 3'c./oc.
^■2 4 Concrete
i'Sfone

/5Pty ^af-erproof/'np

F/G.9

Iron and Steel Structures.

401

2i'^arc/ Burned Br/c/c ^

mfh Jo/nfs of Wafer- \V\\ ^-
proof/ng Compoand-^ I « "^ Q J^ ^

Drain

6'
-5/ab
Musfhaveno

F/GJO

fofop

/Pods fv/recy) shou/der against

of Beam logefher-

masonry af ex-
pans/on end.

■^ Waterproofing ^ rCaicrefe \ ,

^^—/^'dPly Waferproofing-
F/G.//

~^~'^'C/e,

"ar

CJ. Drs/n Guard

^Waterproofing to de turned
dotm inside of drain gtAsrd

-Ci A/ipp/e about 7-0"c.toc.
e'^mP/pe Coup/ing
^'^Hf/t^/pp/e\rt}re»dec/ oneS/td

Lead Coated Mo. /8
Sa/y./ron Gutter
S/opadj"-72'

OETA/L /^T D/fA//V /'Aj'Strdps,J-e"c.toc.

F/6./2

402

Iron and Steel Structures.

Melal Flaihing bent r

domt oyer ec/ffe ortfafer-
proof/ng-

r'^g'^^gjsg^^ggs^ flVaferproofing

—Brick

Morfar
Waferprooffng

rLongifudihs/ Srsde ^T,

.1 I I I, ..I. .l.,i I I

' ' ' ' ' ' '

^X Br/c/f-j. AforAsr. / 1

'iy^§'5q.Tm^ed/?odS^ \
^{7V^ Ttrisfed Poc/s ^

'^ -/■'£■ 4 Concrefe,^ "Sfone

F/G./3

F/GJ4

Iron and Steel Structures

403

fSfanefard C./. Manho/e Coyer

Sr/cA- Afsn/70^(om,/

a/fernafe br/cUs from bo^om \

Metal Flashing

Br/ck-, Aforfan yya^rproof/nqf ^ -^Gr^defo Drsin "^^^^t °'[f/'* ^i^'^'^^'

S=ii^ — — At

iS/ope/rm^rd

I ■ • ' ^ — ^ I •'mi' ii ' ' • '*' ' '' " ^ ■■ '' > ir'>i'iii,7i ^ ' 'i I i"^

edffods

fRo/Zof/ibr/i^
\ coifed tv/ff>
prf'ch
Profecfion

•oor-

/ngr

-/P/y fabric Coated tvifh P/Zch
Jo/NT r/(y./0

D£TA/LATD/^i7N

/■C/infon Wire C/ofh or PoebUng
■ Netting 2 'Jlfesh.^/eiVire

r/'^Mortar Protect/on

■^ X/- Mortar pro/ecthns
\ f. J'^3'x2'fy/yb,
^ /I about ? '.apart,
\ \ I cast Hfith mortar
^ I i protection to/ceep
i. I drain in place

\^- a-Perforatad

P/pe

f^ A? 'Cttanne/
'Pecess for drip

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIII— ON WATER
SERVICE

A. F. DoRLEY, Chairman; C. R. Knowles, V ice-Chairman;

R. C. Bardwell, E. G. Lane,

J. H. Davidsox, Thomas Lees,

G. B. Farlow, M. E. McDonnell,

J. H. GiBBONEY, W. M. Neptune,

E. M. Grime, W. A. Parker,

W. C. Harvey, E. H. Olson,

R. L. Holmes, A. B. Pierce,

H. H. JoHNTz, C. P. Richardson,

C. H. Koyl, F. D. Yeaton,

P. M. LaBach, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your Committee on Water Service presents below its report to the
Twenty-second Annual Convention.

The Committee was instructed by the Board of Direction to make a
study and report during the year on the following subjects :

(1) Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

(2) Make final report if practicable on the study of regulations of
Federal and State Authorities relating to supply of drinking water on
trains and premises of railways.

(3) Make final report if practicable on plans and specifications for
tj'pical water station layouts, conferring with Committee on Yards and
Terminals and Committee on Economics of Railway Operation.

(4) Study and report on extent and effect of incrustation in pipe lines
and methods of cleaning.

(5) Study and report on methods of disposing of waste water at
water stations and keeping track free from ice.

(6) Study and report on specifications for contracting water service
work.

(7) Study and report on the effect of local deposits on pollution of
surface or shallow well water supplies.

(8) Study and report on specifications for substructures of wood and
steel for water tanks.

Committee Meetings

In addition to the various meetings of the sub-committees, three meet-
ings of the General Committee were held in the ofifices of the Association
at Chicago.

405

406 Water Service

(1) Revision of the Manual

The Committee at this time has no further recommendations to sub-
mit as to changes in the subject-matter in the Manual.

(2) Supply of Drinking Water on Trains and Premises of Railroads

A progress report on this subject appears in Appendix A.

(3) Plans and Specifications for Typical Water Station Layouts

A progress report on this subject is submitted in Appendix B.

(4) Extent and Effect of Incrustation in Pipe Lines

A final report on this subject, together with a monograph by C. H.
I<!oyl, is submitted in Appendix C.

(5) Disposal of Water Waste

A final report on this subject appears in Appendix D.

(6) Specifications for Contracting Water Service Work

The Sub-Committee has gathered considerable data on this subject, but
it is not as yet in shape for presentation to the Association and desires to
report progress.

(7) Effect of Local Deposits on Pollution of Surface or Shallow Well

Water Supplies

A preliminary report on this subject is submitted in Appendix E.

(8) Specifications for Substructures of Wood and Steel for Water

Tanks

A final report on this subject is submitted in Appendix F for adoption
and pubHcation in the Manual.

CONCLUSIONS

Your Committee requests the following action on its report :

(1) That the subject of examination of the subject-matter in the
Manual be again referred to the Committee for further study and report.

(2) That the report on progress of drinking water regulations be re-
ceived as information and that the subject be reassigned to the Committee
for further study and report.

(3) That the report on typical water station layouts be received as
information.

(4) That the report on extent and effect of incrustation in pipe lines
and methods for cleaning be received as information.

W a t c r S c r V i c c . 407

(5) That the report on methods of disposing waste water at water
stations be recci\ed as information.

(6) That the subject of specifications for contracting water service
work be reassigned to the Committee for further study and report.

(7) That the progress report on effect of local deposits on the pollu-
tion of surface and shallow well water supplies be received as information
and the subject be reassigned to the Committee for further study and
report.

(8) That report on Specifications for substructures of wood and steel
for water tanks be adopted and published in the Manual.

Suggested Subjects for Next Year's Study and Report

(1) Study of subject-matter in the Manual with view to recommenda-
tions for changes.

(2) Study of progress of regulations of Federal or State Authorities
pertaining to drinking water supplies.

(3) Study and final report on specifications for contracting water
service work.

(4) Study and final report on effect of local deposits on pollution of
surface and shallow well water supplies.

(5) Study and report on pitting and corrosion of boiler tubes and
sheets, taking into consideration the character of the metal used, method
of manufacture, construction of boilers and equality of water.

(6) Study and report on specifications for chemicals used in water
treatment, presenting specifications for lime, soda ash, sulphate of alumina
and anti-loaming compound.

(7) Study and report on use of centrifugal pumps in railway water
service.

Respectfully submitted.

The Co.m.mittke on Watkr Skuvick,

A. F. DoRLEY, Chainiiav.

(A)

Appendix A

STUDY REGULATIONS OF FEDERAL OR STATE AUTHORI-
TIES RELATING TO SUPPLY OF DRINKING WATER
ON TRAINS OR PREMISES OF RAILROADS

R. C. Bardvvell, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

With a view of expediting the furnishing of water satisfactory for
drinking purposes on trains and premises of railroads, the Federal Public
Health Service has assigned a number of Sanitary Engineers trained in
this connection, to assist the various State Boards of Health in the super-
vision of drinking water supplies. With the assistance of these men,
there has been a marked activity noticeable in the attention given the
regulations pertaining to drinking water supplies.

At a meeting held by the Sub-Committee in the office of the Associa-
tion on June 3 a representative from the office of the Surgeon-General
was present and placed before the Committee the following points out-
lining the position taken by the Public Health Service :

"First, it must be pointed out that the responsibility for furnishing
or producing water safe for drinking purposes is a large and serious
one, fully comparable with any of the other pbligations or responsibilities
of the common carriers. The railroads, therefore, must comply fully
with accepted rnodern standards for the production and handling of water
for drinking purposes.

"Second, the former and even the present methods of selecting and
handling drinking water supplies by the railroads are in need of extensive
improvements, which it is now imperative that the fullest consideration
be given by the railways.

"Third, it is considered with adequate justification that satisfactory
conditions in regard to railway water supplies can only be obtained by the
responsible supervision over sanitary factors of the water supplies by
a competent and qualified sanitary personnel of the railway organization,
varying to be sure with the size of the system. In this connection, it
has been noted with some concern that the recently adopted scheme of
Water Service Organization contains no provision for the specific respon-
sibility and supervision of the sanitary quality and safety of the drinking
water supplies on railroads."

It was brought out in the discussion that the question of a pure
drinking water was as much a question of safety as the standard mech-
anical safety appliances and should be so regarded. The chief objections
raised appeared to be in the methods of handling of the water in and to
containers on cars. A safe sanitary' supply may be readily polluted by
improper handling. One of the chief faults has been in lack of protection
for the hose connection from hydrant to car reservoir, and it is desired

408

Water Service. 409

to present the device in use on a large Middle Western System as a
sample method for taking care of this feature (Figs. 1 and 2).

It is the recommendation of the Committee that the detailed super-
vision of drinking water supplies on railroads should be under the au-
thority of an officer with competent training in Sanitary Engineering, and
such personnel should work in close co-operation with the recommended
Water Service Organization as presented at the last convention.

As information of interest, the following quotation is taken from
the report of the Executive Committee of the American Railway Associa-
tion as presented at the November 17th session:

"Request has been received from the Acting Surgeon-General of the
Bureau of Public Health Service, Treasury Department, that an order
be issued fixing July 1, 1922, as the date when all water containers in
cars and stations should be so constructed that ice does not come in con-
tact with the water. The Executive Committee has referred this subject
to the Medical and Surgical Section with the request that an effort be
made to have the date on which passenger cars must be equipped with
water containers so constructed that ice does not come in contact with
the water extended to July 1, 1923."

As this feature of Railroad Water Supply is at present in more or
less of a development stage, especially with reference to suitable stand-
ards for hose connections and hydrants used in filling cars, as well as the
improvement and purification of small potable supplies, the progress
should be of interest to many members of this Association, and if it is
the pleasure of the Association, your Committee will be pleased to keep
in touch with the situation and report on the possible and economical
means of compliance as practiced and authorized.

(A>

410

Water Service.

Fig. 1— Device for Protecting Hose Used in Filling Drinking Watei.
Tanks, Illinois Central Railroad (Closed).

Water Service

411

Fig. 2— Device for Protecting Hose Used in Filling Drinking Water
Tanks, Illinois Central Railroad (Open).

Appendix B

PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR TYPICAL WATER
STATION LAYOUTS

C. R. Knowles, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

It is the opinion of the Committee that the subject as assigned has
been covered so far as this Committee's jurisdiction extended in the
report made to the last convention, it being the opinion that any work
which might be done by this Committee other than suggestions given in
the last report would lie within the province of the Committee on Yards
and Terminals and the newly formed Committee on Shops and Locomotive
Terminals. The subject is, therefore, referred to the Secretary of the
Association for proper action.

The Water Service Committee will, of course, be glad to cooperate
with the committee or committees handling this subject and furnish any
assistance possible in the further study of the subject.

412

Appendix C

EXTENT AND EFFECT OF INCRUSTATION IN PIPE LINES

P. AI. LaBach, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

The subject assigned is "Nature and Extent of Incrustation in Pipe
Lines."

In pursuing the stud}' of the subject the following questionnaire
was sent to different railroads in general, covering practically all the
United States :

"The Water Service Committee of the American Railway Engineering
Association has been assigned the question of nature and extent of in-
crustation in pipe lines.

"If you have had trouble of this nature, will you please answer, in-
sofar as possible, the questions in the following list. If you have never
had any trouble, please state that fact also.

"Incrustation from raw water.

Nature — Physical appearance and chemical analysis?

Extent — Physical measurements and time required to produce?

Cause — Analysis of raw water if available?

"Method of cleaning.

In place? On removal of pipe?

"Results obtained from cleaning.

Former pressure — at pumps — w'hen working?
New pressure — at pump — when working?
Former capacity in gallons per minute?
New capacity in gallons per minute?

"Incrustation from treated water.

Nature — Physical appearance and chemical analysis?

Extent — Physical measurements and time required to produce?

Cause — Analysis of raw water if available?

"Method of cleaning.

In place? On removal of pipe?

"Results obtained from cleaning.

Former pressure — at pump — when working?
New pressure — at pump — when working?
Former capacity in gallons per minute?
New capacity in gallons per minute?

Replies were received which show that stoppage of pipe lines by for-
eign materials is to be found in all territories. Some replies indicate that
certain railroads do not know of its existence, but municipalities in the
same area report finding the trouble and contracting for its removal. One
road reports a 4 in. line in Maryland as practically showing no diminu-

413

414 Water Service

tion in diameter after forty years' service. This was ascertained on re-
newal.

(I) General Causes and Characteristics

(a) Corrosiii, tubercles or roughening of interior surface.

(b) Mud or other deposits of suspended matter.

(d) Iron, manganese and aluminium in water.

(e) Water treatment.

(f) Applica'tion of heat.

(a) A large proportion of stoppages is due to this cause alone.
Where pipe is well coated, before laying, trouble of this nature is not
generally to be expected in ordinary water for a number of years. While
in itself it may not result in serious trouble, it usually forms the founda-
tion for other deposits by roughening the interior of the pipe. The
amount of deposit depends entirely on local conditions.

(b) Mud or suspended matter (other than found as a result of
water treatment) seldom forms a deposit unless the foundation has been
already laid by (a). The amount found depends largely upon the nature
of the water and the velocity of the flow.

(c) Snails and similar growths arc frequently found in suction
lines, but little information is to be found on the subject.

(d) Iron, manganese or aluminium promote the growth of various
forms of Crenothrix in pipes or reservoirs. When these substances are
absent apparently no difficulty is found from this source.

In addition to Crenothrix there is a large variety of bacteriological
growth with long scientific names, but familiarly known as pipe moss,
pipe sponge, etc. It is claimed that these organisms will not thrive un-
less the water is acid. Anything tending to make the water alkaline will
reduce or cure the trouble. Filtration may or may not assist. To be of
value the filter must be of a nature to remove the bacteria or its food, or
both. Many filters fail to remove bacteria, although they may lessen the
difficulty.

The usual sequence is for the pipe to roughen through corrosion.
Then mud or slime is deposited which forms a culture bed for a variety
of growths.

(e) Incrustation due to water treatment is commonly found in treat-
ing plants of various types. This deposit is greatest when the water is
undertreated or raw and treated water are mixed in the pipe lines. There
is also difficulty due to water being used before the reactions are complete.
There is no evidence that filters will entirely eliminate the trouble as the
reaction frequently takes place after the chemicals pass the filter. That a
good filter will help there is no question.

This deposit is usually found in annular rings of various degrees of
hardness. (See Figs. 3 and 4.)

Water Service

415

feiiS^a^

Fig. 3 — 10-Inch C. I. Pfpe Before and After Cleaning.

Fig. a — 10-Inch C. I. Pipe Showing Characteristic Shape of
Incrustation.

416 Water Service,

(f) The application of heat will deposit a scale largely composed
of the carbonates of lime and magnesia. In treated water the changes
in temperature will also cause a deposit. When the temperature rises in
passing from the treating tank anj' excess of lime or magnesia will de-
posit. The reverse is true of soda. As any excess is generally carbonate
of lime, the latter is usually the main source of deposit.

(II) Operating Costs Affected

(g) Carrying capacity of pipe,
(h) Useful life,
(k) Depreciation.

(g) A pipe line in good condition should carry at a given pressure
within 5 per cent, of the amount of water given by a set of Hazen or
Weston tables. Or it may be stated that for a given amount of water
per month the friction should not be more than 5 per cent, greater than
for a new pipe.

When stoppage exists it may result in either of the following con-
ditions : The pump may be run to handle as much water as formerly ;
or the speed may be cut down. In bad cases the speed is decreased, as
the pump and pipe pressure would be excessive.

In computing the cost of incrustation the comparison can be based
on the water horse power hour. Calculate this for the existing plant by
the use of pressure gages. Make the same calculation for new pipe plus
5 per cent. The difference in fuel cost will .show the saving, unless over-
time wages enter into the subject.

(h) The useful life of a cast iron pipe may be several hundred years
under the best conditions. These conditions are seldom found in prac-
tice and practically do not exist in industrial plants. The shortest length
of life reported is four years at an intermittent treating plant. The
longest is unknown, although 40 years is not unusual. There is not
enough information available to set a period on useful life. Pipe lines
are allowed to remain in place long after their economic useful life has
ceased to exist, but nothing is done until the supply of water is inade-
quate.

(k) There is not enough information available to compute deprecia-
tion of pipe lines in industrial plants.

(III) Method of Cleaning

(1 ) By hand,
(m) Mechanical,
(n ) Chemical.

(1) The cleaning of pipe by hand can only be done when the de-
posit is comparatively soft. It is sometimes possible in short pipes under
special circumstances to clean them in place by using a scraper of some
sort, but mechanical means are usually found more effective.

Water Service. 417

(m) Mechanical means are inost frequently used. The pipe line
may be removed and revolving cutting tool fixed on a shaft pushed
through the section of pipe. This has been found to answer the purpose
with an air motor and a special cutting tool on a 13- foot shaft. Flue
cleaners have also been used for the same purpose.

The latest method is to clean the pipe in place. This is done by
opening the pipe line in two places and running a cable between them.
This cable is used to drag a cutting tool behind it. One railroad has
used a flue cleaner successfully. However, most of the work has been
done by contract. There is only one company in this field. They own
the patents for tools and devices used in this class of work and have no
competition.

In so far as our reports show the first water main cleaned was on
the Illinois Central in 1867. It was 10,000 4-in. pipe laid in 1855. The
incrustation was clay mud scale. The pipe was taken up and relaid. The
relief was only temporary and the pipe was relaid with 8-in.

From that time to the present many lines have been cleaned or relaid
without any record being made of it.

What may be accomplished by cleaning, irrespective of the method,
is given in the following cases :

8-inch main, 11,575 feet long, cleaned September, 1909. Pressure
required before cleaning 140 lb. for 400 gals, per minute. After clean-
ing 49 lb. was required to deliver 450 gallons.

6-inch main 7200 feet long. Former pressure at pumps 84 lb.
New pressure 65 lb. Former capacity 180 gallons per minute; new
capacity 220 gallons per minute.

(n) Valves, etc., around treating plants or where treated water is
used are usually cleaned by the use of hydrochloric acid. The pipe lines
can be cleaned by the same process, but the cost would generally be pro-
hibitive unless the chemicals are recovered. This method is used at times,
but the Committee has not sufficient information as to its practicability.

(IV) Prevention

(o) Flushing is generally nothing more than a mechanical method.
It may be used if the local conditions are proper. It will prevent the
formation of chemical deposits but rarely. Raw water used to flush
lines which may carry uncombined chemicals will only aggravate the
trouble.

(p) Aeration before pumping will aid where the water contains
iron and produces the effect noted in (d). Adding to the aeration in
intermittent treating plants is a preventative when the treatment is too
short for completed reactions. The same may be said of any type of
agitation.

(q) The prevention of chemical reactions in the pipe lines will, as a
rule, stop all incrustation. By the nature of the subject this is not pos-

418 Water Service

sible. It may be said that the better and more complete the treatment
the less the trouble will be. No method has been devised which will
eliminate temperature changes and their resultant effect.

(V) The specifications for cleaning by contract usually include a
stipulation that the pipe line will be restored to within 5 per cent, of the
normal friction loss as taken from a standard set of tables. This seems
to have been attained when the contractor agreed to operate without in-
jury to the coating in the inside of the pipe.

Any further stipulations would not be general and would depend
upon what else, beside actual cleaning, the contractor agreed lo do.

(VI) Conclusions

Pipe cleaning will pay when the water horse power hour cost per
year is reduced sufficiently to pay 7 per cent, interest on the amount
needed for the improvement.

Pipe line cleaning will pay if there is a shortage when the cost of
cleaning is less than the cost of an additional pipe line needed for ade-
quate service.

AFTER-PRECIPITATION FROM TREATED WATER— ITS
CAUSE AND PREVENTION

By C. H. KuYL, Engineer Water Service, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul

Railway

In the early clays of water softening in this country — from 1898 — it
was noticed that after water had been through the softening process,
completed by passing through some simple kind of filter like a packed
12-in. of wood excelsior or a thin bed of sand from which it issued bril-
liantlj' clear, there was a deposition of flakes of carbonate of lime found
on standing.

After studying this for some time it became evident that the chemical
reactions had not been completed in the softening plant — that the last
molecules of calcium-oxide (CaO) had not found the last molecules of
carbon di-oxide (CO2) ; and since chemical reaction is almost instan-
taneous when once the atoms or molecules arc within combining dis-
tance— consider any explosion — it was evident that the lime (to mention
only one reagent) had not been thoroughly mixed with the water.

I then made a series of tests to determine the amount of mechanical
mixing necessary to effect a softening down to 3 grains per gallon, at
w'hich point the reactions in ordinary water are nearly complete, and
found it to vary from 25 minutes in clean well water at 60 deg. Fahr.
to 50 minutes in river water at 45 deg. Fahr. Thereafter I built a reac-
tion (mixing) tank as part of every "continuous" water softening plant.

In those days the "intermittent" plants, whose tanks were filled with
water, treated with the proper amounts of lime and soda, well stirred for
20 minutes and then settled for three hours, were doing excellent work.
But "continuous" plants had solutions of lime and soda in proper propor-
tion continuously added to the incoming stream of raw w-ater and the
combination run around a few bafifle boards for mixing purposes, and the
softened water from these plants all deposited flakes of calcium carbonate
en standing; and if the water was passed through a sand filter or through
a pipe while the deposition was taking place (so that the particles of
calcium carbonate were .'■o small and young as to merit the term "nas-
cent") then these molecules or small particles attached themselves to the
sand grains or the pipe walls, and the sand grains were said to "grow"
and the pipe to be incrusted, or, in very bad railroad parlance, to be
corroded.

The addition of a 50-minute mixing chamber as a preliminary to the
settling chamber of the "continuous" water softening plant did away with
this "after precipitation" and I never saw enough of it from one of these
plants to be noticeable. It was remarked, how'ever, that if the water was
undertreatcd in lime after disposition took place in spite of the 50-

419

420 Water Service

minute mixing, for undertreated water requires much longer mixing
than that.

It was still noted too that when the best of treated water was fed to
locomotive boilers through injectors there was a sufilicient deposition in
the injector and branch pipe and on the check valve to interfere with
the operation of the injector; and while this was not a serious matter
in warm weather when the temperature of the inj.ector does not exceed
212 deg. Fahr. unless the check valve leaks, it became very serious in cold
weather in the north country, where in winter injectors are kept hot by
steam from the boiler.

In the winter 1915-16 there was a treating plant at every water sta-
tion on the Great Northern Railway on the line from. Devils Lake, N. D.,
to Shelby, Mont., a distance of nearly 700 miles, all near the Canadian
border; and while boiler leaking was unknown there was so much trouble
from clogging of the injectors that its prevention became a serious study.

The material deposited in the injectors was calcium carbonate. It
came from the water at a temperature not far above 212 deg. Fahr. At
this temperature the content of calcium carbonate can be reduced to about
2 grains per gallon, but calcium sulphate, if it were present, would not
be affected. Therefore, I decided to try to convert at least part of the 3
grains of calcium carbonate in the cold water into calcium sulphate by
adding 3 grains per gallon of ferrous sulphate to the water before it left
the mixing tank of the treating plant. This would leave in the water a
small amount of ferrous carbonate which would give the injector no
trouble.

The first test was made at Minot, N. D., because the switch engines
in the yard had been the subject of continuous complaint. The water was
treated as above for one month and then a switch engine was taken to
the roundhouse and its injector, branch pipe and check valve dismantled
and examined in the presence of all the local motive power men. The
inside of the injector and all its connections was as clean as the day they
were made.

Immediately thereafter the treatment with ferrous sulphate began to
be extended to all treating plants on the line and the results have been
uniformly good. On the road, so far as water is concerned, the winter
handling of locomotives is as simple as the summer's.

The use of ferrous sulphate as outline above, as well as the use of
all other chemicals employed in treatment of water, .should be under the
supervision of a competent person who understands the reactions in-
volved.

CLEANING WATER MAIN AT BELLE PLAINE, IOWA

By F. D. Yeaton, Assistant Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee
& St. Paul Railway

The high cost of cast-iron pipe, together with the cost of laying it,
should make the subject of cleaning water mains unusually attractive at
the present time. Municipalities throughout this country have done con-
siderable water pipe cleaning work; but the railroads, in general, have
not done a large amount of pipe cleaning.

Recently, I had the opportunity of inspecting the cleaning of a cast-
iron pipe line at Belle Plaine, Iowa. The pipe line is 6 inches in diam-
eter by 8000 feet in length and is used for delivering water, obtained
from a river, to a railroad engine terminal. The carrying capacity of
the pipe line had been reduced about 10 per cent., amounting to approxi-
mately 50,000 gallons per day, due to a rough hard scale, i\-inch thick,
that had formed on the exterior of the pipe.

The pumping plant and the lime soda ash treating plant are located
at the river. My investigation brought out the fact that the river at cer-
tain seasons of the year was muddy; that the introduction of chemicals
was not closely supervised ; that the capacity of the treating plant was
insufficient during the maximum consumption, necessitating pumping di-
rect from the river into the pipe line.

The pipe line was cleaned in 1000-foot sections. The method used
for cleaning the pipe line was as follows :

1. The pipe was uncovered at two places, 1000 feet apart.

2. The water was shut of? and a 3-foot section of pipe was removed
at each place.

3. A cable carrier and special riser pipe was inserted at the opening
nearest to the pump. (See Figs. 6 and 7.)

4. A 45-degree elbow and short length of pipe were connected to
the pipe line in the opening farthest from the pump. (See Fig. 5.)

5. The water pressure was then turned on forcing the carrier, to
which was attached a I'g-inch steel cable, through the 1000- foot section
of pipe.

6. A 5^-inch steel cable was then attached to the /s-inch cable by
means of a small winch, operated by hand, was pulled through pipe.

7. The water pressure was closed oflf again and the riser removed.
The scraping or cleaning machine was attached to the j^-inch cable and
inserted into the pipe. (See Fig. 6.)

8. The pipe opening was then closed by means of a short piece of
pipe, and sleeve and joints were caulked.

9. The water pressure was again turned on and the cleaning machine
pulled through the pipe by means of the yg-inch cable and hand winch,
operated by four men.

421

422

W atcr Service.

-Manho/e Tod of 6round^2

A^anho/e

iCf-t- r'

Cab/e

LONSITUDINAL SECTION

■R/pe Cut

Fig. 5.

Aianho/e

/^C/eo/7/r}^ Mach/ne ^^^^^

S/xir/ Sechon /='ijoe

Section- riser removed

Fir,. 6.

,-!> Cob/e

(Cast Iron /-'ipe
I T f'Thi-eaded ^/eeve

Z /Rubber P'ocJrers

/?iser

Pipe Cleaning

5oecio/ Carr/er-

CCost /ron P/pe

j'/^b't

._J

3^^^^^

Z-ffi^bber Packers

Fig. 7.

The equipment was furnished by a contractor.

The principal parts of the equipment used for cleaning liic pipe line

1500 feet of 3/16-inch diameter steel cable;
1500 feet of 3/8-inch diameter steel cable;

1 device, called a "Carrier ;"

1 device, called a "Cleaning ^Machine;"

1 special riser device ;

2 standard diaphragm pumps ;
2 winches.

Water Service. 423

The supervisor was furnished by the contractor and the necessary
force by the railroad company. The force employed consisted of :

1 foreman ;

1 caulker ;

1 carpenter (to sheet and brace pit).

8 laborers (to dig and operate winches).

A rough estimate of the cost of the work, including transportation,
labor, superintendence, equipment, etc., was $200 per day, and the length
of straight pipe cleaned per day was 1000 feet, or an average cost of 20
cents per linear foot. This is exceedingly low when viewed from the
standpoint of the cost of a new 6-inch pipe line.

The cleaning machinery will operate through a 45-degree elbow, and
it is reported that it has gone around a long 90-degree bend. It requires
a pressure of about 30 lb. per square inch to force the special cable car-
rier through the pipe. The cleaning machine was operated at a speed of
5 to 10 feet per minute. The rate at which the pipe cleaning can be done
depends, of course, upon the thickness and hardness of the scale to be
removed, as well as upon local conditions.

424

Water S ervice.

Fig. 8 — Cleaning Machine.

Fig. 9 — Winch for Pulling Cable in Place.

Water Service

425

Fig. 10 — Large Winch for Pulling Cable and Machine (Four Men

TO Operate).

i I... 11— Spfxial Riser DLvict

426

Water Service

Fig. 12 — Winch and Trench Pump in Posrrio.x.

Appendix D

METHODS OF DISPOSING OF WASTE WATER AT WATER
STATIONS AND KEEPING TRACK FREE OF ICE

E. M. Grime, Cluiinnan, Sub-Committee
General

( 1 ) \\ ater is commonly supplied to locomotives at water stations
by means of a spout from the supply tank or by a water column and the
amount of water wasted depends ver^' largely upon the care exercised
by the fireman when taking water. The most common cause of waste is
flooding of the locomotive tender allowing considerable water to be
spilled as soon as the locomotive moves. Spouts which are not adjustable
to high and low tenders and improper spotting of locomotives are other
causes of considerable waste.

Eflfects

(2) The effect of wasting large quantities of water is to soften up
the roadbed in the immediate vicinity and this in the colder climates
causes bad heaving conditions. The accumulation of ice in the winter
season also becomes so serious in many cases that section men must be
delegated to keep it removed at a cost varying anywhere from $10.00 to
$50.00 per month, depending upon the number of locomotives served.

Methods of Prevention

(3) It is impracticable to have a very wide range of movement for
water tank spouts and so it is imperative that locomotives be carefully
spotted at points where water is received direct from a tank spout. Also
on divisions where both high and low locomotive tenders are in use, it is
desirable to have the manholes on the low tenders raised up to the same
height as that of the high tenders.

Water columns are of two general types — those having rigid or nearly
rigid spouts allowing of but limited movement in a vertical direction and
those with spout of the telescopic type, adjustable over a vertical range
of 5 feet or more. W^here the rigid spout is used a sleeve, hanging by
chains from the end of the spout, serves in a measure to make it adjust-
able for high and low tenders, but it does not entirely eliminate waste.
The telescopic type of water column has now been made standard on
some railroads and where it is in use there is very little water waste.

At water tanks there is frequently more or less waste due to firemen
raising the spout before the water has entirely cleared from it or due to
slight leakage from the tank valve. The maintenance of tank valves is a
matter which must receive close attention from the water service depart-
ment, especially in the winter season.

427

428 Water Service.

Typical Plans for Disposal

4. While water waste is almost entirely unnecessary, it unfortu-
nately is a prolific source of trouble especially on railroads located in
the colder sections of this country and various plans for quickly getting
rid of wasted water have been tried with more or less success. One
of the best plans for taking care^of the situation at a water tank is to
ballast the track in the immediate vicinity for a distance of ten feet each
way from the spout with a heavy layer of crushed rock and provide a
catch basin with grating cover directly under the end of the outlet pipe
with an inlet at the level of the subgrade.

For the northern latitudes, such catch basins should have a sewer
connection at least eight feet below the surface so the water will be
rapidly carried off before it has an opportunity to freeze. A catch
basin of this type is giving excellent service in North Dakota.

Where a steam pumping plant is located not too far away from the
tank, a steam pipe connection into the catch basin will be a big help
in keeping the drainage channel clear and the expense will be nominal.
Catch basins may also be used to advantage near water columns. Where
there is no danger from frost, some saving may be made by building
the catch basin as a part of the water column pit. In cold climates the
catch basin drain should not connect direct with the standpipe pit as
cold air entering through the drain is liable to cause freezing at the
standpipe.

Appendix E

EFFECT OF LOCAL DEPOSITS ON POLLUTION OF SUR-
FACE OR SHALLOW WELL WATER SUPPLIES

R. L. Holmes, Chairman, Sub-Committee

General

1. (a) Water obtained from rivers, lakes, wells and other sources
of supply usually contain a considerable quantity of foreign matter in sus-
pension and solution, not only as inert mineral substances, but also in
the form of living organisms and waste products or organic origin.

From an hygienic standpoint, the use in common for sewage dis-
posal and domestic water supply of lakes or rivers upon which are
located a succession of cities and manufacturing plants, is dangerous.

On some rivers, like the Delaware, Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi,
and on some lakes, this succession is particularly impressive, and when
the water has been used in its raw or unpurified state, sickness and
death have resulted and thousands of lives have been lost.

(b) Recent observations and experiments have proven that water
in its raw state from small streams, lakes and reservoirs may be rendered
unfit for locomotives or industrial use by reason of surface pollution, the
effect of sewage, mine, drainage, coal storage, industrial waste and de-
cayed vegetation on locomotive and industrial water supplies is very
detrimental.

Effect upon Surface Supply

2. (a) Coal Mines and Storage. — Cases are known where coal
mine drainage modifies or completely changes the character of streams.
The most objectionable propertj^ of water containing mine drainage is its
corrosiveness. The iron sulphates and acid will actively attack metals.
Ferric sulphate (a common constituent of mine drainage) once admitted
into a boiler will induce serious pitting conditions. The ferric sulphate
will dissolve sufficient iron to reduce itself to the ferrous condition, and
being oxidized bj^ the air admitted with fresh water will again attack the
boiler, and by continuous repetitions of this process will accomplish its
early ruin. Brass piping or acid proof bronze is not immune.

The storing of coal on reservoir sheds should never be permitted.
Reservoir water has been made unusable by this practice.

(b) Cinders. — It is a fact that water station attendants waste their
cinders in places most convenient to them and usually they are deposited
adjacent to the w^ater supply. Cinder deposits should not be permitted
near a surface water supply nor upon the water shed of surface reser-
voirs. Sulphates in large quantities are found in cinder deposits and are
a source of contamination.

429

430 Water Service

(c) Oil Wells. — Waste water from oil wells have been found to be
highly mineralized and has been known to • render surface reservoir
water unfit fur both boiler and domestic uses. This source of pollution
should be guarded against bj' carrying the injurious waters to another
shed or beyond the catchment area of the reservoir.

(d) Sewage and Industrial Waste. — Surface reservoirs should not
be located where they will be subject to the flow, of sewage or industrial
waste, especially those of relatively small capacities. Water in small
reservoirs has been known to have increased three hundred per cent in
total solids, consisting of sulphates, chlorides and organic matter, by
reason of sewage and industrial waste.

(e) Mud and Cultivation. — The Committee thus far is unable to
determine the efifect of mud upon a surface supply, except that it mate-
rially reduces the capacity of the reservoir, primarily caused by per-
mitting cultivation too near the flood line.

Water from an extensively cultivated catchment area is more or less
turbid and for this reason is at times objectionable.

Turbidity and suspended mineral matter may be greatly reduced by
using rapid sand filters, allowing about 3 GPM per square foot filter
area.

Effect on Shallow Wells

3. (a) Storage Coal. — Storing coal near or in a position where the
drainage therefrom will flow near a shallow well supply should not be
permitted. The effect is similar in a greater or less extent to that
mentioned in Article 2, paragraph (a).

(b) Cinder Deposits. — See Article 2, paragraph (b). Cinder de-
posits adjacent to or near a shallow well supply will in time give serious
trouble. The ground under and adjacent to cinder piles will become
saturated with objectionable chemicals, which through seepage will ren-
der the water in its raw state unfit for locomotive or industrial use.

Typical Instances

4. The Committee has secured considerable data of great value,
but is not in position to make their report final and recommends that the
work be continued through the ensuing year.

Appendix F

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SUBSTRUCTURES OF WOOD AND
STEEL FOR WATER TANKS

C. R. Knowles, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

Number of Posts.

There has been but little change in the type of construction of sub-
structure or towers for wooden tanks having a capacity of 50,000 gallons
or more, the common practice on American railroads being a 12-post
structure of 12x12 timbers, braced according to height.

Steel frames for wooden tanks, and in a great many instances for flat-
bottom steel tanks, have also been of the 12-post type. This Association
found in 1910 in answers to inquiry sent out that of the roads reporting,
82 per cent of the 50,000-gallon tanks were supported on 12-post towers,
10 per cent on 16 to 26-post towers and 8 per cent on 4-post towers.
Of the 100,000-gallon tanks 100 per cent had 12-post towers, with one ex-
ception of a 4-post tower. The general practice of constructing 12-post
towers is explained in the fact that it is possible to secure a better dis-
tribution of the load with a 12-post structure and to support every part
of the tank bottom without an elaborate floor system. It also permits
of a good distribution of the foundation load and represents the most
economical type of construction.

Height of Sub-Structure.

The Water Service Committee, in reporting on specifications for wood
and steel water tanks. Volume 11, Part 2, page 1148, have the following
to say in regard to fixing a standard height from base of rail to bottom
of tub:

"The question of height of tank, floor for tanks having substructure,
was considered, and the height of 20 ft. from base of rail to bottom of
tub was used in all cases. This for the following reasons, assuming that
the following conditions would obtain in an ordinary water station :

"Discharge main, 1,000 ft. 14-in. cast iron pipe; 12-in. water column;
discharge required at column, 2,500 gallons per minute.

"Referring to the report of the Committee on friction in pipe lines
and water columns, we find that the head lost would be as follows for the
assumed conditions :

Feet head lost at entrance to 14-in. pipe in tlic tank and velocity of

issuing stream for 2,500 gallons per minute 1.30

Feet head lost in 1,000 ft. 14-in. cast iron pipe at 2,500 gallons per
minute 7.00

Feet head lost in two 14-in. elbows, long radius 30

P>et head lost in 12-in. water column 4.20

Total feet lost 12.80

431

432 Water Service,

"The tub should at all times have at least 4.8 ft. of water in the
same, to allow for emergencies. This head in tub deducted from 24.8 ft.
leaves 20 ft., which the tub should be raised above the top of rail."

This question is more elaborately treated in the report under the head
of "Friction Factors."

Many existing water service installations have in service pipe lines
and water columns smaller than the sizes given above and a standard
height of 20 ft. from base of rail to bottom of tub would not be practical
in all cases and plans are submitted for three different heights of sub-
structure, namely, 16, 20 and 30 feet elevation.

Bracing.

While the general practice followed in construction of posts and floor
system appears to be fairly uniform the practice as to bracing is divided
between plank bracing and strut bracing. The superiority of the strut
type of bracing is recognized, but many roads have adopted the plank
bracing on account of the lower cost. It is apparent to the Committee
that it would be impossible to prepare plans and specifications for a sin-
gle type of bracing that would be acceptable to the Association as a whole.
Therefore, plans are submitted for both the plank and strut types.

Plank bracing represents the earlier type of tank construction and
consists of planks usually 3 in. bj' 10 in. placed diagonally across the posts,
being either nailed or bolted to place and usually consists of double
bracing on posts at right angles to track and single bracing on posts
parallel to track.

The strut type of bracing consists of one or more sets of double
braces (according to height) between all posts and while more expensive
is undoubtedly the most substantial type of bracing that could be used.

The earlier type of construction of steel or iron towers consisted
largely of bolted or riveterd round columns and in some cases box col-
umns. This was followed by the so-called star post or a post built up
from angles. The objection to a post of this type is that it provides
spaces in which moisture may collect and causes deterioration through
corrosion which cannot be prevented. The best and most economical type
of construction appears to be with post constructed of 6 in. by 6 in. by Yi
in. angle for the 50,000-gallon tank and 8 in. by 8 in. by J^ in. angle for
the 100,000 gallon tank. Three in. by 3 in. by ^4 i"- bracing would l)e
sufficient with a post of this kind, but on account of providing for pos-
sible corrosion it is considered advisable to use a 3 in. by 3 in. by Y% in.
angle for bracing. The floor system consists of 10-in. 25-lb. I-beams for
tying in the diflferent bents, joists constructed of 7 in. 15-lb. I-beams and
caps of 12-in. 31H-lb. I-beams.

It is customary to include foundation bolts for steel towers, although
they are seldom used on wooden towers. It would appear that there is
little necessity for use of anchor bolts on tank towers 20 ft. or less in
height. The best example of the stability of unanchored tank towers is
illustrated by the fact tliat three vmanrhored standard 20 ft. bv 30 ft.

Water Service. 433

wooden tanks located on the Louisiana Division of the Ilhnois Central,
one of which was supported by a 20-ft. steel tower, one by a 20-ft. wooden
tower (with strut bracing) and one by a 28-ft. wooden tower (strut brac-
ing), withstood the hurricane of September 29, 1915, with no more damage
than the unroofing of one of the tanks. According to Weather Bureau
reports there was a sustained wind velocity during this hurricane of
over 80 miles per hour and velocities up to 120 and 130 miles per hour
during the hardest gusts. Both 20-ft. towers were directly in the path
of the storm, while the 28-ft. tower, while not in the path of the storm,
was exposed to extremely high winds and was the tank which was un-
roofed.

It is the practice on some railroads to use steel floor joists instead
of timber on wooden substructures, while a number of other roads advo-
cate the use of second-hand steel rails for joists.

The advantage claimed for the steel joists is that they will have a
life equal to that of the tub, while untreated timber joists would have
to be renewed at least once during the life of the tub. While this is
perhaps true the same thing is true of all other parts of an untreated
wooden substructure.

As a general thing it seems that the practice of using steel rails or
I-beams for floor joists prevails only where such material is available at
approximately the same cost as timber joists. If it is desired to use steel
joists they may be readily applied to the substructure submitted in place
of the 4 by 14 floor joists.

SPECIFICATIONS STEEL SUB-STRUCTURES FOR WATER
TANK— 50,000 AND 100,000 GALLONS CAPACITY

General. | :

1. The structure will consist of a twelve (12) post steel tower, com-
plete in all details, as shown on attached plan, for supporting a wooden
water tank of the specified size and capacity at the required elevation.
The intent of the plans and specifications is to include all material required
between the top of foundation and the bottom of tank.

Material. i ',

2. Except as may be herein noted all metal in the structure will be
made in accordance with specifications of the Association as given in
Part Second, "Iron and Steel Structures," Manual of Recommended Prac-
tice (pages 494 to 499, 1915 edition).

Workmanship.

3. Except as may be herein noted workmanship on the structure will
be performed in accordance with the requirements of the Association as
given in Part Second, "Iron and Steel Structures," Manual of Recom-
mended Practice (pages 499 to 503, 1915 edition).

Painting. "^ ' ' | | ',

4. Steel work before leaving the shop shall be thoroughly cleaned
and given one good coat of red lead ground in linseed oil or such paint
as may be specified by the engineer. Except as herein noted, cleaning' and
painting shall be done in accordance with specifications of the Association
as given in Part Second, "Iron and Steel Substructures," Manual of Rec-
ommended Practice (pages 503 and 504, 1915 edition).

434

SPECIFICATIONS TIMBER SUB-STRUCTURES FOR WATER
TANK— 50,000 AND 100,000 GALLONS CAPACITY

General.

1. The structure will consist of a twelve (12) post timber tank tower
complete in all details, as shown on attached plan, for supporting a wooden
water tank of the specified size and capacity at the required elevation.
The intent of the plans and specifications is to include all material re-
quired between the top of foundation and the bottom of tank.

Timber.

2. The timber shall be cypress, pine, fir, redwood, or such other
timber as may be specified by the engineer, S. 4 S. and conforming to the
specifications of this Association for No. 1 railroad bridge timber, as
given in ''Wooden Bridges and Trestles," Manual of Recommended Prac-
tice (pages 231 to 235, 1915 edition).

Workmanship.

3. All workmanship shall be in accordance with "Specifications for
Workmanship for Pile and Frame Trestles to Be Built Under Contract,"
Manual of Recommended Practice (pages 238 to 241, 1915 edition).

Metal Details.

4. All metal details shall conform to the specifications of the Asso-
ciation as given in "Specifications for Metal Details Used in Wooden
Bridges and Trestles," Manual of Recommended Practice (pages 236 to
238, 1915 edition).

Painting.

5. All exposed woodwork shall be painted with one priming and two
finishing coats of such paints and colors as may be specified, by the en-
gineer.

Treating.

6. Where treated timber is used timber shall be treated with creosote
oil in accordance with the requiremeiUs of Committee on Wood Preserva-
tion, Manual of Recommended Practice (pages 539 to 559, 1915 edition).

^3r

436

Water Service

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVII— WOOD
PRESERVATION

C. M. Taylor^ Chairman ;
F. J. Angier,
R. S. Belcher,
E. H. Bowser,
Z. M. Briggs,

W. E. BURKHALTER,
A. S. BUTTERWORTH,

S. D. Cooper,
H. A. Dixox,
C. F. Ford,
W. H. Gardner, Jr.,

C. E. GoSLINE,

Lowrv Smith, V ice-Chairman;

E. B. Hillegass,

A. B. Ilsley,

A. S. Kent,

VV. H. Kirkbride,

J. F. Pinson,

W. D. Simpson,

O. C. Stein MAYER,

Dr. H. von Schrenk,

J. H. Waterman,

Committee.

To the A)iierican Railii.'ay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Wood
Preservation for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in Manual, and
submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on service test records and extend them to include treated
timbers in bridges, docks and wharves. Include also a critical study
of the records of service given by the zinc-chloride treatment.

3. Report on the merits of water gas tar as a preservative, taking-
samples of preservative from timbers which have been in service, in
order to determine its quality.

4. Report on preservative treatment for Douglas Fir.

5. Report on indiCcUors for determining the Burnettiting of ties and
timbers.

6. Report on availability and use of Sodium Fluoride as a pre-
servative for cross-ties.

7. Recommend treatment to be used in the protection of piles and
timbers in water infested by marine borers.

8. Report on comparative value of grades 1, 2 and 3 creosote oil
and creosote coal-tar solution as preservative agencies.

9. Report on practicabilitj- of making accelerated tests to develop
the comparative values of grades 1, 2 and 3 creosote oil and creosote
coal-tar solution as preservative agencies.

10. Recommend preservative treatment to be used on piles and
timbers in land construction.

11. Recommend proper methods for storing lumber and piling for
air-seasoning preliminary to preservative treatment.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, June 17, September
30, and December 16. The names of members in attendance have been
given in the minutes of the meetings which have been printed in the
Bulletin.

443

(A)

444 Wood Preservation.

(1) Revision of Manual
No changes this year.

(2) Service Test Records

In Appendix A the Committee submits service lest records covering
two kinds of work, one on the service of ties in experimental tracks,
which are covered by the reports from ihe Baltimore & Ohio Railroad;
St. Louis-San Francisco Railway; Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville
Railway; Santa Fe System, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
Railway; and the second class is shown in report of the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway, showing the Lotal number ot
ties they have put in track and taken out from the year 1905 until 1919
inclusive. LiAIIlJ

(3) Water Gas Tar as a Preservative'

In Appendix B the Committee reports on the subject of Water Gas
Tar as a Preservative.

(4) Preservative Treatment for Douglas Fir

In conjunction with the United States Forest Service, the American
Wood-Preservers' Association and the West Coast Lumbermen's Associa-
tion a very detailed study is now being conducted in connection with
the question of the proper methods for the preservative treatment of
Douglas Fir, and it is expected that the Committee will be able to have
a report on this matter for publication during the year.

(5) Indicators for Determining the Burnettizing of Ties and

Timbers
No report.

(6) Sodium Fluoride

The use of Sodium Fluoride as a preservative for cross-ties is covered
by the report of Committee as given in Appendix C.

(7) Protection of Piles in Water Infested by Marine Borers

In Appendix D the Committee reports on work on this subject and
as a result of its study comes to certain conclusions and recommends
certain investigations covering alternate types of protection.

(8) Comparative Values of Grades 1, 2 and 3 Creosote Oil and

Creosote Coal-Tar Solution

The Committee feels that the report as given last year covers the
situation as well as it is able to put it in writing.

(9) Accelerated Tests of Grades 1, 2 and 3 Creosote Oil and Creosote

Coal-Tar Solution

The Committee has not been able to develop any reliable methods
for making any such accelerated tests.

Wood Preservation. 445

Progress Report

The Committee reports progress on subject (10) Recommend Pre-
servative Treatment to Use on Piles and Timbers in Land Construction.
and on subject (11) Proper Methods lor Storing Lumber and Piling
for Air-Seasoning Preliminary to Preservative Treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that further reports on Indicators
for Determining Burnettizing of Ties and Timbers be eliminated, as this
matter seems to have been covered fully in previous reports.

2. The Committee recommends that the question of the Comparative
Values of Grades 1, 2 and 3 Creosote Oil and Creosote Coal-Tar Solu-
tion is one that is not definable in any way so that conclusions can be
considered for adoption as recommended practice.

3. The Committee recommends that no further consideration be
given to the proposition of trying to develop comparative values of
Grades 1, 2 and 3 creosote oil and creosote coal-tar solution.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends for future work continuation of sub-
jects (1), (2), (4), (7), (10) and (11).

Respectfully submitted,

The CoJvrMrriEE on Wood Pkeservatiox,
C. M. T.Wi.OR, Chninnan.

Appendix A

(2) SERVICE TEST RECORDS

S. D. Cooper, Chairvian; C. F. Ford, A. S. Kent, O. C. Steinmayer,
F. J. Angier, Sub-Committee.

In handing this report your Committee would call attention to the
reports submitted by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway, St.
Louis-San Francisco Railway, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Santa Fe Sys-
tem, and the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville Railway, which are made
up from Test Sections, and your Committee would recommend that this
manner of making up reports be followed in the future by all railroads
submitting reports.

Your Committee feels that in adopting this method much more re-
liable data is obtained, for the reason that a record of each particular
tie in these sections is kept, and, furthermore, a close supervision is kept
over these sections enabling those responsible of keeping a close super-
vision, both in Tie Renewals and Tie Removals.

Your Committee also feels that it is a distinct advantage to keep
each class of wood used in these sections separately in reporting, as by
so doing, the average life of each kind of wood may be easily determined.

While it is possible that the form used might be improved upon,
your Committee would suggest that next year the Committee appointed
be instructed to follow up this question with the view of having this
form, or one similar, adopted by all roads as standard, which would re-
sult, in the opinion of your Committee, in making the reports of more
value to all concerned.

On account of there having been no material change in the test rec-
ords as published and provided by the Forest Products Laboratory, at
Madison, and on account of the expense of printing same, your Commit-
tee has decided that they will not go to the expense this year, it being
understood that the records will be kept up in good shape, and that if
there are any material changes by next j^ear, they will be published.

446

Wood Preservation

447

CHIC ACQ ■ KQCK ISLAND k PACIFIC RAILTOY
CREQSOTED TIHS ~ LOTRY PROCE.'^S

Location

Kind Year Per Cent Ties Trc^ffic

of Num- In- Removed, all Tons per

Ties ber. sorted causes to 12/ZIA9. Year - #

Tiakilwa. 111. R,0.
Altoons, la.
Princeton, JIo.
Ely. la.
Clarkeville.Ia.
West Bend, la.
Fairbiuy, Nebr.
Goodland, Kans.

TOTAL
Tiekilwa, 111.
Altoona, la.
Princeton, Ma.
Ely, la,
Clarksville.Ia.
Fairbury, Nebr.
Goodland. Kana.
Topeka, Kans.

TOTAL
Tiskilra, la.
Altoona, la.
Princeton, So.
Sly, la.
ClarksTille.Ia.
Fairbury, Nebr,
Eldon, Mo.
Topeka, Kane.

TOTAL'
TiskilTra^ 111.
Altoona, la.
Princeton, Uo.
Ely, la.
West Bend, la.
Fairbury, Nebr.
Goodland. Kans.
Eldon, Mo.

-~ TOTAL
Tiskilwa, 111.
Altoona, la.
Ely, la..;,,
Princeton, I'a,
E.Des Koines, la.
Goodland, Kans.
Eldon, Mo.

TOTAL

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

11.06

6,
18.5

7.2
.54

2.7

2.9

1.9
7.1
47.9
1.25

.26
7.0
8.47
2.8
2.3
3.5
5.9

1.16
2.2
1.11
2.4

i:l

0.0
0.0
0.0
1.32
1.33
0.0
• .8
0.0
17.6
.34
0.0
1.3
1.18

11,000,000
7,200,000

10,500,000
8,000,000
5,400,000
3,800,000
3,000,000
3,100,000

11,000,000
7,200,000

10,500 000
8,000,000
5,400,060
3,000,000
3.100,000
10,300, 000

11,000,000
7,200.000

10,500,000
8,000,000
5,400,000
3,000,000
3,200,000

10,300,000

11.300,000
7,200,000

10,50C,000
6,000,000
3,800,000
3,000,000
3,100,000
3,200,000

11,000,000
7,200,000
8,000,000

10,500,000
4,100.000
3,100,000
3,200,000

4-18

Wood Preservation

nHIOAGO. ROCK T<n.Am^ h PACIFIC RAILWAY

npRnsnTOTi ttbr > Lnvrnv process

Location

Kiwi

TieB

Num-
ber

Tear
In-
serted

Per Cent Ties
Removed, all
cauees to 12/31/19.

Traffic
Tons per
Yoar - #

Pine

TiekilWa, 111. R.O
Alioona, la.
Princeton, Mo.
Ely, la.
Clarksville.Ia.
Eldon, Uo.
Topeka, Kans.

TOTAL
Tiekilwa, 111.
Altoona, la.
Princeton, Mo.
Ely, la.
Eldon, Mo.
Topeka, Kana.

TOTAL
Dal hart, Tex,

TOTAL
Ely, la.

E.Des lioinee.Ia.
Goodland, Kane,

TOTAL
Ely, la.
Fest Bend, la.
E.DsR Moines. la.
Fairbury, Nebr.
Goodland, Kans.
Topeka, Kans.

TOTAL
Tiskilwa, 111.
Clarksville la,
West Bend, la.
E.Des Moines. la.
Fairbury, Necr.
Goodland. Kans.
Topeka, Kans.

TOTAL
Ely, la.
Clarksville.Ia.
West Bend, la.
Fairbury, Nebr.
Goodland, Kans.
Topeka Kans.
Dal hart, Tei.

TOTA.L

2075
632

2036
553

1913

1914

1908

1909

■
«

1919

1911

1912

11.

000, (

200,

500,

000,

400,

200

300,

000,

200,

500,

000,

200,

300,

000,

100,

iOO,

000.

400,

100,

000,

100,

300,

000,

400,

800,

100,

000,

100.

300,

000,

400,

800,

000,

100,

300,

000
000
000

000

000
000

000
000
000

000

000
000
000

000

ooc

000
000

000

000
000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000

ooc

000
000
000
000

Wood Preservation.

449

(THIGAnO. ROCK TST.Atm k PACIFIC RAITmY
CmnSOTRn TIES -• LQTOY PRQCSSS

Location

Kiad Year Per Cent Ties Traffic

of Num« In- Reiooved, all Tons per

Ties ber serted oauBes.io 1^1/19. Tear - #

Ely. la.
Clarkaville.Ia.
Fairburv, Nebr.
Goodlano, Kans,
Topeka, Rajie.
Dalhai-t, Tex.
TOTAL
Clarksvilla.Ia.
Fairbury, Hebi;,
Goodlana. Kans".
Topeka, Kans.

Total

Tiekilwa, 111.
Ely, la.
Clarksville.Ia.
Test Bend, la.
E.Des Woines.Ia.
Fairb'aT/, Nabr.

TOTAL
Tiakilwa, 111.
Altoona. la.
Ely, la.
West Bend, la.
E.Des Moines, la.

TOTAL
Ely, la.
West Bend, la,
E.Des Moines, la.
Dalhart.Tex.

TOTAL
Altoona, la.
Princeton, Mo.
Fairbury, Nebr.

TOTAL
Tiekilwa, 111.
Ely, la.
E.Des Uoines.Ia.

TOTAL
Tiekilwa, 111.
Ely, la.
Topeka Kesm.
Dal hart, Tex.

TOTAL

Pine

Gum

1238

1913

1914

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

0.74

6.6

000,

400

000,

•3

100

300,

400,

000,

100

300,

000,

400,

800,

100,

000.

000,

200,

000,

800,

100.

000,

800,

100,

300,

200,

500,

000,

100,

000,

300,

000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000

ooc

000
000
000

000
000
000
000

450

Wood Preservation

CHICAGO. ROCK ISLMD h PACIFIC RAILWAY
CREQSQTEH TIKH - LQWRy PROCESS

Location

Kiiid

Year

N'JLl-

In-

Ties

ber

serted

Gun;

1415

1914

409

357

429

Per Cent Ties Traffic

Removed, all Tons per

causes, to 12/31/19. Year - #

Tiskilwa. 111. Gun;
Clarksville.Ia.
Goodland, Kaiis.
Eldon, Wo.
Topeka, Kans.

TCTAL
Altoona, la. Elm
Clarteville.Ia. ■
Vast Bend. la. "

TOTAL
Altoona, la, ■

E.De3 Moines, la. "

TOTAL
Altoona. la. *

Ely, la.
B.Des Moines, la. *

TOTAL
Princeton, Uo. "

101

1908

1909

1911
1912

1914

11,000,000
5,400,000
3,100,000
3,200.000

10,300,000

7,200,000
5,400,000
3,900,000

7.200,000
4,100,000

7.200,000
8,000,000
4! 100, 000

10,500.000

# For year 1919

Wood Preservation

451

CHICAGO : ROCK ISLA^TJ k PACIFIC RAILWAY

Location

Kind

Ties

Toar
Hum- In-
ber eerted

Per Cent Ties

Ee*oved, all

causes , to 12/^/1919.

Ti-affic
Gross Tone
psi- Yr.(1919

Ola, Ark.
Yukon, Okla.
HevNvood, Okla.

TOTAL
OlR, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.

TOT.U,
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche. Okla.
Yukon, Okla.
McLean, Tex.

TOTAL
Yukon, Okla.
McLean, Tex.

TOTAI,
Heywood, Okla.
Okaroha. Okla.
Yukon, okla.

TOTAL
Ola, Ark.
leywood, Okla.
ycLean, Tei.
Chico, Tex.

TOTAL
Ola, Ark.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche. Okla.
Yukon, okla.
Chico, Tex.
. TOTAL
Ola, Ark.
Leola, Aik.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche, Okla.
Yukon, Okla.

TOTAL
Ola Ark.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche, Okla.
Yukon, Okla.
Cliicft, Texas

TOTAL

R.O.

Pine

269

3274

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1909

1910

1911

0.0

46,51

600,000
BOO'OOO
500,000

500
000
500
720

500
720

500
000

SCO

600
500
720
140

600
400
500
000
500
140

4§dO0

1.400

600
000
500

600
400
500
000
500
140

000

000
000
000
000

000
000

000
000
ODO

000
000
000

000

000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000

452

Wood Preservation

CHICAGO. ROCK T.UAhm fc PACIFIC KAH/A'AY
CRROSQTSD TIES - REUPim PROCESS

Location

Kind Year Per Cent Ties Traffic
of Nua- In- Removed, all Grose Tons
Tiee ber serted causes, to 12/3/1919. per Yr.(1919).

Dalhart. Tei. Pine
Ola, Ark.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche, Okla.
Yukon, Okla.
Chicao, Tex.

TOTAL
Dalhart, Tex.
Leola, Ark,
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche, Okla.
Yukon, Okla.
Chico, Tex.

TOTAL
Ola Ark.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche. Okla.
Yukon, okla.
McLean, Tex.
Chico, Tex.

TOTAL
?icLean, Tex.
Ola. Ark.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.
Okarche. Okla.
Yukon, Okla.

TOTAL
Leola Ai-k.
Okarche, Okla.

TOTAL
Ola, Ark.
Okarche, Okla.

TOTAL
Okarche, Okla.
Leola, Ark.
Heywood, Okla.

TOTAL

Gum

1912

1913

1914

1909

1910

1911

1912
1914

300
000
400
600

000
500
140

300
400
500
000
500
140

000
400
500
000
500
720
140

720
000
400
500

oco

500

400
000

600
000

000
400
500

000
000
000
000
000
000
000

000

000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000
000
000
000
000

000
000

000
000
000

CHICAGO. ROCK ISLAND L PACIFIC 2.\ILWAY
ZINC TFff.ATED TIF.S

Location

Kind Year Per Cent Ties Traffic

of Num- In- Removed, all Gross Tons
Ties ber eerted Causes, to 12/3/1919. per Yr.(1919).

Ola, Ark.
Yukon. Okla.

TOTAL
Dalhart, Tsx.
Heytood, Okla.
Okarche Okla.
Chico. Tex.

TOTAl.

R.O.

Pine

1914

0.0

4,600,000
5,500,000

4,300,000
5,500,000
5,000,000
2,140,000

Wood Preservation

453

STATDMENT SHOWING STATU2 OF TEST TIES

IN TEST SECTIONS ON ST.L-S. F. BY.

AT CLOSE OF CALENDAR YEAR 1913

Kind

Kind of

Year

Orig.

Percent

Location of

Treat-

No. in

Remov-

Test Track

Wood
-W.O.

ment

Tracx
1914

Track

Tonnage

Sulli^nt Ala.
Menyhis, TeiiTi.
Diggins, Mo.

Unt.

944

77.-^0

3,630,000

■

1914

831

23.27.

3,180,000

■

1914

1342

17.2%

3,940,000

Eureka, Mo.

1914

1081

12.1%

6,920,000

Afton, Okla.

1214

- 252

6.3%

6,490,000

Poteau, Okla.

1914

142

27,0%

1,030,000

Woodville, "

■

1914

655

15.4%

2,270,000

Valley Center, Ks.

•

1914

408

7.7%

420,000

Bonita, Kans.

•

1914

861

13.7%

7,540.000

Solligent. Ala.

■

1915

373

ll-M

3,630,000

llsciphis, Term.

1915

968

3,180,000

Diggir.s, Mo.

1915

473

6.^

3.940.000

Eureka, Mo.

1915

613

16.0%

6,920,000

After., Okla.

1915

193

11.4%

6,390,000

Poteaa, Okla.

1915

250

l.O3O,0C0

Wcodville, "

1915

599

5.5%

1.1%

2,270,000

Valley Cents r.Ke.

1915

346

420.000

Bonita, Kans.

1915

601

8.0%

7,540,000

St.Clair, Mo.

R.O.

R'p'g

1906

752

24.1%

6,920,000

St.Clair, Uo.

Gum

19 06

321

12.5%

6*920,000

Ciggino, Mo.

K.O.

Lowr/

1903

103

5.0%
1.53

3,940,000

Eureka, Mo.

1908

136

6,920,000

Afton, Okla.

1903

293

.3%

6,490,000

Pcteau, Okla.

1908

1,030,000

Valley .Center, Ks,

1908

190

420,000

Bonita, Kzns.

1908

329

44.4$^

7.540,000

Diggins, Mo.

1909

476

6.8%

3,940,000

Eui-eka, Mo.

1909

394

2.0%

6,920,000

Afton, Okla.

1909

1312

1.7%

6.390,000

Woodville, Okla.

•

1909

2,270,000

Vfclley Center, Ks

1909

268

420,000

Bcnita, Kans.

1909

532

18,3%

7,540,000

Diggius, Mo.

1910

219

6.0%

3,940,000

Eureka, Mo.

1910

135

6,920,000

Pcteau^ Okla.

1910

1.3%

1,030.000

454

Wood Preservation.

STATEMENT SHOWING STATUS OF 1EST TIES

IN TEST SECTIONS ON ST.L- S.F.KY.

AT CLOSE OF CALENDAR YEAR 1919

Location of
Teet Track

Kind

Wood

Kind of
Treat-
ment

Year
in

Track

Orig.
No. in
Track

Percent
Remov-
ed

Tonnage

Valley Center, Ks.

R.O.

Lcwry

1910

420,000

Eureka, Uo.
Afton. Okla.
Voodville.Okla.
Valley Centsr.Ks.
Bonita, Kans.

Gum

1908
1908
1908
1908
1908

198
107
56
398
224

8.57o
3.8%
0

6,920,000
6,490,000
2,270,000
420,000
7.540,000

Eureka, Uo.
Afton, Okla.

1909

155
199

6,920,000

6,490,000

Afton, Okie.
Poteau, Okla.
Woodville, Okla.

Pine
«

1908
1908
1908

2S8

11. 1|
19.' 3%

6,490,000
1,030,000
2.270,000

Afton, Okla.
Poteau, Okla.
Toodville,Okla.

»
II

1909
1909
1909

120
154
648

6.1%

6,490,000
1,030.000
2.270.000

Woodville Okla,

.1910

4.3*

2.270,000

Eureka, Uo.

Blm

1909

6,920,000

Wood Preservation

455

r.-tBECORfl 0? TESTS ON 3iV.TIMQRg AMD OHIO RAILHQAD CCVtPA?ri'
" (Correcteu to Ocwber, L'J'^0)

Location

Kind
of

Wood Treatoer.t

N'o.o!"

Ties

Oi-ig.

No.

Orig.

Ties

Left

Trask

fo Tl3S

Remov-
ed All
Caasee
to

Insert. Year Test. Date.

io linage

Traffic

per

Tiiidsor, C.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.

N.Dayton.C.
H.Daytoii.O.
BoydE, Md.
Boyds, M.

Beimssville.yd.
Barnesville.Wd.
K. Dayton, 0.
N. Day ton, 0.
N. Dayton, 0.
N. Dayton, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
N.Dayton, 0.
N. Cay ton, 0.
N.Dayton, C.
N.Dayton, 0.
Ba,mesville,Md.
Barr.esville.Md.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor. 0.
Boyds, IMd.
Boyds, Md.

Windsor, 0.
Barnesville.Md.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Boyds, Md.
Boyds, Md.

3arrie3ville,Md.
Barnesville.Md.
Staten Is. ,M.Y.

Ash

Beech

Beech
Beech
Beech
Beech

Beech

R.Bir.
Cherry
Ciierry
Chest.
Cliest
Elm
Elm

EllE

Tilffl

Elm

D.Fir

Gum

G-mn

Cujo

Gum

Guni

Hky.

Hjtole

H.l^le

H.'Jple

H.Mple,

H.Mpla,

H.liple
S.l^le,
Bl.Oak

ZniiCoal T.Creo.

Coal. Tar Creo.

2n&Coal T.Creo,

Untreated

V,'. Ccs Tar

ZNSiW.C. T.Creo.

ZN8tW.C.T.Creo.&

Coal Tar Creo.

Zr.m.G.liu

ZniW.G.Tar

Untreated

Zn&W.G.Tar

Untreated
.Zn&W.G.Tar

ZrACop.1 T.Creo.

Coal T. Creo.

Tbr. Asphalt

Untreated

ZnStW.G.Tar

Untreated

ZnSiY.G.Tar

Untreated

ZnSiV.G.Tar

Zn8:Coal T. Creo

Coal T. Creo.

Tbr. Asphalt

ZnSiW.G. T.Creo.

ZniW.G. T.Creo. i

Coal Tar Creo so

Zn2tCoal T. Creo

ZniW.G.Tar
.ZniCoEil T. Creo,
,Tbr. Asphalt
,Coal Tar Creo.
.ZnSdP.G.Tar
,Zn&.W.C.T.Creo.&

Coal Tar Creo.
,Zn&W.G.Tar
.ZnOT.G.Tar
Untreated

27
571

50
101

(54

1
4
475
2
67
6
6

49
55
25

1911 3

1911 27
1911 571
1919 50
1919 101
1915 S4
1915 54

29,251

1919

1911

1919

10b

1919

105

15b

1919

155

105

1919

105

1919

105

125

1911

125

118

1911

118

1911

1915

1911 1

1919 4

1911 475

1911 2

1911 67

1915 6

1919 49

1919 55

1915 25

251
251
912
912
738
738

171

371

912
912
912
912
251
251
251
912
912
912
912
371
371
251
251
251
738
736

251
371
251
251
251
738
738

371
371
539,639

I - In 1,000 Tons.

456

Wood Preservation.

Record of Tests on Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company
Corrected to Octo])cr, 1020

location

Kind
of
Wood Treatment

No.

Oiig.

Ties

No. of Left

Ties; in

Orig. Track.

Insert.Yeai- Test.

% Ties
Renov-
ed All
Causec

to
Date.

Tonna^

Traffic

per

Aimiur.

Staten l3.,N.Y.
Staten Is. ,N.Y.
Staten Ib.,M.Y.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Windsor, 0.
Boydr, Md.
Boyds, Md.
Staten Is.,N.Y.
Staten Ie.,N.Y.
riJDayton, 0.
N.Dayton 0.
Hajnden, o.
H.ajT!den 0.
LaPaz Jc t . , Ind.
Green Spring^W.

Green Spring,"
Graen Spring,"
Green Spring,"
Green Spring,"

Bl.Oak Zn&C.T.Creo.
Cat." Untreated
Cst." ZnM.T.Creo.
Rd.Oak Zn?cC.T.Crco.
Rd.Oak Coal Tar Creo.
Rd.Oak Tbr. /lanhalt
Rd.Oak ZiiOT.G.T.Creo.
Rd.Oak Zna7.G.Tar
Bd.Oak Untreated
Rd.Oak Zn&C.T.Creo.
Hd^OaktUntreated
Rd.Oak ZnW/.G.Tar
Rd.Oak Untreated
Rd.Oak Zn&W.G.Tar
Rd.Oak Zn&C.T.Creo.
Rd.Oak Zn&C.T.Ci-eo.

Green
Her's
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g
Her'g

Spring,

Run,Md.
Run,Md.
Run,ia.
Rdn,Md.
Run,Hd.
Run.Md.
Ruj-i,lfd.
Rui-:,'M.
Kun,Md.
Run.Md.
Riui.Md.
Run.Md.

WindBor 0.
Boyds, Md.
Staten Ib..N.Y.

Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak

Rd.Oal:
Bd.OfiJr
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak
Rd.Oak

W. Oak
W. Oak
W. Oak

C.T.Creo.,10#
C.T.Creo.. 6#
ZnW.G.T.Creo.
2n&W.G.T.Creo.&
Coal Tar Creo.
Untreated
C^T.Ct^o., 4#
C.T.Creo.,lC^
Sodium. Fluoride
Untreated
W.G.Tar, 5#
W.C.Tar, 6|
W.G.Tar, 7#
W.G.Tar, ll#
ZlCI, 0.35#
ZnCl, 0.63#
Zinc - Creo.
Zn-T.G.T.

Coal Tar Creo.
Untri'stcd
Untreated
Untreated

105

25
105
1118
872
984
451
133

25
105
^48
IGZ

25
100
9S8

10
10
10

10
300
3C0
300
298
150
150
150
362
300
300
600
300

761

1915 105
1915 25

1915 105

1911 1118

1911 872 ,„

1911 969 43.5

1915 451

1915 133
1915 25

1915 105
1919 48

1919 103

1917
1917

2
0.3

25
100

1917 988
1914 10

1914 10
1914 10

1914 10

1914 10 100

1914 300

1914 300 33

1914 289 65

1914 150

1914 149

1914 359

1914 172 42

1914 213 29

1914 600 1.33

1914 300 .33

1911 761 55

1915 4
1915 25

539,639

29,251,000

11, 738; 000

11.733,000

539,639

539.639

57,912,000

32,176 000

3.189 000

600,000

600,000
600,000
600,000
600,000

600,000
14,517,000
14,517,000
14,517,000
14,517,000
14,517:000
14,517.000
14,517,000
14,517.000
14,51'', 000
14,517,000
14,517,000
14,517,000

29,251,000

11,738,000

339,639

\Vood Preservation.

457

(CorrscUd to totooer, l5C0)

Location

Kind
of

Wood Treatment

Staten l8.,N.Y, W.OaJc ZniC.T.Creo.
Haaden, 0. W.Oak Untreated

Haaden, 0. W.Oal: ZnaP.G.Tar

!!. Dayton, 0. W.Oak Untreated
".Dayton. 0. W.Oak Zn & W.G.Tar
Haaden, o.(Wa^er .Oak Untreated
Haiaden, 0. • Oak Zc & W.G.Tar

K.Dayton, 0.(LL Kt.Pine Untreated
Windsor, 0. Pine Coal Tar Creo.

'J.Dayton, 0. (Sap "
Barceeville.Ma.

(LL Ht."
BameBville,yid.

(Sap "

Barneevillo.Md. Eyc'e Zn Ji W.G.Tor
Windsor, 0, B.Wal.Coal Tar Creo.

Tirdeor, 0. ^.?,'al.Zn k C.T.Creo.

Zn St W.G.Tar
Untreated

Zn k 7.G.

No.

Orig.

Ties

No. of Left
Ties in
Orig. Track.
Insert. Year 'rest.

104
2£
100

25
100

50
1

1915 104
1917 25
1917 IOC
1919 99
1919 96
1917 25
1917 100
1919 50
1911 1
1919 92
1919 50

1919 52

SO 1919 50
1 1911 1
1 1911 1

% Tiee

Ee shov-
ed All
Caimet
to

Date

Torjiage
Traffic

per
Arjiua

539,639
32,176,000
32,176.000
57,912,000
57,912|00C
32,176,000
32,176,000
57,912,000
29,251,000
57.912,000
5,371,000

5,371,000

5,371,000
29,251,000
29,251.000

458

Wood Preservation

DTATEMJMT SHOiYING VARIOUS SPSCIAL TESTS
SANTA rE SYSTEM

Kind

of
Wood

Treat-
ment

Loca

tion

Station or Line

UJ'.

Feet

tSlli'.

2i Feot

I'arceline, Mo.

Kn.Pine

Reaping

348

2506

343

- 2838

Sutton. Kajis.

456

2600

Poaca Citv, Okla.
Plisa, Okla.

235

4754

Sn. "

297

245

Perry, O'dla.

Hn."

323

5274

Perry, Okla.
Game It, Kaiis.

Sn."

■

323

5274

455

Arronia, Kans.
Kutcainson Cutoff

264

1530

Sn. Guia

•

21S

" i^ain^Ln. "

219

1150

Plevrift, tlaiis.

240

3696

Sn.H.O.

•

240

3696

Ottawa Cutoff

Hn.Pine

- 3155

Smithshire, 111.

Sn.Beecli

201

2540

Uar Celine, }io.

349

1320

Toictamseh, Kans.

•

4980

Newton, Kans.

■

181

2640

Hn.Pine

183

2640

■

Sn. "

183

2540

Hn.R.O.

•

183

2640

.Sn. Gum

133

?640

Hutchiiiaon Cutoff

Hn.Pine

247

1603

268

Sn. ••

■

247

1603

Hn. Gum

247

1608

Hn.Ohia

Unt'd

257

253

Sn, "

257

258

Hn.Pine

Reuping
Burnett

290

294

- 1320

Hewton, Kzjna,

Hn.Pine

179

254

184

- 5036

179

264

184

- 3036

•

Sn.Piiis

179

264

184

- 3036

Walton, Kane.

Hn.Pine

Reuping
Burne tt

173

178

- 1320

Newton, Kans.

Sn.Pine

179
173

264

184

" 3036

Walton, Kans.

Sn.Pine

Reuping

178

- 1320

Walton, Kans.

Ha. Oak

•

173

178

- 1320

Tumer-Holliday

Hn.Pine

Bui-nett

Sn.Pine

Hn.Pine

Reuping

■

Sn.Pine

■

Hn. Oaic

•.

Cleaents, Kan£.

•Hn.Pine

800

Wood Preservation

459

STATEMENT SHOWMG VABIOUS SPECIAL TESTS
SANTA FE SYSTEM

NuBiber
Originally
Station or Liiie Inserted

Date
In- . .

sorted

Now

Track lyib m6

Number Bamoved

lyi^ i'j2ii

Uarceline, Uo.
Sutton. Kans.
Ponca City, Okla.
Bliss, Okla.
Perryj Okla.

Gamett, Kane.

Arwnia, Kan&.

Hutchinson Cutoff

" Main Ln,

Plevna, Kans.
«

Ottawa Cutoff
Smitbehire, 111.
Uarceliue, Uo.
Tecumseh. Kana.
Newton, Kans.

Hutch

nson Cutoff

Newton, Kans.

Walton, Kane.
Newton, Kans.
Walton, Kans.
Wal^n, Kane.
Turner-Holliday

Clements, Kans.

304

190

275

366

384

372

390

, 230

262

24238

364

160

151

149

151

150

41021

9436

14497

132

108

13600

6357

9251

2517

10994

1394

4395

4640

686

8794

456

2864

165

1905
1905
1904
1904
1904
1904
1905
1905
1907
1907
1907
1907
1906
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1904
1905
1904
1917
1905
1917
1917
1918
1918
1918
1918
1918
1904

12
4

22
20

134

181

237

359

300

330

375

214

245

23881

379

160

151

149

151

149

150

40823

9206

14495

132 .

106

13592

14 2257 219 540 1904
1780 2246 572 434 140 3092
124 1054 249
10994

1394
4396
4640

686
8712

456
2864

156

86 175 117
13

460

Wood Preservation;

STATEMENT SHOWING ViBIOUS SPECIAL TESTS
SANTA FE SYSTEU

Station or Liae

lyib n;i6

Number Bflmoved

mF!^^ lij^u ife'i^ff^^iifg iy:^o

75axcaliae, Mo*
Sutta, Kans.
Ponca City, Okla.
Blies, Okla*
Perry, Okla.

Garnett, Kane.
Argonia, Kans.
Hutchinson Cutoff

• Uain Ln.

Plevna, Kans

Ottawa Cutoff
Smithahirc, 111.
Ilarceline, lb.
Tecuoseh. Kans.
Newton, Kane.

12 -
4
6
6

15
1

12
98

10
22

2 1

Hutchinaon Cutoff

32
9

Newtgn, .Kans.

Walton, Kans.
Hewton, Kans.
Walton, Kans.
Walton. Kans.
Tumer-Holliday

601

1423
136
612

Clements, Kans.

Wood Preservation

461

STAIEiENT SHOWING YARI0U2 SPECI/d. TESTS
SAHTA FE SYSTEM

Reijoved

Last In-

Kiiid

Cautie

st'ection
:^de

Station or Line

lyib lyiv iyia lyiy

ly^^O Total

Ballast

Marceline, Mo.

170

9-23-20

Gravel

Sutton, Kajis.

9-30-20

Slag
Rock

Ponca City, Okla.
Bliss, Okla.

9-29-20

■

Perry, Okla.

9-30-20

•

9-30-20

Garriett, Kans.

10- 6-20

Are^nia, Kans.
Hutchinson Cutoff

242

10- 1-20

■

9-22-20

Uain Ln.

9-22-20

Cinder

Plevna, Kans.

9-22-20

Rock

9-22-20

■

Ottawa Cutoff

7-8 8

315

357

9-28-20

■

Sioithshire, 111.

9-24-20

Gravel

Mai Celine, Mo.

9-23-2C

Tec'jmseh Kans.
Hew ton, Xajia.

9-22-20

Rock

9-23-20 •

9-28-20

9-22-20

•

Hutchinson Cutoff

75 (X)8 X 72

198

9-23-20

■

221

230

9-23-20

■

9-23-20

9-25-20

■

•

9-27-20

Newton. Kans.

6343

9-2S-20

■

•

7471

9-23-20

■

2393

9-28-20

Walton, Kans,

9-29-20

Nev»ton, Kans.

9-23-20

Scresnii

Walton, Kans.

3-29-20

Walton, Kans,

9-29-20

. "

Turncr-Holliday

10- 4-20

Ciiidar

■

10-4 -20

Rock

■

10- 4-20

■

10- 4-20

■

Glsnients, Kane.

10- 5-20

X
(X)

70 Removed account changing ssritch
8 Bui'ned.

462

Wood Preservation

STATESHT SHOTTING VARIOUS SPECIAL lESTS
SAJTA n SYSTEM

Station or Lina

.Sail.

Slarcsline, Mo.

Sutton. Kans.
Ponca City, Okla,
Bliss, Okla.
Parry, Okla,

Garnatt, Rans.

Armnia, Kans.

Hutchinson Cutoff 90
• Main Ln.85
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
G&
35
85

Plevna. Kans.

Ottawa Cutoff
SmitbBhire.Ill.
Uarceline, Mo.
Tecumseh Kana.
Newton, Kans-

Hutchinaon Cutoff 90

" 90

■ 90

• 90
Newton, KwoB. 85

• 85
85
65
90
90
90
86
85
85

• y 86

66
Clerente, Kans. 90

Walton, Kans.
Newton, Kans.
Walton, Kans.
Walton, Kana.
Tumer-Holl iday

Size Ties .Kind Tons Traff. Sea- Int. Vac.

of Tie per of per son-

Plate Vila Snike A n a u m. imz. InH. Tiag

6x8-7*29
6i8-7ix9
7ix9

6i8-7»x9
7^x9

6x9-7ix9
7Jl9

3200 Cut 10,369

6,499

2,550

2J550

2,550

4^821

5,131

4,904

3,003

4,904

14,327

10 1 172

10,369

5,902,

15,034,

16,034

15|034

15,034

15,034,

Scrflw 4,904

4,904

4.904

4,904

4.904

15,034

Cut tt 15,034

Screw 15,034

Cut

15,034
47,966
47,966
47,966
47,966
47,966
16,034

895
249
296
296
296
296
390

686
161
161
691
186
395
490
755
755
755
755

034,755
"^161
161
161
161
161
161
755
755
755
755
756
7»5
755
366
356
356
356
356
755

24
24
24
24

45"

45"
45'
45*

30*
30*

Wood Preservation

463

STATE:^7:KT SHOWING VARIOUS SPECIAL TESTS
SANTA FE SYSTE}-!

Temp.

Steam
Station or Line Lba.TiiiB

Lbe.TitE

Presaur?.
Lbs.Tuas

Re-
tort

FLi.Vac.
Ins. Time

Lbs.
Creo.

Absp.
Zn CI.

Mar Celine, Ho.

104 1'45"

120°F

4.56

Sutton. KaiiE.
Ponca City, Okla.

104 1»45'

120

4.56

104 1'45'

120

4.56

Bliss, Okla.

104 2 'IS*

104 1'45"

122

Perrv, Okla.

120

4»56

104 2 "15"

122

3.93

GajT.ett, Kan;.

104 2'15"

122

3.93

Arfionia, Kaiis.
Hutckineon Cutoff

104 2'15"

122

3.93

100

200 2'30"

186

23 1'30'

5.00

* Main Ln.

100

200 2'30»

186

23 VZC

5.00

Plevna, Kane.

100

200 2'30'

186

23 1'30"

5.00

•

100

200 2-30"

186

23 1'30"

5.00

Ottawa Cutoff

150 1'45"

T rfo

22 1'15"

5.00

Smithflhire, 111,

175 3 '00'

168

29 1'30'

3.72

JAarcelinc, Mo.

175 ■3' 00"

168

29 I'SO"

3.72

TecLimseh Kans.

175 3'00"

163

29 1'30"

3.72

Ke'vton, Kans.

175 3 '00"

166

29 1'30"

3.72

■

175 1'45"

190

23 1'30"

5.00

■

175 1'45"

190

23 1'30"

5.00

•

200 3*50"

190

23 1'30"

5.00

•

175'2'4c"

195

23 1'30"

5.00

Hutohirieon Cutoff

175 1'45"

194

22 1'30"

5.00

■

175 1'45"

194

22 I'oO"

5.00

•

100

175 3 '00*

194

23 2'00"

5.00

•
■

175 1'43"

194

22 1'30"

5.00

MewtoB, Kane. 20 3

30'

100 2 '00"

200

.56

'¥

miW'

i§g

.58
.52

Walton, Kans. CO 3
ne*-ton, lana.

30"

7°i'^:!^

25 1'30"
25 1'30"

5.00
5.00

.52

Ifalton, Kana.

175 3 '00"

130

25 1'30"

4.07

Turner-nolliday 20 2

30*

175 3 '30"

150

.66

20 2

'30'

175 3'30"

150

.51

)■

175 1'45"

150

25 1'30"

175 1'45"

180

25 1'30"

175 3 '00*

180

25 1'3C'

Clemfr.tE, Kans.

104 1'45"

120

464

Wood Preservation

CHICAGO, INDIAIIAPCLIS k LOUISVILLE FlILROAD
JIONOK ROUTE

Form No. Sea'd Prep't'n

Hewed Di- of or Spacing

IBbere oi aen- Where Date Tat- % Tiea Un- in

Speciea Grown Sa»'ed sione Set Set ^nt Grade Set. sea'd Track

I. Oak

Im.

Hewed

6x0x6

Mile
117.9
to
117.1

June
1914

■

131

Se'd

20'

R. Oak
R. Oak

Saved
Hewed

■

199
198

■

Beech

Moved
Sawed

•

■

196
198

■

Elm

H & S

■

•

200

■

Sc.Pine
Higer "

■

Hewed

■

196

■

Black
Valnut

Hewod

•

■

Cherry

•

Hewed

•

■

•

Saeea-
fras

Hewed

■

•

■

Mul-
berry

■

Hewed

•

■

CHICiVGO, IIIDIAIJ^OLIS k LOUISVILLE RAILROAD
lONON ROUTE

Aver. Aver. Tie Spikes, Traf. %

Pre- Absp, Absp. Plate: Wgt, Cut Tons Re-

serva- Pro- per per Kind, Bal- of or per mov.

tive cese Cu.Ft. Tie. Size, last Rail Screw. le&r ed.

Pree.
Con-
di-
tion

Creo- Low- 5.3 22.2 Econ- Grav- 90 Cut 5697567 0 Good

sote ry

ony
7"

Date
In- '
apect-

Sept. ,
19§0.

7.7 20.6

113 30.1

7. 18.7

8.7 23.3

9.2 24.5

4,6 12.4

7.3 19.4

3.1 9.4

1.3 3.5

Wood Preservation. 465

The Cleveland, Ci-ncinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway Company
commenced using creosoted ties in their tracks during the year 1905
treated Avith an average of 7.78 lb. of oil per cubic foot by the Lowry
Process. The statement shows 8,816,652 creosoted ties had been inserted
in tracks and 308,996, or 3.5 per cent., removed for all causes at the end
of the year 1919. The timber used was principally Ta group n.ixed with a
small percentage of Tc and Td groups. The increase in percentage of
1906, 1907, 1908 and 1909 ties removed may be attributed to the close
method of stacking ties in the storage yard during those years. During
1910 and subsequent jears ties have been stacked one by ten with 3 to
4 ft. alleys between stacks. The total number of ties inserted in tracks
treated and untreated in 1905 was 1,300,661, total number inserted in 1909
was 840,362, a reduction of 460,299 ties, or 35.39 per cent., by using
treated ties. There were 369 ties inserted per mile in 1905 and 201 ties
per mile in 1919, a reduction of 168 ties per mile. Of the ties inserted in
1905, 31.24 per cent, were treated and 68.75 per cent, were untreated. Of
the ties inserted in 1919, 76.96 per cent, were treated and 23.04 per cent.
untreated. During the fifteen years mentioned the treated tie territory
was increased and the untreated tie territory decreased. The mileage in
1919 was 15.57 per cent, more than in 1905.

466

Wood Preservation.

C.C.C> k St.L. HY. CO. (IMC. P. k Z.)

STA7y,fpi;NT OF CRROSOTED ties applied and REUDVED - 1905 TO 1919. IMC.

RS? Ar I TQL AX 10 N

Tr. Put

Ho.Put ^JSMSTSD

ACmUNT ISCAY

Par Cent

in Track

in Track Bain

•giaS ^oSi

Taken Out

1905

406304 16556

3430 19986

4.92

1906

496660 65879

6686 72566

14.61

1907

393988 34906

3414 38320

9,72

1908

463811 20791

3499 24290

6.24

1909

606051 11891

1602 13493

2.66

1910

860379 8106

2309 10416

1.21

1911

658206 4735

608 5243

.93

1912

724399 1320

646 1666

•26

1913

672269 246

86 331

.06

1914

721274 166

108 273

.04

1916

76S785 65

21 74

•01

1916

667826 71

29 100

.02

1917

50780B 4

1918

527038

• *

•

1919

646772

4 4

No Hails

24153

14483 38636

•

TOTIL.

8816662 188876

36724 226600

2.56

Wood Preservation.

467

C. C. C. k ST. L. HY. CO. (INC. P. kl.)

STATEMENT OF CRE050TOD TIES APPLIED AND RSMQYED - 1906 TQ 1919 INC.

RSQAPITULAIIQH

Yr.Put Mo. Put
In Track in Track

Percent

Uain Side Total Taken Out ed

Total Per Cent
Number Taken

Out,

All

Causes.

Tiea
Reniov

1905

406394

5747

1235

6982

1.72

26968

6<64

1906

496660

10044

1202

11246

2.26

83811

16.87

1907

393988

8696

1264

9960

2.53

48280

12.24

1908

463811

8647

1243

9890

2.13

34180

7.37

1909

506051

7962

1881

9843

1.94

23336

4.60

1910

860379

8461

2152

10613

1.23

21028

2.44

1911

558206

5012

1403

6416

1.15

11658

2.08

1912

724399

3155

1668

4821

.66

6687

.92

1913

672269

1182

1361

2543

.37

2874

.42

1914

721274

1629

1117

2746

.36

3019

.42

1915

763783

682

1186

1868

.24

1942

.25

1916

567826

498

529

1027

.18

1127

.SO

1917

607803

159

329

488

.09

492

.09

1918

527038

211

252

.04

252

.04

1919

646772

•

No Nail

.8 «

8301

1569

4670

43306

■

TOTAL 8816652 65023 18373 88396 ^ .94 308996 3.50

Appendix B
(3) MERITS OF WATER-GAS-TAR AS A PRESERVATIVE

F. J. Ancier, Cliairiiiaii ; Z. M. Briggs, C. E. Goslink, Sub-Committee.

Your Committee has endeavored to get some additional information
other than that contained in previous reports on the use of water-gas-tar
as a preservative of cross-ties.

The report of the Committee in 1917 contains an account of the ties
treated by the United Gas Improvement Company of Philadelphia and
placed in the track of the Public Service Company of New Jersey. They
were treated in 1911 with the full-cell treatment of 10 lb. per cubic foot.
The manner in which these ties were treated, together with the analysis
of the oil used and their location, was given in detail in that report. On
December 1, 1919, the ties were again inspected and were apparently in
excellent condition, none having been removed on account of decay.
They are mostly Florida Pine 6x8 in. by 8 ft. and have now given approxi-
mately 9 years' life.

In November, 1914, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad placed 600 Red
Oak ties in a test track at Herring Run, Aid. They were treated by the
United Gas Improvement Company at Philadelphia with water-gas-tar.
The details of the treatment and the analysis of the oil arc as follows:

Rsd Oak Ties Flaoed xr. Track Novemfcer 1914 at Herring Run, Md. ,
Baltimore &. Ohio Railroad, treated with Watar-Gas-Tar.

Tr9atne>it
Preliminary steaming

Max. Preasure
Preliminary Vaeuua

Max. Inchec.
Pressure Poriod
Max. Ten^).
" Preeaure
Final Vacuum

Max, Inches
Nurnbpr of tics in test
Ties Numbered
-Average pounds absorption
por cubic foot

An inspection of these ties was made on September 16, 1920, with
the result that after six years no signs of decay were found, while 63
per cent, of the untreated Red Oak ties placed in the same track have
been removed account of decay. Two of the ties w'ere taken out of this
track for test. Each tie was sawed in two and one-half of each sent to

468

Ii£DJ£

N,,6

N9,66 N5.7 .

2 hrs. 10 min,

Na.77

27^^

2 hrs.So min.

, 3 hrc.40 mm.

4 hrs.

4 hrs. 9 hrs. 15 min.

,16 hrs. 15 rain,

1820

180° 185°

190°

60 lbs.

60 lbs. 70 lbs.

67 lbs.

1 hr.l3 min.

1 hr.l5 luin. 1 hr.20 min.

L hr.

20 13

,. 150

15C ;50

150

1501-1650

1651-1800 1801-1950

1951-2100

.ion

5.16

6.12 7.09

10.90

Wood Preservation. 469

Aiialysis made by Forest Products Laboratory

Specific Gravity 38°/15°
Distilling below 205^0.

Items
5.8 3.9

205° to 2350C. 6.8 8.9

ZSS'' to 2450C, 3.3 4.8

245° to 2750C. 18.4 15.8

275° to 3150C. 16.4 16.8

315° to 330OC. 6.0 6.3

Residue 43.9 42.9

Lose .4 -.1

Color Black Black

Odor Pungent Pungent

Character Liquid Liquid

Remarks No Moisture 5,6% Mo is turn

the Baltimore & Ohio lahoratory at Baltimore; half of one tie to the
laboratory of the Port Reading Creosoting Plant, at Port Reading, N. J.,

and half of one tie to the laboratory of the United Gas Improvement

Company at Philadelphia. The oil was extracted and analyzed with the
foUoW'ing results ;

IteiJis 6-66-7 Item 77

Tic No. 1805 Tic No. I960
B. & 0. Analysis B. & O. Analysis

Specific gravity, 38V15° C - 1.085 1.108

Distilling below 205° C .6 4.2

205° to 235° C 2.6

235° to 245° C , !.■& 3.1

245° to 275° C 7.4 4.1

275° to 315° C 7.4 14.7

315° to 330° C 9.7 10.6

Residue 69.1 63.2

Loss .4 .1

Memorandum of Inspection of Public Service Ties Treated with

Water-Gas-Tar

Date Inspection Made: Friday, November 12, 1920.
Present: Mr. F. J. Angier, of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co.
Mr. H. S. Valentine, of the Eppinger & Russell Co.
Mr. W. H. Fulweiler, of the United Gas Improvement Co.
Object: This is the annual inspection of these ties for report to the

A.R.E.A.
Sections Inspected:
Section No. 7: Pensaukcn Line. 44t]i and Elm Street:- to Pensauken

Junction 1,912 ties.
Section No. 7; Riverton Line. Pensaukcn Tunclion to No. 4 Turnout.

1,912 ties.
Section No. 6: Woodbury Line. Crown Point Road to Soutiicrn Curve.

1,911 ties.
Section No. 3: Mantua Line. Toll Gate to Mantua. 1,911 ties.
Section No. 4: Mantua Line. Toll Gate to Mantua. 1,912 ties.
Section No. 1 : Blackwood Line. Rivers crossing to Woodbury City
Line. 1,911 ties.

470 Wood Preservation.

The ties appeared to be in good condition, although the Committee
noticed that in several sections rails had been respiked and the old spike
holes were not plugged. No treated ties have been removed except
those for the purpose of test.

The instructions to your Committee were to confine this investigation
strictly to cross-ties treated with water-gas-tar, therefore, the treatment
of other material was not considered. In view of the good results so far
obtained in the treatment of cross-ties with water-gas-tar, it is suggested
that other railroads install test tracks, and keep a careful record of the
comparative life of cross-ties treated with water-gas-tar alone, or com-
bined with coal-tar-creosote, zinc chloride, or other preservatives.

Appendix C

(6) AVAILABILITY AND USE OF SODIUM FLUORIDE AS A
PRESERVATIVE FOR CROSS-TIES

O. C. Steixmayer, Chairman; R. S. Belchek, Z. M. Briggs^
Sub-Committee.
Use

Sodium fluoride has been used only in very small amounts for the
preservation of ties, and that only for experimental purposes.

Availability

Comparatively very little sodium fluoride is available for the preser-
vation of ties at this time. Lack of a demand and an immediate shortage
of high-grade fluor spar has deterred manufacturers in increasing their
facilities for its preparation. Its recovery as a by-product from the
manufacture of phosphate fertilizer is not being carried out because of
the high initial outlay in plant construction under present conditions of
labor and material shortages.

Tests on the toxicity of sodium fluoride as made by the Forest Prod-
ucts Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, indicate it to be about double that
of zinc chloride. Service tests on ties treated with this salt have not
been carried on over a period sufficiently long to determine if this same
ratio holds true in practice. Until this information is at hand, it appears
to the Committee that no railroad going into the extensive use of sodium
fluoride for the treatment of ties would be warranted at this time, in
using an amount much less than is customary when treating with zinc
chloride, i. e., ^-Ib. per cubic foot of wood. Under the circumstances,
the comparative prices of zinc chloride and sodium fluoride will determine
whether or not the former will be supplanted by the latter, wholly or in
part.

Recent developments indicate that there is a possibility that sodium
fluoride will be obtainable at a price very nearly that of zinc chloride.
This situation, therefore, causes the Committee to suggest that any rail-
road maintaining experimental tracks should arrange to install a sufficient
number of ties treated w-ith sodium fluoride to obtain test records from
which definite conclusions may be drawn.

471

Appendix D

(7) PROTECTION OF PILES IN WATER INFESTED BY
MARINE BORERS

A. B. Ilsley, Chairman; E. H. Bowskj<, W. H. Kirki{ridi£, J. V. 1'inson,

H. VON SCHRENK, E. B. HlLLEGASS, LoWRY SmITH,

W. D. Simpson, SulvCommittee.

1. It is a matter of general observation that the attacks of marine
borers on exposed piling are of late more extensive and severe than
formerly. This fact, together with the increasing scarcity and cost of
timber and high cost of replacement, has made the matter of protection
against the attacks of marine borers very important.

These pests have always been with us, but as protection against
them is a painstaking and expensive operation it has generally not re-
ceived the attention it deserves.

2. There are many varieties of borers present in the coast waters
bordering the United States, but as far as protecting against them is
concerned there are only two that need be considered, viz., the mollusk, rep-
resented by the various species of Teredo, and the crustacean, represented
by the Limnoria and to some extent the Sphaeroma. Protection that is
effective against these is also effective against any others so far encoun-
tered.

The borers breed faster and their attack is more severe in warm
than in cold water, in clean water than dirty water, and in salty than
brackish water. The action of Limnoria is affected by the velocity of
the current so that each location presents a problem in protection by
itself, and a method that is effective in one location may be ineffective
in another.

The Teredo and Limnoria are active to some extent on the Atlantic
Coast north of Cape Cod. Further south their inactivity increases and in
the Gulf and all along the Pacific Coast their action is very severe.

The activity of these borers is as a rule affected by the same condi-
tions ; however, their simultaneous presence is not always the rule nor is
their activity necessarily the same, although found in the same location ;
as an example, the Teredo is active in Norfolk harbor but J:here are very
few, if any, Limnoria. The range of action of the Teredo is from a point
above low water mark to a depth of 25 to 30 feet, or to mud line. The
attack of the Limnoria is most severe between high and low water but
extends down to about the same depth as that of the Teredo. In Charles-
ton harbor where Limnoria is particularly active, there are crcosoted piles
which arc badly eaten at low water mark, but which have been attacked

172

Wood Preservation. 473

only to a slight extent in patches below low water. Untreated piles in
these waters are quickly attacked by the Limnoria at all depths to the
mud line.

3. Creosoting has been relied upon to a great extent for protection
against the attacks of marine borers and experience has shown that where
properly carried out, from the selection of the timber to the driving in the
structure, creosoting will generally stop the Teredo at points on the At-
lantic Coast north of Florida but that at points on the Gulf and Pacific
Coasts where the Teredo is more active creosote treatment is often in-
adequate.

On the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts the pihng treated for marine use
is usually Pine and on the Pacific Coast Douglas Fir. The piling should
be free from knots or other imperfections that will interfere with the
creosoting. The inner bark should be completely removed and as much
creosote oil should be injected as the wood is capable of taking up. After
treatment the piles should be handled in such a manner as to avoid tearing
the wood or abrazing it in any way that will weaken or break through the
treated area, and they should not be cut or bored below high water mark,
the idea being to present to the Teredo a perfect and impervious armor
of creosoted material without holes or weak spots. When such protection
can be obtained it is probable that it will successfully prevent the
embryonic Teredo from getting a start. However, if there are weak
spots in the armor the borers will find them and when once started they
have sufficient vitality to continue boring on into the creosoted wood no
matter how thorough the treatment.

As it is impossible to secure perfect material, perfect treatment and
perfect handling the creosoting process as ordinarily applied can be con-
sidered as effective only in greatly retarding the action of the Teredo. At
points on the Gulf and Pacific Coasts where it is most active users of
piles have sometimes found it inadequate and have usually applied addi-
tional mechanical protection.

Creosote so far has not been found to stop the attacks of Limnoria.
On the most carefully treated specimens of pile south of Norfolk on the
Atlantic Coast, the Gulf Coast and on the Pacific Coast their action is
noticed after three to six years, probably as soon as the creosote has lost
.some of its to.xic properties through leaching, and when once started their
action progresses rapidly.

In view of this experience, at points on the South Atlantic, Gulf and
Pacific Coasts, where the borers are very active, it is the practice of
many who desire to insure a greater permanence of protection to piles
in important structures to apply mechanical protection to the piles in
addition to creosoting and it is the purpose of this report to describe the
most generally used of these methods.

Piles that receive mechanical protection are creosoted in addition in
order to prevent decay above the water and also retard the attacks o^
borers until repairs can be made in case the mechanical protection be-
comes damaged.

474

Wood Preservation

4. Some of the methods of mechanical protection against Marine
Borers are as follows :

(A) Cast Iron Cases

These cases wliich are shown in Fig. 1 have been used at points on
the Gulf for many years. The cast sections are made in halves so that they
can be placed in position after the piles have been driven and capped.
As the castings are bolted together the casing is lowered to the mud line
and forced down into the mud. The space between the case and pile is
usually filled with sand and capped with cement mortar to prevent the

Fig. 1 — Cast Iron Protection on Louisville & Nashville Railroad.

sand being washed out by the waves. This protection is entirely efficient
as long as the jacket remains intact. Cast iron corrodes very slowly in
sea water and if made thick enough will resist corrosion a great many
years. Some of these cases at points on the Gulf have been in position
about thirty years. Care must be observed that the cases go far enough
into the mud so that the piles will not be uncovered by the washing away
of the mud, or by dredging operation. In this event the sand escapes
and the entire pile is exposed to a current of sea water and then to attack
by the borers.

Wood Preservation.

475

It is stated that the borers will not live behind these cases even though
the sand filling be omitted, but it is assumed that they must be closed at
the bottom tightly enough to rut off the food supply of the borer.

.\t present prices of cast iron tliese cases are almost prohibitive in

cost.

(B) Vitrified Pipe Cases

In locations not exposed to wave action and the pounding ol' drift
vitrified pipe can be substituted for cast iron. It does not corrode, but
is easily broken.

The pipe sections arc preferably in one piece and placed over the pile
before it is capped. The sections are cemented together, lowered to the
bottom and forced into the mud. The space between the case and the
pile is filled with sand and capped with cement mortar. •

This protection has been much used along the Gulf and Pacific Coast,
where full length protection is necessary, and is entirely efficient as long
as it remains intact. Any defects in the case below the water will be
shown by the escaping sand and any broken pipe sections can be easilj'
replaced. It is the custom in maintaining these cases to make inspections
and repairs about once a year. The borers will not have gained suilficient
headway in creosoted timber in that length of time to cause trouble.

Fig. 2 — Vitrifikd Pipe L.vsings.

For protecting piles after they have been capped, or for making
renewals, the pipe sections are made in halves and are joined together
with some form of lock or copper wire, or treated wooden plugs.

Fig. 2 shows piles protected by vitrified pipe cases. These sections
are in halves and are wired together with No. 5 copper wire. The joints
in the case were coated with pitch and the space about the pile filled with
sand and capped with cement.

(A)

476

Wood Preservation.

Cases less fragile than vitrified pipe and less expensive than cast iron
can be made of reinforced concrete. Sec Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 — Concrete Casings.

The sections can be made in one piece for placing before the pile is
capped, or in halves for placing afterward. One of the "designs provides
for a lock by leaving some of the reinforcing wires projecting so that they
can be twisted together and covered with cement mortar after the halves
have been joined. For these cases the concrete casing over the reinforce-
ment is rather thin, and there is some question whether the reinforcement
will corrode and the cases go to pieces under the action of sea water.
Service tests are needed to develop this point.

Methods A, B and C afford full length protection, which can be placed
at any time after the piles have been driven.

(D) Concrete Jackets Cast in Place

Considerable protection work has been done of late in Charleston,
S. C, waters by casting concrete jackets in place about the piles. In
these waters the Teredo is less active than at points on the Gulf, and is
successfully controlled by careful creosoting. The Limnoria is very
active and will finally cut off creosoted piles at about low water mark.
It does not seem to work progressively on treated piles at depth greater
than two feet below low water mark, although piles that have been pulled
show traces of attack in isolated patches all the way to the mud line.

Wood Preservation. 477

Under these conditions, protection for a length of about ten feet, extend-
ing from about three feet below low water to about two feet above high
water, is efficient. Some of these jackets are plain concrete and some
are reinforced.

The reinforced jackets have been applied as follows:

Six-penny nails were driven into the piles in rings, the nails being
about 6 inches apart, and the rings about 18 inches apart. They were left
projecting about 3 inches and extended the length of the jacket. The
reinforcement was No. 10 gage iron wire and was twisted around the
nails. It was placed in two directions, both along and around the pile,
and located about l]^ inches from the pile. The form was of J/g-inch
wood veneering placed around the piles, resting against the heads of the
nails and bound with wire. This veneering came in lengths of about
four feet and when one length was filled with concrete another was
added and the jacket carried to the top. The form stretched sufficiently
to allow the mortar in most cases to cover the heads of the nails. 1-2-4
concrete was used with ^-inch stone. No great difficulty was found in
placing the concrete. Most of the jackets were on piles exposed to the
mud at low water, and the jackets were carried down to and into the mud.
Where the water was deep the forms were carried about 3 feet below
low water and bagging placed about the bottom to keep the mortar from
running out. This feature is very important, for unless the bottom of the
form, is carefully stopped, the mortar will leak out and a failure will
result.

A lot of these jackets were placed in 1915 and have not shown any
sign of failure, except in a few cases the concrete has broken away at
the bottom — due possibly to a leaky stop at the bottom of the form. They
have been carefully watched for signs of corrosion in the reinforcement,
but no corrosion has been evident. The work of protecting piles in deep
water should be performed in warm weather, as it is necessary for the
workman to be working in the water much of the time.

Casting the concrete jacket in place has the advantage of restoring
in a measure the strength of the pile, even though its section may have
been reduced materially.

When it is necessary to work around bracing attached to the piles
the advantage of the use of the veneering for the form is considerable,
as it can be easily cut to fit the obstructions. Where there is much pound-
ing from drift or bending in the piles, or if it is desired to strengthen as
well as to protect them, the jackets should probably be reinforced, but it
is certain that if the reinforcement can be omitted the work can be done
much cheaper and generally better concrete will be obtained.

On a protecting job now going on in Charleston jackets of plain
concrete are being used. These are about 3 inches thick and the concrete
is 1-2-4 mix with fine aggregate. The forms are No. 24 gage galvanized
iron, the sheet being wide enough to form a complete section. The two
edges are nailed to wooden strips about 2^2 inches square, one of which
has a tongue and the other a groove. The sheets are placed around the

478 Wood Preservation. ^

|iile and the wooden strips clamped together. A tight, smooth concrete
form is obtained. These forms are made in different sizes and lengths
to fit the different sized piles and different depths of water. By using
forms made in this way concrete jackets have been carried as much as
12 feet below low water, and it was evident when examined by a diver
that good results had been obtained. The general experience is, however,
that it is not safe to trust to concrete that is deposited in more than
3 or 4 feet of water.

When it is possible to pumi) out the form good concrete can be
placed at greater depths.

(E) Gunite

In 1919, near Seattle, Washington, a large number of piles were
coated with Gunite. Your Committee has this work under observation,
but it is too soon to report on the success of this particular job.

If the Gunite coating proves durable it possesses certain advantages,
as it can be quickly applied and should be comparatively cheap.

(F) Nails

The oldest method of protection of whicli vvc have knowledge is
studding the exposed surface with nail heads. This was practiced by the
Romans to protect against the Teredo and tlic method has been used in
European waters for centuries.

Its virtue docs not seem to lie entirely in covering the exposed surface
with nail heads, but is still effective when not more than one-fourth the
surface is covered Ijy the heads.

Several plain piles studded with nails were driven about 2^2 years
ago in Charleston harbor. The nails have heads about l4 inch in diameter
and are driven Yj inch to ^ inch apart. The piles are entirely free
from attacks by borers, whereas a plain pile without the nails driven at
the same time has been reduced at low water line by the action of the
Limnoria from about 10 inches to about S inches in diameter.

Some tests of these nails have been made by the New York Dock
Department, but it seems that elsewhere this method has not received the
attention and study it deserves, and your Committee suggests that the
Association arrange to have some service tests made. It is anticipated,
however, that the work of applying the protection would be found rather
expensive. '

(G) Sheet Metal

Sheets of copper and xinc have been used with success in many places
for protection against marine borers. This protection is entirely efficient
as long as it remains intact. However, full length protection nnist be
applied before the pile is driven and it is likely to lie broken in handling.
CoDper is not affected by salt water, but zinc soon corrodes. It is stated
that some of the brands of rust-resisting sheet iron will withstand the
action of sea water for several years, and it is possible that that material
could be used to advantage under sojnc conditions rather than copper,
which is too expensive.

Wood P r e s e r \- a t i o n ■ 479

(H) Coatings of Tar, Asphalt, Etc.

Many attempts have been made to provide a durable protection liy
applying coatings of tar or asphalt eitiicr alone or coml)ined with some
fabrics. These coatings are efficient as long as they can be kept intact,
but they are likely to be broken by handling, or by the pounding of drift,
and they have in general proved unreliable.

(I) Bark

Bark left on piles will protect against Marine Borers, therefore,
when plain piles are used in infested waters their life can generally be
strengthened by leaving the bark on.

Fig. 3 shows untreated fender piles that have been destroyed by
borers. At this particular dock piles with bark will resist the Teredo for
about one year, while piles without bark are destroyed within one to three
months.

Conclusions

(a) That when piles are used in important structures, in infested
waters where the best known protection is desired, they should receive
in addition to a thorough treatment with creosote oil some form of
mechanical protection best adapted to the conditions.

(b) That generally at points on the Gulf and Pacific Coasts creosoted
piles should have full length mechanical protection, like A, B or C, to
assure protection against Limnoria as well as Teredo.

(c) That generally at points on the Atlantic Coast creosote treatment
will stop the Teredo, but that mechanical protection like D is necessary to
resist the Limnoria.

Recommendations for Next Year's Work

(a) That Gunite protection be observed further.

(b) Make tests with- Gunite applied to piles Ijcforc dri\ ing.

(d) Make tests with rust-resisting sheet iron.

(e) Develop whether piles that are to have full lengtii mechanical
jirotection ma\' have a lighter treatment of creosote.

(f) Make service tests of reinforced concrete cases.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE VII— ON WOODEN
BRIDGES AND TRESTLES

VV. H. HoYT, Chairman; A. O. Ridgway, Vice-Chairman;

H. AusTiLL, J. B. Maddock,

F. C. Baluss, L. a. Murr,

C. H. Blackman, D. W. Smith,

M. J. CoNNERTox, L, L. Sparrow,

H. J. HaxSEX, G. C. TUTHILL,

H. T. Hazen, a. M. Van Auken,

C. S. Heritage, S. L. Wonson,

E. M. Lewis, Committee.

To the American Raihvay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned for consideration of Com-
mittee VII during the past year:

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Continue study and report on general specifications and classifica-
tion and grading rules for timber and lumber for railroad purposes.

3. Report on specifications for timber to be treated with a preserva-
tive substance, conferring with Committee on Wood Preservation.

4. Make detail study of various types of wooden trestles with a view
to recommending two or three standards adaptable for general railway
use.

Committee \ II has held but one meeting during the past year and
this was called at the Association Rooms in Chicago, Saturday, October
30th, 1920. At this meeting reports of the various sub-committees were
submitted and details of the work considered, plans for Annual Report
made and future work of the Committee given consideration.

Four sub-committees reported to the main Committee as follows :
Sub-Committee No. 1, A. O. Ridgway, Chairman, reported on
"Revision of Manual" as follows :

Revision of Manual

Definitions.

(Present Text)

Shim. — A small piece of wood or metal placed between two members

of a structure to bring them to a desired elevation.
(Revision)
Shim. — A small piece of wood or metal placed between two members

of a structure to bring them to a desired relative elevation.

481

482 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Use of Guard Rails and Guard Timbers for Wooden Bridges and
Trestles.

( Revision)

Eliminate liyi)lun liflw ciii tlie words "guard" and "rail" wherever
used in this section.
(Present Text)

(2) It is recommended that the guard timber and the inner guard-
rail, when used, shall be so spaced in reference to the track rail that
the rear truck will strike the inner guard-rail without striking the guard
timber. The inner guard-rail should not be higher or more than one
inch lower than the running rail.
(Revision)

(2) It is recommended that the guard timl)er and the inner guard
rail, when used, shall be so spaced in reference to the track rail that
the derail truck will strike the inner guard rail without striking the
guard timber. The inner guard rail should not be higher or more than
one inch lower than the running rail.

Use of Lag Screws in Trestle Construction.

(Revision)

Substitute figures for letters in designation of paragraphs throughout
the section.
(Present Text)

(d) Use of lag screws renders unnecessary the dapping of guard
timbers, and therefore decreases cost of trestles without imiiairing
quality.
( Revision)

4. Use of lag screws renders unnecessary the dapping of guard
timbers, and therefore decreases cost of trestles without impairing
quality.
(Present Text)

(f) For proper application of lag screws, holes in guard timbers
should be bored with anger l)its i',; in. less in diameter and holes in
ties J4 i'l- less in diameter than the normal size of lag screws used.
( Revision)

6. For proper application of lag screws, holes in guard timbers
should be bored with ouger bits -ui in. less in diameter and holes in
tics 54 i'l- less in diameter than the nominal size of lag screws used.

Specifications for Workmanship for Pile and Frame Trestles to Be
Built Under Contract.

(Present Text)

2. The work to be done imdcr these specifications covers the driving,

framing and erection of a track wooden trestle about

feet long and an average feet in height.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 483

(Revision)

2. The work to be done nnder these specifications covers the con-
struction of a track wooden trestle about

feet long and an average of feet high.

(Present Text)

20. Sway bracing shall be properly framed and securely fastened
to piles or posts. When necessary, filling pieces shall be used between
the braces and the piles of a bent on account of the variation in size of
piles, and securely fastened and faced to obtain a bearing against all
piles.
(Revision)

20. Sash and sway bracing shall be properly framed and securclv
fastened to piles or posts. When necessary, filling pieces shall be used
between the braces and the piles of a bent on account of the variation in
size of piles, and securely fastened and faced to obtain a bearing against
all piles.
(Present Text)

22. Girts shall be properly framed and securely fastened to caps,
sub-sills, posts or piles, as the plans may require.
(Revision)

22. Girts shall be properly framed and securely fastened to caps,
sub-sills, intermediate sills, posts or piles, as the plans may require.
(Present Text)

23. Stringers shall be sized to a uniform height at suj)ports. The
edges with most sap shall be placed downward.

(Revision)

23. Stringers shall be sized to a uniform depth at supports. The
edges with most sap shall be placed downward.
(Present Text)

26. Timber guard rails shall be framed as called for on the plans,
laid to line and to a uniform top surface. They shall be firmly fastened
to the ties as required.
(Revision)

26. Guard timbers shall be framed as called for on the plans, laid
to line and to a uniform top surface. They shall be firmly fastened to
the ties as required.

Your Committee recommends the adoption of foregoing recom-
mendations in regard to Revision of Manual.

Sub-Committee (2), W. H. Hoyt, Chairman, was allotted the second
subject, covering "Specifications and Classification and Grading Rules
for Timber and Lumber for Railroad Purposes." Report of this su1i-
committee is given in Appendix B.

During the past year Sub-Committee (2) has continued its study of
specifications and classification of timber. Much correspondence has
been carried on with the National Association of Lumber Manufac-
turers; with the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, and various

484 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

other interested parties. A study has been made of the specifications
submitted this year by the American Society for Testing Materials, and
our report embodies the best features of all the information obtainable.
Your Committee recommends the adoption and the publication in the
Manual of its report as submitted in Appendi.x A.

Sub-Committee (3), C. S. Heritage, Chairman, submitted its report
on "Specifications for timber to be treated with a preservative substance"
and the same has been included in the "Specifications and Classification
and Grading Rules" as given in Appendix A. The adoption of Appendix
A will also adopt report of Sub-Committee (3).

Sub-Committee (4), A. M. Van Auken, Chairman, was allotted the
work suggested under item 4, viz., "Make detail study of various types
of wooden trestles with a view to recommending two or three standard
t3-pcs adaptable for general railway use."

This sub-committee commenced work on June 7th and requests were
sent out calling for plans of trestles in use on various roads. Communi-
cations were also sent to many Bridge Engineers seeking their views,
and to various individuals and concerns in a position to give advice
concerning available supplies of suitable timber, in response to which
a large number of blueprints and many helpful letters were received.

Two meetings of this sub-committee were held, the first at Nashville,
Tenn., on July 31st and the second at Chicago, 111., on October 29th,
1920. A detailed report of the work of this sub-committee is submitted
as a progress report in Appendix B.

Recommendations for Next Year's Work

This Committee recommends for next year's work the following
subjects :

1. Revision of Manual.

2. Make detailed study of various types of wooden trestles with a
view to recommending two or three standards adaptable for general
railway use. Include study of multiple story frame trestles and ballast
deck trestles.

3. Make study and report best method of fire-proofing wooden
bridges and trestles.

Respectfully submitted.

The Committee on Wooden Bridges and Trestles,

W. H. HoYT, Chairman.

Appendix A

STUDY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF WOODEN TRESTLES WITH

A VIEW TO RECOMMENDING TWO OR THREE

STANDARDS ADAPTABLE FOR GENERAL

RAILWAY USE

The question was raised early in our work, as to the available
supplies of timber suitable for trestles and we submit information from
the Forestry Bureau and National Lumber Manufacturers Association:

Forestry Bureau places supply of old timber, not once cut over,
as follows:

Southern Yellow Pine 139 Billion ft. B.M.

Douglas Fir 560 Billion ft. B.M.

The National Lumber Manufacturers Association reports as follows:

Douglas Fir 595 Billion ft. B.M.

Southern Yellow Pine 258 Billion ft. B.M.

Oak 157 Billion ft. B.M.

Cypress 23 Billion ft. B.M.

Advices from Southern mills are that there will be no difficulty in
securing sixteen inch timber as long as yellow pine is sawed commer-
cially, and that prices will continue to be fixed by the market price of
commercial lumber into which it can be sawed.

The sub-committee was unable to agree upon loading classification
of trestles and the matter was referred to the main committee which
approved the following:

Light loading Cooper's E-45

Medium loading Cooper's E-55

Heavy loading Cooper's E-65

Another question leading to much discussion was that of allowable
stress. The stresses shown in the table in the Manual were excellent
when adopted, but with the more concise definitions of timber and the
increased knowledge of its strength, it should be possible to improve it.
The table on page 362 of Bulletin No. 225 is a move in this direction.

Two tables accompany this report. The first gives most of the data
concerning the plans submitted to us by the different Railroad Com-
panies. The second, prepared for the Committee by Mr. W. E. Hawley,
Assistant Engineer, Duluth, Missabe & Northern Railway, is an analysis
of these designs. We wish to call attention to these designs, which are
in use and apparently carrying traffic safely, and yet how far they are
from complying with the stresses given in the table on page 362 of
Bulletin 225, especially in regard to horizontal shear.

485

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490 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

The accompanying table of comparisons of stringer designs for
wooden trestles was made from the data furnished by the table compiled
from the answers to the questionnaire sent to the various railroads by
sub-committee No. 4 of Committee on Wooden Bridges and Trestles.
iliese designs display American railway practice c|uite completely. No
(lata was available relative to the maximum engine loading allowed on
these structures by the railroads using them.

Column No. 1 will be useful in reference in discussion of the various
designs as given in the table of comparisons.

Column No. 2 is the length of span.

Column No. 3 gives the cube of the span length.

Column No. 4 is a coefficient which when multiplied by the individual
wheel load will give the maximum moment for the span. Coefficient is
calculated on the assumption that axles are spaced five feet apart and
positions chosen to give the maximum moment. Simple bfeam action
for one span only is considered. Partial continuity due to beams being
two span lengths adds to the factor of safety where this construction
is used.

Column 5 is the similar coefticient for maximum shear.

Column 6 gives the number of lines of timber in one chord, two
chords being required for one track.

Column 7 gives the nominal dimensions of the timber. These are
only used to determine the board feet measure of the chords.

Column 8 gives the board feet measure for one chord per linear foot.
This column also serves to show the relative costs assuming that the
price of timber is the same for all dimensions shown here.

Column 9 gives the minimum actual dimensions of the timber and
is used to calculate the succeeding columns.

Column 10 gives the total width of the timber and for any given cap
dimension will indicate the relative end bearing stresses between the
cap and stringers.

Column 11 gives the total cross-section area, useful in comparing end
shearing stresses under like loading.

Column 12 gives- the section modulus of the chord.

Column 13 gives values of bh' useful in calculating the coefficient
for deflection shown in Column 17.

Column 14 gives ratios of actual bearing width to span length. The
larger values indicate the more favorable stresses between the cap and
the stringers. This ratio is only useful in comparing stresses from
uniform loads. With concentrated loads the end stresses vary with the
position of, the loads.

Column 15 gives ratio of cross-section to the span length. The larger
values indicate the more favorable stresses of shear at end sections.
This ratio serves for comparisons only for uniform loads. With con-
centrated loads the end shear stresses vary with the position of the
loads.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 491

Column 16 gives ratio of section modulus to span length. The
larger values indicate more favorable bending stresses. This ratio is
only accurate for comparison under uniform loading.

Column 17 gives the values of the cube of the span length divided
by the product of the width and cube of the depth of the stringers. All
formula for deflection have this factor in combination with a factor of
distribution of loading, weight of loading and the modulus of elasticity.

Assuming these other factors constant, the factor serves to show the

bh'
relative deflections. The smaller values indicate small deflections and
hence the more rigid chord.

Column 18 gives the ratio of the maximum moment coefficient for
the span length to the section modulus of the chord used. The larger
values indicate greater fiber stresses in bending. While the moment
coefificients were calculated on wheel spacings of five feet, because
modern locomotives rarelj^ have spacings closer than five feet, this
assumption will serve for the comparisons of spans up to include 16
feet.

Column 19 gives the ratio of maximum shear coefficient for the
span length to the cross-section area. The larger values indicate greater
unit stresses in both vertical and horizontal shear.

Columns 18 and 19 are better for comparisons of designs than
columns 16 and 15, because in a wooden trestle live loads arc more
important than uniform dead loads in determining the stresses.

Columns under fiber stresses give values based on 40,000, 50,000
and 60,000 lb. axle loadings on five foot spacings with no impact or dead
load of deck stresses added. As the basic data does not indicate the
limits of loadings put on the various railroad trestles by the railroads
using them, it was thought best to display the effect of all three classes
of loadings on each of the three determining points of design. Doubt-
less many of these structures were never designed to carry E 50 and
E60 loadings and may now be protected by limitation of engines
allowed to pass over them.

The question of proper impact percentage to be added to the live
load for these short spans of timber construction is still believed to be
unsettled. However, any value used will materially increase the unit
stresses above those shown in the tabulation.

Columns 22), 27 and 31 give the equivalent Cooper's rating assuming
the stresses be limited to the amounts given in the table of "Working
Unit Stresses for Structural Timber" in the A.R.E.A. Manual. These
ratings were computed with dead loads of actual decks deducted from
total carrying capacity.

In the recommended standards for loading, your committee finds
that in many cases the maximum on any one span of the trestle will
occur when two scventj^-ton coal cars, fully loaded, and coupled, pass
over the structure. Theoretically, this approximates Coopers E50 load-

492 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

ing, but is thought to be no more severe on the structure than an engine
of E45 class. It is believed E55 will be sufticient for the present needs
of nearly all the roads, as that load is exceeded as to its effect on
trestles, by comparatively few engines now in service. In E65, your
committee feels, is found the maximum load for which a practicable
wooden trestle can be designed with the woods generally available for
trestle construction.

As to the advisable length of panel, your committee agreed upon
twelve feet. Yellow Pine Manufacturers assure us that sixteen inch
stringers will be available without undue cost, as long as yellow pine
lasts, but evade promising an eighteen inch stringer. Also, the sixteen
inch stringer is in general use at this time. With a sixteen inch stringer
agreed upon, the twelve foot panel is very nearly a corollary.

Having fixed upon the panel length and loading, we proceed to the
remaining features. First comes the pile. We will not discuss varieties
of timber, believing the Engineer will use the best available, and make
up for any lack of structural strength by increasing the size. It is also
thought a fourteen-inch butt will be the minimum size used. It was
assumed that piles should, if possible, be so driven as to be safe for
a load of fifteen tons plus impact.

Load No. Load Load Per Sq. In.

Class Rating on Bent of Piles on Pile Area Cap on Pile

Light E45 56 tons 4 14 tons 210 lbs.

Medium ESS 68 tons S 13.6 tons 177 lbs.

Heavy E65 80 tons 6 13.3 tons 173 lbs.

In the event it becomes necessary to strengthen E45 to carry ESS
load, or ESS to carrj'- E-6S load, the weight would be 17 tons and 16 tons
respectively on the piles, which would be permissible.

So many varieties of woods are used for caps that only a general
rule applying to Pine, Cypress and Fir can be used. We recommend

Light Cap 12 in. x 14 in. x 14 ft.

Medium Cap 14 in. x 14 in. x 14 ft.

Heavy Cap 14 in. x 14 in. x 14 ft.

While more than thirteen feet in length may be unnecessary, since
we must pay for even feet there is no cogent reason against using such
length. Caps should be surfaced on one or two sides and not dapped
over the pile. Dapping is expensive and weakens the cap.

Sway bracing should ordinarily be used on all bents over ten feet
from surface of ground to base of rail. When this distance exceeds
18 feet there should be two or more sash braces and corresponding
sway braces. Bracing should be on both sides of the pile. The aim
should be to so attach the braces as to enable them to give the bent
the maximum strength.

The bank bent should be the same as the intermediate bent, save
that no bracing is required and that in the E65 design only five piles
are recommended for the bank bent.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 493

For frame bents our recommendations are

Cap Posts Sill

Light 12x12x14 4—12x12 12x12

Medium 14x14x14 5—12x12 12x12

Heavy 14x14x14 6—12x12 12x12

Your committee asks further time for consideration of design of
multiple story bents and their bracing. The batter to be used for piles
and posts in trestle construction has been given consideration, but no
recommendations are made at this time. No conclusion has been reached
relative to details of fastenings to be used in securing the posts to sills
or caps to posts.

Sway bracing in single story bents should be the same size as in pile
bents and similarly attached.

In considering stringers, it Avas recognized that the two lighter types
should be readily strengthened for the next higher loading and in our
plans this can be accomplished by inserting an additional stringer under
each rail. We recommend

Com-
Sice Fiber Stress, Long Shear, pression on Cap,

Class of Stringers Lb. Per Sq. In. Lb. Per Sq. In. Lb. Per Sq. In.

Light 6-7x16 1422 lbs. 188 lbs. 221 lbs.

Medium 6—8x16 1346 lbs. 180 lbs. 200 lbs.

Heavy 8—8x16 1257 lbs. 178 lbs. 178 lbs.

It will be noted that in longitudinal shear the stresses much exceed
those given in either of the tables before referred to. The Committee
invites discussion of this feature.

Ties should be 8"x8"xl0' surfaced on one side, not dapped, 12"
centers and attached to stringers in accordance with recommended prac-
tice of the A.R.E.A.

Guard timbers should be 4"x8" attached to the ties according to
recommended practice of the A.R.E.A.

Appendix B

SPECIFICATIONS AND CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING

RULES FOR LUMBER AND TIMBER TO BE USED IN

THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF

WAY DEPARTMENTS OF RAILROADS.

Structural Timber

Definitions

Axis. — The line connecting the centers of snccessive cross-sections of a

stick.
Corner. — The line of intersection of the planes of two adjacent longi-
tudinal surfaces.
Ckoss-Section. — A section of a stick at right Angles to the axis.
Edge. — Either of the two narrower longitudinal surfaces of a stick.
Face. — The surface of a stick which is exposed to view in the finished

structure.
Full Length. — Long enough to "square" up to the length specified in the

order.
Girth. — The perimeter of a cross-section.
Heartwood." — The older and central part of a log, usually darker in color

than sapwood. It appears in strong contrast to the sapwood in some

species, while in others it is but slightly different in color.
Out of Wind.— Having the longitudinal surfaces plane.
Side. — Either of the two wider longitudinal surfaces of a stick.
Solid. — Without cavities; free from loose heart, wind shakes, bad checks,

splits or breaks, loose slivers and worm or insect holes.
Sound. — Free from decay.
Springwood. — The inner part of the annual ring formed in the earlier

part of the season, not necessarily in the spring, and often containing

vessels or pores.
Square-Cornered.^ — ^Free from wane.
Straight.— Having a straight line of an axis.
Summerwood. — The outer part of the annual ring formed later in the

season, not necessarily in the summer, being usually dense in structure

and without conspicuous pores.
True. — Of uniform cross-section. Defects are caused by wavy or jagged

sawing or consist of trapezoidal instead of rectangular cross-sections.

Names for Varieties of Structural Timber
Cedar covers White Cedars: Thuya occidentalis, Maine to Miiuiesota and
northward; Chamoecyparis thyoidcs, Atlantic Coast from Maine to
Mississippi; Chamoecyparis lavvsoniana, along the coast line of Ore-'
gon ; Libocedrus decurrens, Cascades and Sierra Nevada of Oregon
and California. Red Cedars : Thuya gigantea, Washington to North-
ern California and eastward to Montana; Juniperus virginiana,
throughout United States. Western Red Cedar: Thuja Plicata.

494

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 495

Cypress (Taxodium distichum) covers bald cypress, black, white and red
cypress, from swamp and overflow land along the coast and rivers
of the Southern States.

Douglas Fir. — The term "Douglas Fir" covers the timber known as yellow
fir, red fir, Western fir, Washington fir, Oregon or Puget Sound fit
or pine. Northwest and West Coast fir.

-Hkmlock covers Southern or Eastern hemlock; that is, hemlock from all
states east of and including Minnesota.

InAHO White Pine covers the variety of white pine from Western Mon-
tana, Northern Idaho and Eastern Washington.

NoKWAY Pine covers what is known also as 'T<ed Pine" and Banksian

(Pinus Banksiana).
OAK.^Under this heading three classes of timber are used: (a). White

Oak, to include White Oak, Burr Oak and Post Oak; (b) Red Oak,

to include Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, Black Oak and all bastard oaks;

Redwood includes the California wood usually known by that name.

Southern Yellow Pine. — This term includes the species of yellow pine
growing in the Southern States from Virginia to Texas, that is, the
pines hitherto known as longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf
pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), Cuban pine
(Pinus heterophj'lla) and pond pine (Pinus serotina).

Spruce covers Eastern spruce; that is, the spruce timber coming from
points east of and including Minnesota.

Tamarack covers the timber known as "Tamarack," or "Eastern Tama-
rack," from states east of and including Minnesota.

Western Hemlock covers hemlock from the Pacific Coast.

Western Larch covers the species of Larch or Tamarack from the Rocky
Mountains and Pacific Coast regions.

Western Pine covers the timber sold as white pine coming from Arizona,
California, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon and Washington. This
is the timber sometimes known as "Western Yellow Pine," or "Pon-
derosa Pine," or "California White Pine," or "Western White Pine."

Western or Sitka Spruce covers spruce timber from the Pacific Coast.
White Pine covers the timber which has hitherto been known as white
pine, from Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.

Classification Terms

LuMP.ER is the product of the saw and planing mill not further ad-
vanced in manufacture than by sawing, rcsawing and passing lengthwise
through a standard planing machine, crosscutting to length, and end
matching.

Lumber is classified as yard lumber, shop or factory luml)cr and
structural timber. Different grading rules apply to each class of lumber.

496 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Yard Lumbkr is lumber that is less than six inches in thickness and
is intended for general building and construction purposes. The grading
of yard lumber is based upon the use of the entire piece, except when a
stated amount of waste to remove defects is provided in the classification
of the material under consideration.

Shop or Factory lumber is intended to be cut up for use in further
manufacture and is graded on the basis of the percentage of the area
which will produce a limited number of cuttings of a given minimum
tize and qualit}'.

Structural Timber is lumber that is six inches or over in thickness
and width. The grading of structural timber is based upon the strength
of the piece and the use of the entire piece.

Yard lumber is classified roughly as finishing and construction lum-
ber. There is no sharp line between finishing and construction lumber.
The medium grades may be used for cither purpose.

Finishing is yard lumber of the higher grades in which appearance,
perfection of the surface and finishing qualities are primarily the basis
on which the grade is determined. The higher finishing grades are more
suitable for "natural" or transparent finishes while the lower finishing
grades are smooth and free from serious defects and are particularly
adapted to the use of paint.

Construction Lumber is yard lumber which is graded primarily
upon the basis of its strength as affected by defects, and its fitness for
general construction purposes.

Strips are yard lumber less than two inches thick and under eight
inches wide. Strips are usually manufactured into matched and patterned
lumber.

Boards are yard lumber less than two inches thick and eight inches
or over wide.

Planks are yard lumber two inches and under four inches thick
and eight inches and over in width.

Scantlings are jard lumber two inches and under six inches thick
and under eight inches wide.

Heavy Joists are yard lumber that is four inches and under six
inches thick and eight inches and over wide.

Dimension includes all yard lumber except boards and stripes ; that
is, yard lumber two inches and under six inches thick and of any width.

Manufactured lumber is classified as rough, surfaced and worked.

Rough lumber is undressed lumber left as it comes from the saw.

Surfaced lumber is lumber that is dressed by running through a
planer. It may be surfaced on one side (SIS), two sides (S2S), one
edge (SIE), two edges (S2E), or a combination of sides and edges (as
SISIE, S2S1E, or S1S2E).

Worked lumber is lumber which has been run through a matching
machine, sticker or moulder. Worked lumber may be matched, shiplapped
or patterned. Patterned lumber is usually matched or shiplapped.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 497

Matched lumber is lumber that is edge dressed and shaped to make
a close tongue and groove joint at the edges or ends when laid edge to
edge or end to end.

Shiplapped lumber is lumber that is edge dressed to make a close
rabbeted or lap joint when laid edge to edge.

Patterned lumber is worked lumber that is shaped to a patterned
or moulded form.

Definitions of Defects and Blemishes.

The terms "Defect" and '"Blemish" as applied to wood usually imply
the idea of imperfections. These, are not always detrimental.
Defect. — Any irregularity or want occurring in or on wood that may

lower some of its strength value.
Blemish. — Any mark or formation of wood structure marring the appear-
ance.

The presence of a defect or blemish may or may not be detrimental
to the value of the material, depending upon the character of the defect
or blemish and the use of the material.

Knots

Knot. — The hard mass of wood formed in a trunk of a tree at a branch
with the grain distinct and separate from the grain of the trunk.

Knots shall be classified according to size, form and quality.

The average of the maximum and minimum diameters shall be used

in measuring the size of knots unless otherwise stated.

In all grades of material all knots should be sound and tight unless

otherwise specified.

Pin Knot. — One not over 5^ of an inch in diameter.

Small Knot.— One between 5^ and ^ of an inch in diameter.

Standard Knot. — One between ^ and 1>4 inches in diameter.

Large Knot. — One not over IJ/2 inches in diameter.

Round Knot. — One whose maximum diameter is not over one and one-
half times as great as its minimum diameter.

Oval Knot. — One having its maximum diameter one and one-half to three
times as great as its minimum diameter.

Spike Knot. — One sawed in a lengthwise direction whose maximum diam-
eter is over three times as great as its minimum diameter.

Sound Knot. — One which is solid across its face, and is as hard as the
wood surrounding it and shows tio indications of decay.

Unsound or Rotten Knot. — One not as hard as the wood surrounding it
or one in which decay has started.

Tight Knot. — One so fixed by growth or position that it will firmly
retain its place in the piece.

Loose Knot. — One not held firmly in place by growth or position.

Live Knot. — One whose growth rings are completely intergrown with
those of the surrounding wood.

498 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Encased Knot. — One whose growth rings are not intergrown and homo-
geneous with the growth rings of the surrounding wood. The en-
casement may be partial or complete.

Watertight Knot. — One whose growth rings are complete^' intergrown
with those of the surrounding wood on one face of the piece, and
which is sound on that face.

Pith Knot. — Sound knot except that it has a pith hole in the central
growth ring. The hole rarely exceeds ^ of an inch in diameter.

Holes

Holes in wood may extend partially or entirely through the piece. They
are enumerated as knot, dog, picaroon, bird, insect (including pin,
shot, spot, grub worms, etc.) metal and wooden rafting pin holes,
through pitch pockets and the like.
When holes are permitted, the average of the maximum and minimum

diameters at right angles to the direction of the hole shall be used in

measuring the size, unless otherwise stated.

Wooden Rafting Pinholes sometimes appear on river timber which has
been rafted when holes have been bored in the solid wood for secur-
ing the timber, and a solid plug or pin driven in the hole, completely
filling it. These defects must be treated and considered the same as
Knot Defects. Ordinary Metal Rafting Pin, Cant Hook or Chain
Dog-hole is not considered a defect.

Grub Worm Holes are usually from about J/^-inch to t\-inch in width,
and vary in length from about 1 inch to IJ/2 inches and are caused by
grubs working in the wood.

Pin Worm Holes are very small holes caused by minute insects or worms.
These holes are usually not over -^-inch in diameter, the wood sur-
rounding them is sound and does not show any evidence of the worm
hole having any eflfect on the wood other than the opening.

S?OT Worm Defects (also known as Flagworm Defects) are caused, like
Pinworm holes, by minute insects or worms working on the timber
during the growth. The size of the hole is about the same as Pin-
worm holes, but the surrounding wood shows a colored spot as evi-
dence of the blemish. This spot is usually sound and does not affect
the strength of the piece.

Checks
Check is a separation of the wood cells along a radial plane of the tree

due to unequal shrinkage during seasoning.
Surface Check is a shallow check occurring on the surface of a piece.
End Check is one occurring on an end of a piece.
Through Check is one extending from one surface through the piece to

the opposite face or to an adjoining face.
Heart Check is one starting at the pith and extending towards but not to

the surface of a log and is not necessarily due to seasoning.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 499

Star Check is the combination of several heart checks occurring together.

Honeycombing is checking occurring in the interior of a piece; often the
checks are not visible on the surface. On a cross-<5ection they usually
appear as slits, or as open pockets whosr width may appear very large
in proportion to the radial length.

Okwnary season checks such as occur in lumber properly covered in yard,
or season checks of equal size in kiln-dried lumber shall not be con-
sidered defects.

Shakes and Splits

Shake is a cylindrical separation of the wood following in general the
annual layers (rings) of growth. Thus any shake is a ring shake.

Round Shake is one completely encircling the pith.

Cup Shake is one that does not completely encircle the pith.

Through Shake is one extending from one surface through the piece to
the opposite face or to an adjoining face.

Pitch Shake. — A clearly defined seam or opening between the grain of
the wood and may be either filled or not with granulated pitch.

Split is a lengthwise separation of the wood due to tearing apart of the
wood cells in rough handling, felling the tree or similar causes. It
may run in any direction across the end of a piece. y

Pith is the small soft core occurring in the center growth ring of a log.
In some woods it is large enough to mar the surface of the piece on
which it appears. The wood immediately surrounding the pith often
contains small checks, shakes or numerous pin knots and is often dis-
colored ; any such combination of defects and blemishes is known as
Heart Center.

Pockets

Pitch Pocket. — A well defined opening between the annual layers of
growth usually containing more or less pitch, either solid or liquid.
Bark may also be present in the pocket. On an edge-grain surface
they appear as narrow open seams, and on flat grain surface they vary
in appearance from narrow open seams to oval cavities sometimes
called "Scab Pitch Pockets." On either surface they are known as
very small, small, medium or large, depending upon their size.

\'eky Small Pitch Pocket. — One not over y^ of an inch in width and not
over 2 inches in length.

Small Pitch Pocket. — One whose maximum width may vary from % of
an inch to % of an inch provided a maximum limit of length of four
inches decreases to two inches proportionately as the width increases.

Medium Pitch Pocket. — One whose maximum width may vary from %
of an inch to ^ of an inch provided a maximum limi^ of length of
nine inches decreases to three inches proportionately as the width in-
creases.

Large Pitch Pocket. — One whose width or length exceeds the sizes stated
as permissible for a medium pitch pocket.

500 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Bark Pocket is a patch of bark partially or wholly enclosed in the wood.
It may result from wood and bark forming over a place where the
tree has been injured. As a defect it is measured in the same manner
as a Pitch Pocket.

Streaks and Discolorations
Pitch Streak. — A well defined and conspicuous accumulation of pitch in

the wood cells. It is usually not considered an important blemish

unless both springwood and summerwood appear saturated. They are

known as small, medium or large, depending upon their size with

respect to the piece they are in.
Small Pitch Streak. — One whose area does not exceed the product of

one-twelfth the width by one-sixth the length of the face on which

it occurs.
Medium Pitch Streak. — One whose area does not exceed the product of

one-sixth the width by one-third the length of the face on which it

occurs.

Large Pitch Streak. — One whose area exceeds the product of one-sixth
the width by one-third the length of the face on which it occurs.

Pith Fleck is a narrow streak, usually brownish, up to several inches in
length on the face of a piece resulting from the larvae of an insect
having burrowed in the growing tissue or cells of the tree.

Bird Peck is a small hole or patch of distorted grain resulting from birds
pecking through the growing cells in the tree. It usually resembles a
carpet tack in shape with the point towards the bark and it is usually
accompanied by a discoloration extending along the grain and usually
to a smaller extent around the layers of growth. A section through
the discoloration produced by the bird peck produces what is com-
monly known as "Mineral Streak."

Gum Spot or Streak is an accumulation of gum-like substance occurring
as a small patch or streak in the piece. It may occur in conjunction
with a bird peck or other injuries to the growing Avood.

Discolorations on or in lumber are enumerated as weather, sticker, water
or fungus (such as blue stain, etc.) stain, brown stain, kiln burn and
similar color changes due to a combination of temperature, moisture,
chemicals, etc. Discoloration may follow insect attack, bird peck, etc.
Well defined discolorations are known as light, medium and heavy.

Light Discoloration is paler than the medium discoloration and occurs in
approximately one-fourth of the stained stock.

Medium Discoloration is a shade most commonly found and which occurs
in approximately one-half of the stained stock.

Heavy Discoloration is darker than the medium discoloration and occurs
in approximately one-fourth of the stained stock.

Decay is disintegration of the wood substance due to the action of certain
kinds of fungi. A few of the rot-producing fungi which start in the
standing tree do not seem to seriously develop after the tree is cut
into lumber.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 501

Red Heart of the pines, spruces, Douglas fir and some other conifers, and
peck of cypress and incense cedar are produced by fungi of this type.
Decay may be classified as incipient and advanced decay.

Incipient Decay is the early stages of decaj', usually detected by a dis-
coloration of the wood which seems to be firm and solid.

Advanced Decay or rot is noticeable as a decided softening or breaking
down of the wood.

Water Stain, or what are sometimes called scalded or burnt spots,
usually caused by timber lying in the water under certain conditions
before it is sawed, and burnt spots where timber is improperly piled
while green, are not considered defects, as they do not affect the
strength of the piece.

"Sap" — Sapwood is the alburnum of the tree — the exterior part of the
wood next to the bark. Sapwood is not considered a defect except as
provided herein.

Sound Heart. — The term "Sound Heart" is used whenever that part of
the piece which was originally the central part or core of the tree is
sound and solid, not decayed.

Grain

Cross Grained Wood is that in which the wood cells or fibers do not run
parallel with the axis or sides of a piece. It may be classified as
spiral, diagonal, wavy, dip, curly and interlocked grain. The slope
of the grain can be determined by observing the direction of surface
checks, resin ducts, pores of the wood, annual layers of growth, etc.
A drop of stained liquid such as ink tends to elongate in the direction
of the grain when placed on a smooth surface of the piece.

Spiral Grained Wood is that in which the fibers take a more or less
winding or spiral course, such as occurs in a twisted tree. It may be
detected on the flat grain (plain sawed or tangential) surface.

Diagonal Grained Wood is that in which the fibers extend at an angle
(i. e., diagonally)" across a piece as a result of sawing at an angle
across the annual layers of growth. It may appear on either the radial
or tangential surface.

Wavy Grained Wood is that in which the fibers take the form of waves
or undulations as indicated by the wavy surface of the split piece. It
maj' appear on either the radial or tangential surface.

Dip Grained Wood is that which has one wave or undulation of the fibers
such as occurs around knots, pitch pockets, etc.

Curly Grained Wood is that in which the fibers are distorted so that they
take a curled direction as in "Birdseye Wood." These patches may
vary up to several inches in diameter.

Interlocked Grain is wood that shows spiral grain in one direction for a
number of years and then the slope of the grain in the succeeding
annual layers of growth turns in a reverse direction around the tree,
then later reverses back, etc.

502 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Distortions and Crooks

Cross Briiak is a separation of the wood cells across the grain. It may
be due to tension resulting from unequal longitudinal shrinkage or
mechanical stresses.

Compression Failure is a wrinkling or buckling of the wood cells extend-
ing in a more or less irregular plane across the grain. It is due to
longitudinal crushing or compression.

Collapse is a caving in of the surface of a piece. It sometimes occurs in
streaks giving the surface a corrugated appearance, and is often due
to the flattening of the cells when drying wet wood at high tempera-
tures.

Warping is any variation from a true or plane surface. It includes
crook, bow, twist or any combination of these.

Crook is a deviation edgewise from a straight line drawn from end to
end of a piece and is measured at the point of greatest departure
from a straight line. It is known as slight, small, medium and large.
Unless otherwise specified, the different degrees of crook based on a

piece four (4) inches wide and 16 feet long shall be as follows :

Slight Crook^ a departure of one (1) inch.

Small Crook, a departure of 1^2 inches.

Medium Crook, a departure of 2 inches.

Large Crook, a departure of over 2 inches.

For wider pieces it shall be J/^-inch less for each additional 2 inches

of width.

Shorter or longer pieces shall have the same limits for curvature.

Bow is a deviation flatwise from a straight line drawn from end to end
of a piece measured at the point of greatest distance from a straight
line.

Cupping is the curvature of a piece across the grain or width of a piece.

Twisting is the turning or winding of the edges of a piece so that four
corners of any face are no longer in the same plane (i. e., it is the
twisting of an edge around the axis of the piece).

Wane is bark or the lack of wood, from any cause, on the edge of a piece.
Note: In preparing the above definitions, the Committee used in a

large way the tentative definitions as proposed in progress report of the

United States Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, Mr.

Carlile P. Winslow, Director.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 503

Illustrations of Defects. Page

Loose Knot 225

Pith Knot 225

ICncased Knot 226

Rotten Knot 226

I'in Knot 227

Standard Knot 227

Large Knot 228

Spike Knot 228

Large Spike Knot 594

Small Spike Knot 593

Small Pitch Pocket 229

Closed Small Pitch Pocket 596

Small Open Pitch Pocket 597

Pitch Streak 229

Small Pitch Streak 598

Solid Pitch 597

Pitch Knot 595

Clnster of Knots 596

Oak Defects :

Sound Knot 633

Large Knot 633

Loose Knot 634

Pith Knot 634

Rotten Knot 635

Pin Knot ■ 635

Standard Knot 636

Burl Knot 637

Pin Worm 637

Wooden Rafting Pin Hole .638

Spot Worm 638

Metal Rafting Pin Hole 639

Grub Worm Holes 639

Cypress Defects :

Standard Sonnd Knot (\]4 in.) 644

Rotten Knot 644

Pecky Cypres? 645

Two Small Knots Lqiial to One Standard Knot 646

Small Sound Knot 646

Note. — The illiLstrations listed above will he incori>o rated in the Ttovised
Manual. Page numhers refer to the 101.5 Manual.

504 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Defects of Manufacture, Applicable to All Timber and Lumber.

Defects in rough stock caused by improper manufacture and drying
will reduce grade, unless they can be removed in dressing such stock to
standard sizes.

In structural timber defects of manufacture have usually been
omitted, being of minor significance.

Imperfect manufacture in dressed stock, such as torn grain, loosened
grain, slight skips in dressing, wane, broken knots, mismatched, insufficient
tongue or groove for flooring, ceiling, drop siding, etc., shall be considered
defects, and will reduce the grade according as they are slight or serious
in their effects on the use of the stock.

Torn grain consists of a part of the wood having been torn out in
dressing. It occurs around knots and curly places and is of four dis-
tinct characters : slight, medium, heavy and deep. Slight torn grain shall
not exceed rfe-inch in depth ; medium -h and heavy ^-inch. Any torn
grain heavier than J^-inch shaft be termed deep.

Loosened grain consists in a point of one grain being torn loose
from the next grain. It occurs on the heart side of the piece and is a
serious defect, especially in flooring.

Chipped grain consists in a part of the surface being chipped or
broken out in small particles below the line of cut and, as usually found,
should not be classed as torn grain, and shall be considered a defect only
when it unfits the piece for use intended.

Pieces of Flooring, Drop Siding or Partition with tV-inch or more
of tongue; and pieces of Ceiling with J/^-inch or more of tongue; and
pieces of Ship Lap with iV-inch of lap will be admitted in any grade.

Pieces of Flooring, Drop Siding, Ceiling or Partition having not
less than tV-inch tongue will be admitted in No. 2 Common. Pieces of
Ship Lap having less than ik-inch and not less than J^-inch lap shall be
admitted in No. 2 Common.

Standard Sizes.

In the absence of a special agreement between buyer and seller for
each order, the following sizes shall be standard for all lumber and timber.

"Rough timbers sawed to standard size" means that they shall not
be over one-quarter (%) inch scant from the nominal size specified
For instance, a 12x12 inch timber shall measure not less than 11^x1154
inches.

"Standard Dressing" means that not more than ^-inch shall be
allowed for dressing each surface. For instance, a 12x12 inch timber,
after being dressed on four sides, shall measure not less than llj^xllj/^
inches.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles

505

Dimension SI

S IE

Nominal

Actual

Nominal

Actual

Thickness

Width

Inches

• 3^

2/2

2ys

2Vs

SVs

6Vs

7V2

sy2

9/2

ny2

13^

1554

Standard lengths are multiples of two feet, 4 to 24 feet, inclusive,
but lengths shorter than 10 feet shall not be included in miscellaneous
or mixed shipments except by agreement.

Common Boards and Strips,

Nominal

Actual

Nominal

Actual

Thickness

Width

Inches

1 R

1 SIS

H •

1 S2S

7/2

1J4

9J4

IK2

l-^

uy2

Dressed Finishing Lumber SIS

Nominal

Actual

Nominal

Actual

Thickness

Width

Inches

Indies

Inches

^ff

SVs

1^/^

1/2

13/4

131/2

isy

The standard lengths are multiples of one foot.

506 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Flooring

Nominal

Thickness

Inches

H
'A

1/2
2

2/2

Actual

Nominal

/1c/Mfl/

hicknrss

Width

Inches

Toiig

lie and Groove;

3^4

lit

ll^V

1-/8

6 Factory

5{^

2/8

Splined

2f^

51/2

6}^

7/2

95/2

11/2
Shiplap

Standard lengths arc multiples of one foot from 4 to 20 feet. Five
per cent, of 8 or 9 foot lengths is allowed in mixed length shipments of
"B and Better" and in addition five pt?r cent, of 6 or 7 feet in C, D and
No. 1 Common, and in addition five per cent, of four or five feet in No.
2 Common, No. 3 Common, 4 to 20 feet inclusive.

The above percentage of short lengths is customary, and in the inter-
est of conservation will ho included, as far as practicable, in all ship-
ments of mixed lengths.

Nominal

Thickness

Inches

Standard lengths are multiples of one foot, from 4 to 20 feet.

Five per cent, of 8 or 9 feet is allowed in mixed length shipments of
"B and Better" Ceiling and in addition five per cent, of 6 or 7 feet in No.
1 Common, and in addition five per cent, of 4 or 5 feet in No. 2 Common.

The above percentage of short lengths is customary, and in the interest
of conservation will be included, as far as practicable, in all shipments of
mixed lengths.

Ceilin

Actual

A' 0 in ilia!

Actual

liickiiess

kllh

Width

I II dies

Inches

i'li

I'c,

I'lT

S
6

SJ4

6/8

Wooden Bridges and Trestles

507

Partition

Nominal

Actual

Nominal

Actual

Thickness

Width

Inches

2V6

4J4

Standard lengths are multiples of one foot.

Same percentage of short lengths is allowed as in ceiling.

Grooved Roofing

Nominal thickness one (1) inch, actual thickness ll-inch.
Nominal Width Actual Width

Inches Inches

8 7y2

10 91/4

12 IVA

Roofers
Roofers shall be made of No. 2 boards, il-inch machine run, center
matched and of nominal widths 6 or 8 inches as specified.

Fencing

Nominal
Thickness
Inches
1

1/2

Actual Nominal
Thickness Width
Inches Inches
il 3

ll>B 4

1ft 5
6

Drop Siding, D&M

Inches

4^8
5^8

Nominal

Thickness

Inches

Actual Nominal
Thickness Width
Inches Inches

Actual
Width
Inches

H
Va

1/2

ft 3

\h 4

54 5

Drop Siding, Worked Shiplap and Rustic
Nominal thickness one (1) inch, actual thickness three- fourths (^)

inch.

Nominal Width
Inches
6
8
10

Actual Width
Inches

7/8
9/8

Standard lengths are multiples of 2 feet from 4 to 20 feet.

Five per cent, of 8 or 9 feet is allowed in mixed length shipments of
"B and Better Drop Siding," and in addition five per cent, of 6 or 7 feet
in "No. 1 Common" and in addition five per cent, of 4 or 5 feet in No. 2
Common.

The above percentage of short lengths is customary and in the inter-
est of conservation will be included, so far as practicable, in all shipments
of mixed lengths.

(A)

508 Wooden Bridges and iTrestles. ,

Shiplap
Nominal thickness one (1) inch, actual thickness three- fourths (^)
inch, 3/^-inch lap.

Nniiiinal W

idth

Actual Width

ches

Bevel

Siding

Inches

5/8
7/8
9/8

11^

Noiniiial

Actual

Nominal

Actual

Thickness

Width

Inches

Indies

Inches

/ ^E

I'c and i^c

4
5
6

3/2

4/
5/

H J4E

i'It and i\i

M J4E

8
10
12

954

1154

Standard lengths are multiples ol one foot, from 4 to 20 feci. Five
per cent, of 8 or 9 feet is allowed in mixed shipments of "B and Better,"
Bevel Siding, and in addition five per cent, of 6 or 7 feet in "No. 1 Com-
mon" and in addition, five per cent of 4 or 5 feet in "No. 2 Common."

The above percentage of short lengths is customary, and in the inter-
est of conservation will be included, so far as practicable, in all shipments
of mixed lengths.

General Instructions on Grading Timber and Lumber

No arbitrary rules for the inspection of lumber can be maintained with
satisfaction. The combinations and evaluations of defects are numerous
and the interpretation of classification in grading lumber must be left
to practical common sense. The general features of these classes are
given by the following description of grades.

All lumber is graded with special reference to its suitability for the
use intended.

With this in view each piece is considered and its grade determined by
its general character, including the sum of all its defects.

Inspection of lumber is not an exact science and a reasonable varia-
tion of opinion between inspectors should be recognized; therefore, a
variation of not more than 5 per cent, upon reinspcction should not disturb
the original inspection.

The enumerated defects herein described in any grade are intended to
l)c descriptive of the coarsest piece such grades may contain.

In construing and applying these rules, the defects allowed are
understood to be equivalent in damaging efifect to those mentioned apply-
ing to stock under consideration.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 509

In case of a piece of lumber which lies so close to the boundary line
between two grades that there is doubt as to which grade it belongs in, it
shall be given the lower grade.

A shipment of any grade must consist of a fair average of that grade
and shall not include an unfair proportion of the better or poorer pieces
that Avould pass in that grade. A shipment of mixed widths shall contain
a fair assortment of each width. A shipment of mixed lengths shall
contain a fair assortment of each length.

Defects in lumber are to be considered in connection with the size
of the piece, and for this reason wider and longer pieces will carrj' more
defects than smaller pieces in the same grade. Defects in flooring, ceiling,
partition, casing and base, drop siding and rustic are based on a piece
4 inches wide and 12 feet long, except where otherwise specified.

Lumber must be accepted on grade in the form in which it was
shipped. Any subsequent change in manufacture or condition will pro-
hibit a reinspection for the adjustment of claims, except with the consent
of all parties interested.

What is known as "Yard Lumber," such as Dimension, Common
Boards and Finish, etc., is graded from the face side, which is the best
side, except that lumber which is dressed one side only is graded from the
dressed side.

Factory lumber, which is used for the manufacture of doors, sash,
etc., and must show both sides, is always graded from the poorer side.
The grade is determined by the quantity of suitable cuttings obtainable
in each piece.

All dressed lumber shall be measured and sold at the full size of rough
material used in its manufacture.

All lumber one inch or less in thickness shall be counted as one inch
thick.

The term "Vertical Grain" is here used as synonj'mous with edge
grain, rift sawed or quarter sawed. The term "Flat Grain" is synonymous
with slash grain or plain sawed.

Structural Grades for Bridge and Trestle Timbers

Southern Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Specifications

Density Requirements.

Shall contain only Southern Yellow Pine or Douglas Fir timbers
graded in two grades by the following density rules :

Density Rule for Southern Yellow Pine.

Dense Southern Yellow Pine shall show on either one end or the
other an average of at least six annual rings per inch or eighteen ring*
in three inches as measured over the third, fourth and fifth inches of a

510 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

radial line from the pith, and at least one-third (l/s) summerwood for
girders not exceeding 20 inches in height, and for columns 16 inches
square or less. For larger timbers the inspection shall be made over the
central three inches on the longest radial line from the pith to the corner
of the piece. Wide ringed material excluded by the above will be ac-
cepted, provided the amount of summerwood, as above measured, shall be
at least 50 per cent.

The contrast in color between summerwood and springwood shall be
sharp, and the summerwood shall be dark in color, except in pieces hav-
ing considerably above the minimum requirement for summerwood.

In cases where timbers do not contain the pith, and it is impossible
to locate it with any degree of accuracy, the ^me inspection shall be
made over three inches of an approximate radial line beginning at the
edge nearest the pith in timbers over three inches in thickness and on
the second inch (on the piece) nearest to the pith in timbers three inches
or less in thickness.

In dimension material containing the pith but not a five- inch radial
line, which is less than two by eight inches in section or less than eight
inches in width, that does not show over sixteen square inches on the
cross-section, the inspection shall apply to the second inch from the pith.
In larger material which does not show a five-inch radial line, the inspec-
tion shall apply to the three inches farthest from the pith.

The radial line chosen shall be representative. In case of a disagree-
ment between purchaser and seller as to what is a representative radial
line, the average summerwood and number of rings shall be the average
of the two radial lines chosen.

Density Rule for Douglas Fir.

Dense Douglas Fir shall show, on either one end or the other, an
average of at least six annual rings per inch and at least one-third sum-
merwood measured over three inches on a line located as described here-
inafter. Coarse-grained material excluded by this rule shall be acceptable
provided the amount of summerwood measured as described shall be at
least one-half. Material in which the proportion of summerwood is not
clearly discernible shall not be accepted.

Any timber whose least dimension is less than five inches shall not
show the pith (heart) on the inspection end; pieces whose least dimen-
sion is five inches or more may contain the pith.

When the least dimension is five inches or more, the pith being pres-
ent, the line over which the rate of growth and per cent, of summerwood
measurements shall be made shall run from the pith to the corner farthest
from the pith. To find the beginning of the three-inch line, measure a
distance of one-half the least dimension of the piece, less two inches,
from the pith. This distance may be expressed as follows :

a = i/$d — 2,
where a = distance in inches from pith to beginning of three-inch line.
d = least dimension of piece in inches.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 511

When the rings are very irregular it may be necessary to shift the
line somewhat afound the piece to get a fair average for inspection, but
the distance from the pith to the beginning of the three-inch line must
not be changed.

For all pieces where the pith is not present the center of the three-
inch line shall be at the center of the end of the piece, and the direction
of the three-inch line shall be at right angles to the annual rings.

If a radial line of 3 inches cannot be obtained, the measurement
shall be made over the entire radial line that is available.

General Requirements.

(a) Shall consist of lumber well manufactured, square edges and
sawed standard size.

When the timbers 4x4 inches and larger are ordered sized, they will
be ^ inch less than nominal size, either SISIE or S4S, unless otherwise
specified.

(b) Structural timbers shall be sound and free from rotten or un-
sound knots, knots in clusters, decay, round or ring shakes occupying
more than one- fourth (%) the least dimension on either end of a timber
(a round or ring shake shall be measured on its vertical projection), in-
jurious diagonal grain or other defects that will materially impair its
strength. Shakes shall not show on any face of the timber.

Knots limited in size and position as hereinafter provided will be
permitted if so fixed by growth or position that they will retain their
place in the piece as at time of manufacture.

For the limitation of knots in beams in size and location, a beam
shall be considered as divided into three volumes as shown below :

I VOL. e |_^i DEPTH

VOL.i ^°^ ^ ^ DEPTH

1-X-r

VOU I I ^jf DEPTH

j^^ LtN&TH ^ ^ LE.H6TH -*^^ LENGTH — H

Measurement of Knots

In beams, the diameter of a knot on the narrow or horizontal face
shall be taken as its projection on a line perpendicular to the edge of the
timber. On the wide or vertical face, the smallest dimension of a knot is
to be taken as its diameter.

In columns, the mean or average dimension of a knot on any face
shall be taken as its diameter.

Beams shall not have diagonal or spiral grain in Volumes 1 and 2
with slope greater than 1 in 20 ; in posts the angle shall not be greater
than 1 in 15.

Posts and beams have different restrictions as to knots and angle of
grain and must be listed accordingly in bills of material.

512 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

No. 1 Structural

No. 1 Structural timbers shall be of Dense Southern Yellow Pine or
Dense Douglas Fir, and shall meet the General Requirements for Struc-
tural Grades.

This grade shall not have tight pilch pockets over six (6) inches long
or over ^ inch wide or wane exceeding one (1) inch on one corner or
over one-sixth (1/6) the length of the piece.

Loose knots larger than one-half (J4) inch sliall not be permitted.

Beams, Stringers, Girders and Deep Joists

Beams, Stringers, Girders and Deep Joists shall show not less than
85 per cent, of heart on each side of the four sides measured across the
sides anywhere in the length of the piece.

Beams, Stringers, Girders and Deep Joists shall not have knots in
V^olumes 1 and 2 larger in diameter than one-fourth (J4) the width of
the face of the beam in which they occur, up to and including six (6)
inches, nor larger than one and one-half (IJ/2) inches in a face over six
(6) inches. Knots within the center half of the length of a beam shall
not exceed in the aggregate the width of the surface of the beam in which
they occur.

Beams shall not have knots in Volume 3 larger in dianicter than one-
fourth the width of the lace in which they occur, with a maximum for
any one knot of 3 inches in diameter.

When beams are of two spans length and so marked in bill of mate-
rials, Volumes 1 and 2 on inspection shall be considered as extending be-
tween points located one-eighth (J4) the length of the beam from each
end.

The inspector shall place his stamp on the edge of the beam or
stringer to be placed up in service.

Caps and Sills

Caps and Sills shall show 85 per cent, of heart on each of the four
sides, measured across the face anywhere in the length of the piece.

Caps and Sills shall be free from knots larger than one-fourth (%)
the width of the face in which they occur with maximum for any one
knot of 3 inches in diameter. Knots shall not be in groups.

Posts

Posts shall show not less than 85 per cent, of heart on each of the
four sides, measured across the face anywhere in the length of the piece.

Posts shall not have knots larger than one-fourth (J4) the least di-
mension of the posts nor larger than three inches. Knots shall not be in
groups.

Longitudinal Struts or Girts

Longitudinal Struts or Girts shall show all heart on one face; the
other face and two sides shall show not less than 85 per cent, of hcartj
mcasiu'cd across the face or side anywhere in the length of the piece.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 513

Longitudinal Struts or Girts shall be tree from knots over two inches
in diameter.

Longitudinal Cross Braces, Sash Braces and Sway Braces

Longitudinal Cross Braces, Sash Braces and Swaj' Braces shall show
not less than 85 per cent, heart on two faces.

Longitudinal Cross Braces, Sash Braces and Sway Braces shall be
free from knots larger than one-third the width of the face in which they
occur, with a maximum of 2 inches in diameter.

Ties and Guard Rails

Ties and Guard Rails shall. show one side all heart; the other side and
two edges shall show not less than 75 per cent, heart, measured across
the surface anywhere in the length of the piece.

Ties and Guard Rails shall be free from any large kuols or other
defects which will materially injure their strength; and where surfaced
the remaining rough face shall show all heart.

No. 2 Structural

No. 2 Structural Timbers shall meet the General Reciuirements for
Structural Grades, and shall include timbers not passing the No. 1 Grade
because of having less density than is required or greater defects than are
permitted.

This grade shall not have pitch pockets longer than twelve (12) inches
or over J^ inch wide or wane exceeding two (2) inches on one corner or
the eciuivalent on two or more corners of 10 x 10 timbers, with wane in
Iiroportion on small or large sizes.

Beams, Stringers, Girders and Deep Joists

Beams, Stringers, Girders and Deep Joists shall not have knots in
Volumes 1 and 2 larger than as follows :

If of Dense Southern Yellow Pine or Dense Douglas Fir, one-third
(14) the width of the face of the beam in which they occur, up to and
including nine (9) inches, nor larger than three (3) inches in a face over
nine (9) inches.

If not of Dense Southern Yellow Pine or Dense Douglas Fir, one-
fourth (%) the width of the face of the beam in which they occur, up to
and including six (6) inches, nor larger than one and one-half (IJ^)
inches, in a face over six (6) inches.

Knots in the center half of the length of a beam shall not exceed in
the aggregate twice the width of the surface of the beam in which they
occur.

Beams shall not have knots in \'olume 3 larger in diameter than one-
third (ys) the width of the face in which they occur.

Loose knots larger than one-half (J/a) the size of knots allowed above
shall not be permitted; beams shall not have loose knots, in Volume 3,
larger than one and one-half H'/j) inches.

514 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Caps and Sills

Caps and Sills shall be free from knots larger than one-half OA) the
width of the face in which they occur with a maximum for any one knot
of three (3) inches in diameter. Knots shall not be in groups.

Posts
Posts shall not have knots, if of Dense Southern Yellow Pine or
Dense Douglas Fir, larger than one-third (Vs) the least dimension of the
post, nor larger than four inches; if not of Dense Southern Yellow Pine
or Dense Douglas Fir, larger than one- fourth (J4) the least dimension
of the post, nor larger than three (3) inches.

Longitudinal Struts or Girts
Longi.tudinal Struts or Girts shall be free from knots over 2 inches in
diameter.

Longitudinal Cross Braces, Sash Braces and Sway Braces

Longitudinal Cross Braces, Sash Braces and Sway Braces shall be
free from knots larger than one-third the width of the face in which they
occur, with a maximum of 2 inches in diameter.

Specifications for Timber to Be Treated

Specifications for timber to be treated are the same as for untreated
timber, except that no restriction is to be placed upon the amount of sap
wood allowed in the timber which is to be treated.

Many varieties of timber can be used, if treated, that would not be
satisfactory to use in the untreated state on account of being subject to
rapid decay if they are not treated.

Commercial Timber and Lumber Grades
Timber.
Selected Common.

Selected Common shall be sound, strong timber, well manufactured
and free from defects that materially impair its strength. Must be suitable
for high-class construction purposes, free from shake, splits, loose or
rotten knots. Will allow sound and tight knots, if not in clusters and
which in no case shall exceed in diameter one-sixth the width of the face
in which such knots occur up to and including 12xl2-inch; and furthe/
providing that such sound and tight knots in 14xl4-inch and larger shall
in no case exceed 2J/2 inches in diameter.

The select common grade also will allow tight pitch pockets, not
over six inches in length, wane not to exceed one inch on one corner
and not exceeding one-sixth the length of the piece.

White sap or a slight amount of sound stained sap on the back shall
not be considered a defect in this grade.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 515

No. 1 Common,

No. 1 Common Timber 6x10 inches and larger shall be sound stock
well manufactured and free from defects that will materially weaken the
piece. Occasional slight variation in sawing allowed.

Ten by ten-inch timbers may have a 2-inch wane on one corner or the
equivalent on two or more corners, checks and season checks not extending
over one-eighth the length of the piece. Smaller and larger timbers may
have wane in proportion. In addition will allow large sound and tight
knots, which approximately should not be more than one-fourth the width
in diameter of any one side in which they may appear, spike knots, stained
sap one-third the width and slight streak of heart stain extending not
more than one-fourth the length of the piece.

No. 2 Common.

No. 2 Common Timbers will admit large, loose or rotten knots ; a
lO.KlO-inch may have a 3-inch wane on one corner or the equivalent on two
or more corners, larger and smaller sizes in proportion ; shake or rot that
does not impair its utility for temporary work.

Dimension Plank, Joists, Scantling and Small Timbers.

Selected Common.

Selected Common shall be sound, strong lumber well manufactured
and free from defects that materially impair the strength. Must be suit-
able for high-class construction purposes and free from shake, loose or
rotten knots.

Will allow occasional variation in sawing, sound and tight, small and
standard knots and tight pitch pockets not over 6 inches in length.

Twelve inches and wider may contain, in addition to the above, a
couple of large knots not to -exceed 2 inches in diameter when well placed,
a slight amount of sap admissible.

No. 1 Common.

No. 1 Common must be sound stock, well manufactured and suitable
for all ordinary construction purposes without waste and must be sound
and tight-knotted stock.

Will admit knots which in a 2x4 or 3x4 piece may be approxi-
mately V/i inches; in a 2x6-inch or 3x6-inch piece, 2 inches; in a 2x8-inch
or 3x8-inch or 2xl0-inch or 3xl0-inch piece, 2J/4 inches; and one-fourth
the width of the piece in 12 inches and wider ; spike knots that do not mate-
rially weaken the piece; wane not over one-fourth the thickness of the
piece 1 inch wide on face up to 6 inches, and 1^ inches wide on face of
8 inches and wider, extending not more than one-third the length of the
piece or a proportionate amount for a shorter distance on both edges, in
any case one side and two edges should provide a good nailing surface,
and in no case shall wane extend over one-half the side of the piece.

516 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Note: Commercial Timber and Lumber Grades here given apply to
Southern Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, White Pine, Western Pine, Idaho
White Pine, Norway Pine, Spruce, Tamarack and Redwood products.

Pith knots or small defective knots which do not weaken the piece
more than the knots above allowed are admitted, solid pitch, pitch pockets,
sap stain, a limited number of worm holes well scattered, limited torn
grain, seasoning checks, splits in ends, not exceeding in length the width
of the piece, firm red heart, heart shakes that do not go through.

May contain crook of 1^-inch in 2x4 — 16 feet, and ]/i inch less in each
additional 2 inches in width up to and including 2x12 — 16 feet. Length
longer or shorter than 16 feet of No. 1 Common Dimension may contain
crook in proportion to the above.

No. 2 Common.

This grade shall consist of lumber suitable for a cheaper class of
construction than No. 1 Common.

Will admit large, coarse sound knots, which in a 2x4 and 3x4-inch
piece should not be larger than 21^ inches in diameter; in 2x6 or 2x8 or
3x6 or 3x8-inch pieces, 3 inches, and in 2x10 or 3x10 or wider pieces one-
third the width of the piece in diameter, spike knots, smaller, loose,
hollow or rotten knots that do not weaken the piece more than the knots
aforesaid, worm holes well scattered, large pitch pockets, rotten streaks,
small amount of fine shake, split not to exceed one-quarter the length of
the piece, heart and sap stains in any amount, decayed sap, wane if leaving
a fair nailing surface.

May contain crook of 2 inches in 2x-l — 16 feet, and li inch less in
each additional 2 inches in width up to and including 2x12 — 16 feet.
Length shorter or longer than 16 feet may contain crook in proportion to
the above.

Miscut 2-incli Common which does not fall below V/j inches in thick-
ness or 14, inch scant in width from standard size, shall be admitted in
No. 2 Common, provided such pieces are in all other respects as good as
No. 1 Common at point of miscut.

A very serious combination of above defects must not be permitted
in any one piece.

No. 3 Common.

No. 3 Common will include all pieces faUing below No. 2 Conmion
which are sound enough to use for cheap building material by wasting
25 per cent, of each piece or one-third of number of pieces in any one
item of a shipment but it must not be more than Yi inch scant of standard
finished width nor Vs inch scant of standard finished thickness. This
grade will admit a greater degree of all the imperfections allowed in No.
1 and No. 2 Common, but shall not admit useless culls.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 517

Boards, Ship Lap and D & M.
Selected Common.

Selected Common shall be square edged, well manufactured. Will
admit sound tight knots not over 1 inch in diameter in 4-inch and 6-inch,
not over IJ^ inches diameter in 8-inch, medium sized tight pitch pockets
not over 6 inches in length, two pith knots, the equivalent of one split not
to exceed in length the width of the piece, torn grain, pitch pockets, sliglu
shake, sap stain, seasoning" checks, firm red heart, small amount of slightly
stained sap. These boards must be of a sound, strong character.

No. 1 Common.

No. 1 Common will admit any two of the following or their equivalent
of combined defects:

Sound and light knots approximately l^A inches in diameter in 4 and
6-inch ; 2 inches in diameter in 8 and 10-inch ; 2y2 inches in 12-inch and
not over 3 inches in diameter in widths over 12 inches.

Pitch pockets, seasoning checks, one straight split not longer than the
width of the piece, sap stain, slight streak of heart stain, pith knots, torn
grain, slight shake, firm red heart, wane l-i inch deep on edge not exceed-
ing 1 inch in width on face and extending not over one-third the length
of the piece, a limited number of pin worm holes well scattered.

These boards must be firm, sound and suitable for use in ordinary
construction except finishing purposes without w^astc.

No. 1 Common Ship Lap or D & M or Barn Siding shall be graded
liy rules governing No. 1 Common Boards, except as to wane which shall
not be so deep as to extend into the tongue or one-half the thickness of
the top lip on the groove in D & M, or over one-half the thickness of the
lap in Ship Lap on the face side: pieces of .Ship Lap witli u-: inch of lap
will be admitted in any grade.

No. 2 Common.

No. 2 Common will admit large coarse knots not necessarily sound,
approximately 2 inches in diameter in 4 and 6-inch stock; 2]^ inches in
8 and 10-inch and one-third the width of the piece in 12-inch and wider,
spike knots, solid heart or sap stain, solid pitch or pitch pockets, a limited
number of well scattered worm holes, splits one-fourth the length of the
piece. Small amount of fine shake, wane 2 inches wide if it does not
extend into the opposite face, or through heart shakes over one-half the
piece or through rotten streaks when firm, J--2 inch wide over one-fourth
the length of the piece or its equivalent of unsound red heart or combina-
tion of defects equivalent to the above but a serious combination of above
defects in any one piece not permitted.

A knot hole 2 inches in diameter will be admitted provided the piece
is otherwise as good as No. 1 Common.

Miscut 1-incli Common Boards which do not fall below ^i inch in
thickness shall be admitted in No. 2 Common, provided the grade of such
thin stock is otherwise as good as No. 1 Common.

518 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

No. 3 Common.

No. 3 Common will admit of stock below the grade of No. 2 Common
that is suitable for cheap sheathing. The general appearance is coarse.
It will admit large coarse knots without restrictions as to size, loose knots,
unsound knots, knot holes, pitch pockets, solid pitch, very wormy pieces,
shake, heart or sap stain, decayed sap, decayed streaks, well scattered
small rotten spots, split, blue sap, wane but a serious combination of above
defects in any one piece not permitted. It should cut 75 per cent, of
lumber as sound as No. 2 Common.

No. 4 Common.

No. 4 Common shall include all pieces that fall below the grade of
No. 3 Common, excluding such pieces as will not be held in place by
nailing. After wasting one-fourth the length of the piece by cutting into
two or three pieces.

The predominating defect characterizing this grade is red rot. Other
defects are numerous large worm holes, several knot holes, or pieces that
are extremely coarse knotted, waney, shaky or badly split, extremely cross-
checked.

No. 5 Common.

No. 5 Common is the lowest grade and admits of all defects known in
lumber provided the piece is strong enough to hold together when care-
fully handled.

Thick Common Lumber.

Common lumber, 1% inches and thicker, shall be graded the same as

1-inch lumber.

Rough Stock for Finish.

Finish must be evenly manufactured and shall embrace all sizes from
1 to 2 inches inclusive in thickness by 3 inches and over in width.

One, l]4 and 1^-inch finishing lumber unless otherwise ordered shall
measure when dry, not more than ^ inch scant in thickness and 2-inch
not more than ^^ inch scant in thickness when seasoned.

Stock width shipments of "C" and "Better," either rough or dressed on
one or two sides, shall be accepted as standard where not more than 20
per cent, of any shipment is % inch scant on 8-inch widths and under;
}i inch scant on 9 or 10-inch; and Vz inch scant on 11 and 12-inch and
wider when seasoned; pieces narrower than the above and pieces in excess
of 20 per cent, of the shipment that are of the minimum measurement
given, should be measured as of the next lower standard width and not
reduced in grade.

Standard lengths are 8 tu 20 feet; and in shipments of mixed lengths,
5 per cent, of 8 feet in grade of "C" and "Better" shall be admitted. The
above percentage of short lengths is customary and in the interest of
conservation will be included as far as practicable in all shipments of
mixed lengths.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 519

Wane and other defects that will dress out in working standard sizes
are admissible.

Finishing lumber ordered rough if thicker than count thickness for
dry or green stock, may be dressed to such count thickness, and when so
dressed, shall be considered as rough.

Rough finish shall be graded on the best side, but the reverse side
must not be more than one grade lower.

Subject to the foregoing provisions, Rc.ugh Finishing Lumber shall
be graded according to the rules applying to Dressed Finishing Lumber.

When like grade on both faces is required, special contract must be
made.

Dressed Finishing Lumbek.

Selected Flat Grain.

Selected Flat Grain shall be finishing lumber free from all sap or
defects on face and edges and shall be selected for beauty and character
of grain.

"A" Finishing inch, V/l, V/2 and 2-inch dressed one or two sides up
to and including 12 inches in width, must show one face practically clear
of all defects, except that it may have such wane as would dress off if
surfaced four sides ; 13-inch and wider "A" Finishing will admit two small
defects or their equivalent. "B" Finishing, inch, 1J4, 1^/^ and 2-inch
dressed one or two sides, up to and including 10 inches in width in
addition to the equivalent of one split in end which should not exceed in
length the width of the piece, will admit any two of the following or their
equivalent of combined defects ; slightly torn grain, three pin knots, one
standard knot, three small pitch pockets, one standard pitch pocket, one
standard pitch streak, 5 per cent, of sap stain or firm red heart; wane not
to exceed 1 inch in width, ^ inch in depth and one-sixth the length of the
piece, small seasoning checks.

Eleven-inch and wider "B" Finishing will admit three of the above
defects or their equivalent, but sap stain or firm red heart shall not exceed
10 per cent.

"C" Finishing up to and including 10-inch in width will admit in
addition to the equivalent of one split in end which should not exceed
in length the width of the piece, any two of the following, or their
equivalent of combined defects : 25 per cent, of sap stain, 25 per cent,
firm red heart, two standard pitch streaks, medium torn grain in three
places, slight shake, seasoning checks that do not show an opening through,
two standard pitch pockets, six small pitch pockets, two standard knots,
six pin knots, wane 1 inch in width, lA inch in depth and one-third the
length of the piece. Defective dressing or slight skips in dressing will
also be allowed that do not prevent its use as finish without waste.
Eleven-inch and 12-inch "C" Finishing will admit one additional defect or
its equivalent. Pieces wider than 12 inches will admit two additional de-
fects to those admitted in 10-inch or their equivalent, except sap stain
which shall not be increased.

520 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Selected Flat Grain.

Pieces otherwise as good as "B" will admit of twenty worm holes.

Special Finish.

In case both sides are desired, "A," "B" or "C" grade, or free from
-ill "defects, special contract must be made. Dcfcciivc dressing or sliulu
skips in dressing on the reverse side of Finishing are admissible.

i\louLDi;i) Casi.xc, Bask, Winhow and Door Jambs.

Moulded Casing and Base shall be worked to j^ inch thick as per
established patterns.

Window and Door Jambs arc to be dressed, ralibctcd and plowed as
ordered.

Grades A, B and C.

"A" Grade must be practically free from defects on the face side and
well manufactured.

"B" Grade shall admit the same defects as are admissible in the same
widths of "B" I'inishing except wane.

"C" Grade shall admit the same defects as are admissible in the same
widths of "C" Finishing except wane.

Moulding.

"B and Better" Moulding. One-third of any item may contain any
one of the following defects or its equivalent: .One pin knot, small pitch
pockets, pitch 1 inch wide, 6 inches long, tlircc pin worm holes, slight
defects in dressing.

Standard lengths; 8 feet and longer, and in shipments of mixed
lengths 5 per cent, of 6 or 7 feet shall be admitted, even though the number
of feet of each length be specifically stated.

Drop Siding.

Defects named in Drop Siding are based upon a piece manufactured
from 1x6 — 12 feet, and pieces larger or smaller than this will take a
greater or lesser numljcr of defects, proportioned to their size on this
basis.

The amount of crook perm:ssil)lc in Xo. 1 Common and Inciter I )ro])
Siding may be as follows :

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 4-incli widtiis, 3 -inch crook.

Sixteen- foot lengths as a basis for 6-inch widths. 2'<-incli crook.

Lengths longer or shorter than 16 feet may have a proportional
amount of crook.

In all grades of Drop Siding wane on the reverse siile, not exceeding
one-third the width and one-sixth the length of any piece is admissible,
providing the wane does not extend into the tomruo.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 521

"A" Drop Siding.

"A" Drop Siding must be practicall\ I'rec from (lelt-Cts on the face
side and well manufactured.

Slight roughness in dressing admissible.

A piece 14 feet or longer may have one defect located 4 feet or
more from the end that can be cut out by wasting not more than V/2
inches of the length, provided balance of piece be practically free from
other defects.

"B" Drop Siding.

"B" Drop Siding will admit any tuu uf the following defects:
Medium torn grain, three pin knots, one standard knot, 15 per cent, sap
stain, 15 per cent, firm red heart, small seasoning checks, six pin worm
holes or any one of the above defects combined with either three small
pitch pockets or one small pitch streak.

A piece that is otherwise as good as "B" grade may have a defect
that can be cut out by wasting not more than 2y^ inches in the length of
the piece, providing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end.

No. 1 Drop Siding.

No. 1 Common Drop Siding will admit numerous small or several
medium or one large pitch pocket, one standard pitch streak and in addi-
tion sound knots not over one-half the width of the piece in the rough, a
couple of small knot holes, pin worm holes or a few well scattered grub-
worm holes, sap stain, firm red heart, slight shake, heavy torn grain,
seasoning checks that do not show an opening through, defects in manu-
facturing that will lay without waste. A very serious combination of
above defects not permissible in any one piece.

Pieces otherwise as good as "B" Drop Siding may have one defect
(like a knot hole) that can be cut out by wasting 2'/2 inches of the length
of the piece, provided both pieces are 16 inches or over in length after
cutting out such defects.

No. 2 Common Drop Siding.

No. 2 Common Drop Siding admits of all pieces not as good as No.
1 Common that can be used without waste of more than one-fourth the
length of any one piece.

Bevel Siding.

Bevel Siding shall be graded according to the rules for Drop Siding
and will admit in addition slight imperfections on the thin edge, which
will be covered by the lap when laid 2j/2 and 45/2 inches to the weather.

Rustic. Siding.

Rustic Siding shall be graded according to tlic rules for Drop Siding.

522 Wooden Bridges and Trestle;.

Flooring.
Special.

Defects named in Flooring are based upon a piece manufactured from
1x4 — 12 feet long, and pieces larger or smaller than this will take a greater
or lesser number of defects, proportioned to their size on this basis, except
that standard knots shall not exceed 1J4 inches in diameter in 3-irch
flooring.

The amount of crook permissible in No. 1 Common and Better Flooi
ing may be as follows:

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 3-inch widths, 35^-inch crook.

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 4-inch widths, 3 -inch crook.

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 6-inch widths, 2>^-inch crook.

Lengths longer or shorter than 16 feet may have a proportionate
amount of crook.

Standard Matched Flooring to be surfaced two sides with scored
back.

Center Matched Flooring (S2S and C. M.) shall be required to come
up to grade on one side only, and the defects admissible on the reverse
side of standard match shall be allowed.

Grades A, B, C, D, and No. 1 Common, Edge or Vertical Grain.

Grades A, B, C, D, No. 1 Common, No. 2 Common, No. 3 Common or
No. 3 Sheathing, Flat Grain.

Grade "A" Edge Grain Flooring.

Admits no piece in which angle of the grain exceeds 45° from vertical
at any point. This grade shall be well milled on face, must have perfect
edges and be practically free from all defects on the face side. Bright
sap showing not more than one-third of face half the length of piece will
be admitted.

Grade "B" Grain Flooring.

Admits no piece in which angle of the grain exceeds 45° from vertical
at any point. This grade will admit any two of the following or their
equivalent of combined defects : Five per cent, sap stain, 15 per cent, firm
red heart, three pin knots, one standard pitch streak, slight torn grain,
small seasoning checks.

Grade "C" Edge or Vertical Grain Flooring.

Admits no piece in which angle of the grain exceeds 45° from vertical
at any point. This grade will admit any two of the following defects or
their equivalent or combined defects. Fifteen per cent, sap stain, 25 per
cent, firm red heart, six pin knots, two standard knots, small pitch pockets,
two standard pitch pockets, two standard pitch streaks, twelve pin worm
holes, slight shake that does not go through, seasoning checks that do not
show an opening through, medium torn grain or other machine defects
that will lay without waste.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 523

A piece 12 feet or longer otherwise as good as "B" may have a defect
that can be cut out and the piece laid with a loss of not more than 2^
inches in its length, providing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end
of the piece.

Grade "D" Edge or Vertical Grain Flooring.

Admits no piece in which angle of the grain exceeds 45° from vertical
at any point. This grade will admit the following defects or their equiva-
lent of combined defects. Sap stain, firm red hearts, sound knots not over
one-half the cross-section of the piece in the rough and any one point
throughout its length, three pith knots, pitch, pitch pockets, a limited
number of pin worm holes well scattered, shake that does not show an
opening through, loosened or heavy torn grain or other machine defects
that lay without waste.

Pieces otherwise as good as "B" Flooring may have one defect (like
a knot hole) that can be cut out by wasting 20 inches of the length of
the piece, provided both pieces are 16 inches or over in length after cutting
out such defects.

It is generally understood that this grade will admit such defects or
combination of defects as will not impair its utility for cheap floors.

No. 1 Common Flooring is the combined grade of C and D Flooring
and will admit all pieces that will not grade "B" and are better than No.
2 Common Flat Grain Flooring.

Flat Grain Flooring shall take the same inspection as Edge or Vertical
Grain, except as to requirement of angle of the grain.

No. 2 Common Flooring.

Admits all pieces that will not grade as good as "D" Flooring that can
be used for cheap floors without waste of more than one-fourth the length
of any one piece.

Pieces of flooring having not less than ^ inch tongue will be admitted
in No. 2 Common.

No. 3 Common on No. 3 Sheathing.

Admits all pieces that cannot be used as No. 2 Common Flooring but
are still available as cheap sheathing or lathing without waste of more
than one-fourth the length of any one piece.

Ceiling.

Defects in Ceiling are based upon a piece manufactured from 1x4 —
12 feet long, and pieces larger or smaller than this will take a greater or
lesser number of defects, proportionate to their size on this basis.

The amount of crook permissible in No. 1 Common and Better Ceiling
may be as follows :

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 3-inch widths, 3^-inch. crook.

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 4-inch widths, 3 -inch crook.

Sixteen-foot lengths as a basis for 6-inch widths, 2^-inch crook.

524 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Lengths longer or shorter than 16 feet may have a proportionate
amount of crook. In all grades of Ceiling wane on the reverse side, not
exceeding one-third the width and one-sixth the length of any piece, is
admissible providing the wane does not extend into the tongue.

Ceiling may be specified cither as Edge or Vertical Grain or Flat
Grain. The inspection will be the same for cither kind.

"A" Ceiling.

"A" Ceiling must be practically free from defects on the face side,
well manufactured, will admit of slight roughness in dressing, through
close pitch pockets, each not to exceed 2 inches in length, or one sound
and tight smooth pin knot, or the equivalent of combined defects.

"B" Ceiling.

"B" Ceiling will admit of any two of the following defects or their
equivalent of combined defects: Slight torn grain, three pin knots, two
small or one standard knot, three small pitch pockets, any two of which
may be open, one standard pitch pocket, one small pitch streak, small
seasoning checks, 15 per cent, sap stain, 15 per cent, firm red heart, six
pin worm holes.

A piece otherwise as good as No. 2 may Iiavc a defect that can I)c cut
out and the piece laid with a waste of not more than 2^/$ inches in length,
providing the defect is 4 feet or more from the end of the piece.

No. 1 Common Ceiling.

No. 1 Common Ceiling will admit the following defects or llii'lr
equivalent of combined defects: Heavy torn grain, sound knots not over
one-half the cross-section of the piece in the rough, pitch, pitch pockets,
seasoning checks that do not show an opening through, a sap stain, firm
red heart, slight shake, defects in manufacture that will lay without waste,
a limited number of pin worm holes well scattered.

Pieces otherwise as good as "B" Ceiling may have one defect (like
a knot hole) that can be cut by wasting 2^ inches of the length of the
piece, providing both pieces are 16 inches or over in length after rutting
out such defects.

No. 2 Common Ceiling.

No. 2 Common Ceiling admits of all pieces not as good as No. 1
Common that can be used without waste of more tlian one-fourth the
length of any one piece.

Pieces of Ceiling having not less than ^g- inch tongue, will l^e admiltcd
in No. 2 Common.

Partition.

Grades "A," "B," No. 1 Common and No. 2 Common. Partition
shall be graded according to Ceiling rules and must meet the requirements
of the specified grades on the face side only, but the reverse side shall
not be more than one grade lower, and shall not cause waste in No. 1
Common and Better.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 525

Specifications for Construction Oak
General Instructions.

Those who are not familiar with the anatomy of the oak tree should,
when reading over these rules, take into consideration that the rule de-
scribes the poorest piece that goes into the grade and that a large per cent.
is above the grade described.

Definition of Oak for Construction Purposes.

The term "Construction Oak" means all such products of oak in
which the strength and durabilit}' of the timber is the controlling element
in its selection and use. The following is a list of products which are rec-
ommended for consideration as "Construction Oak."

Firsts are to be sound and free from heart shakes and checks, but
may have other defects as follows:

Construction Oak.

Trestle and Bridge Timbers. — Mud Sills, Stringers, Caps, Posts, Brac-
ing, Bridge Ties, Struts, Guard Rails, Girts, Sash and Sway Braces.

Docking and Platform Timbers. — Mud Sills, Posts, Bracing, Caps,
Stringers, Joists, Dock and Platform or Flooring Plank and Wales.

Platform or flooring plank can be either square-edged or matched.

Ties. — Switch ties.

Framing for Building. — Mud Sills, Posts, Girders, Framing Joists, etc.
etc.

Bridge and Crossing Plank. — Railroad Crossing Plank, Bridge Floor
Planking.

Sheet Piles. — Same as Crossing Plank, except may contain an unlim-
ited amount of heart.

Round Piling.

Stock Guards.

Track or Bumper Posts.

Standard Names for Construction Oak.

Unless specifically n*entioncd, the terms "White Oak" and "Red Oak"
include the following:

"White Oak" "Red Oak"

White Oak Red Oak

Chestnut or Tanbark Oak Pin Oak

Burr or Mossv Cup Oak Black Oak

Rock Oak Water Oak

Post or Iron Oak Willow Oak

Overcup Oak Spanish Oak

Live Oak Turkey Oak

Basket or Cow Oak Black Jack or Barn Oak

Swamp Post Oak Shingle or Laurel Oak

Yellow or Chinquapin Oak Scarlet Oak

Term — Mixed Oak means any kind of Oak,

526 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Specifications for Structural Oak Timbers

General Requirements.

(1) Except as noted, all Structural Timbers shall be White Oak,
to be sound timber and sawed specified sizes, free from ring shakes,
crooked grain, rotten knots, large knots in groups, rot, dote, wane in
amounts greater than allowed in these specifications.

Boxed Hearts.

(2) Boxed Hearts are permitted in pieces of 5 by 5 inches square
and larger. The center of the heart should be boxed as near the cen-
ter of the piece as practical, and not to exceed 30 per cent of the
pieces can have the center of the heart nearer than \]/2 inches from
any face; 20 per cent may show one heart face, corner or edge, not
to exceed 75 per cent of the length of the piece.

Wane.

The term 20 per cent of number of pieces or amount shipped
refers to each item and size of each car shipped.

(a) Pieces 5 x 5 to 8 x 8 inches square may show 1 inch wane,
side measurement, on any two corners or edges, and this wane not
to exceed more than 25 per cent of the length of the piece singly, or
50 per cent in aggregate. In the absence of wane on all corners
excepting one, the one corner may contain wane 50 per cent of the
length of the piece as above described; not to exceed 20 per cent of
number of pieces may have this defect.

(b) Pieces over 8x8, including 12 x 12 inches square, may
show 1^2 inch wane, side measurement, edge of any two corners or
edges, and this wane not to exceed more than 33J/3 per cent of the
length of the piece singly, or 667^ per cent in aggregate. In the
absence of wane on all of the length of the piece as above described,
not to exceed 20 per cent of the number of pieces may have this
defect.

(c) Pieces over 12 by 12 inches square may show \}i inch side
measurement, any two corners of edges, and this wane not to exceed
more than 40 per cent of the length of the piece singlj'-, or 80 per cent
in aggregate, in the absence of wane on all corners, excepting one,
the corner may contain wane 80 per cent of the length of the piece
as above described; not to exceed 20 per cent of number of pieces may
have this defect.

(d) In event that pieces have two faces as wide as above de-
scribed and two faces narrower, the proportion of the amount of wane
is admissible.

(e) Pieces 1 inch to 5 inches thick, not exceeding 8 inches wide,
are governed by defect specifications above mentioned, with the ex-
ception that they shall not contain wane, and not to exceed 20 per
cent of pieces 2 inches and thicker may show sound heart on one

-face; pieces under 2 inches thick must be free of heart. Pieces 8
inches and wider may contain wane as per paragraphs b and d.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 527

(f) Rough sizes of Structural Timber shall not vary more than
J4 inch scant of specified size. Dressed sizes may be Yz inch scant
after dressing.

Ties.

(1) Switch Ties Sawed. Thickness cut to order, widths cut to
order; lengths cut to order; unless noted to be White Oak. Must
contain three sound solid sides. One face or one corner (not both)
may show sound heart. Large sound knots, pin spot or an occasional
grub-worm hole not considered a defect. Sizes may vary Y^ inch
from specified sizes.

Bridge, Dock, Crossing Plank.

Lengths, cut to order
Widths, cut to order
Thickness, cut to order
Sizes cut to order, probably 2 inches, 3 inches and 4 inches thick,
6 inches, 8 inches, 10 inches and 12 inches wide, 12 feet, 14 feet and
16 feet long.

This product is intended to work full one good sound face, and
this face side must be square edge. Sound knots, small pin and spot
worm holes no defect on face side.

Must be free from rot and shake; practically square edges, ad-
mitting 1 inch of wane on each edge of reverse face, running two-
thirds the length. Sound hearts on one side, rafting pin holes, knot
holes or grub holes not exceeding 2 inches in diameter admitted.

Sheet Piles.

Same as Ties, except that it may contain sound heart in heart
check.

Stock Guards.

To be governed by specifications for Construction Oak;

Track End or Bumping Posts.

To be governed by specifications for Structural Timbers.

Classification and Grading Rules for Cypress Lumber and Shingles
General Instructions.

Cypress lumber shall be graded according to the following rules
and specifications, bearing in mind that as no arbitrary set of rules
and specifications can be maintained in every case, each must be left
to the commonsense and best judgment of the inspector.

1. Lumber shall be manufactured and shipped in standard lengths
and thickness.

2. Tank, 1st and 2d and worked partition shall be graded from
the poorer side.

528 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

3. Select lumber, llooring, coiling, bevel tiding and finisliing
shall be graded from the better or finished side, but the reverse
side should in no case be more than one grade lower.

4. All lumber shall be tallied surface or face measure, the tally
counted up, and the one-quarter or one-half added to the total where
the lumber is one and one-quartor or one and one-half inches thick,
and 2 inches and thicker to be multii^licd l)y tlic thickness.

5. In the measurement of all lumber, fractions exactly on the
one-half foot arc to be given alternately to the buyer and seller; the
fractions below the one-half foot arc to be dropped, and all fractions
above one-half foot are to be counted to the next higher figure on
the board rule.

6. In "line boards," pieces 14 feet and longer shall be given the
advantage in grade; pieces 12 feet and shorter shall be reduced in
grade.

7. Recognized defects in cypress are knots, knot holes, shakes,
splits, wane, wormlioles, stained sap and peck.

Standard Lengths.

8. Random standard length stock may be furnished in odd as
well as even foot lengths, but there shali not be to exceed 20 per
cent of odd lengths in any one item.

9. Tank stock and No. 1 barn shall be 8 feet and longer.

10. 1st and 2d and select shall be 10 to 20 feet.

11. Finish, flooring, ceiling, partition, bevel and drop siding shall
be 10 to 20 feet.

12. Moldings and battens of all sizes 6 to 20 feet, in both odd
and even foot lengths, but not exceeding 10 per cent of 6, 7, 8 and
9 foot lengths.

13. No. 2 barn, 6 feet and longer.

14. Cull or peck, 4 feet and longer.

Standard Finished Sizes of Cypress.

15. Lumber shipped in the rough (except 8/4 inch No. 1 and No.
2 "Dimension," which grades maj' be l^ incli under or ^^ incli over
the size specified, both in thickness and width) shall be of suftlcient
thickness to S2S to standard thickness, as follows:

16. 4/4 Lumber SIS or S2S shall be 12 inch thick.

17. 5/4 Select, 1st and 2d clear, selected common tank and tank
lumber SIS or S2S, shall be IJ/^ inches tliick.

18. 6/4 Select 1st and 2d clear, selected comn-.on lank and tank
.lumber SIS or S2S, shall be 1^ inches thick.

19. 6/4 Peck, No. 1 and No. 2 barn and finishing hnnl)cr SIS or
.S2S shall be lil; inches thick.

20. 8/4 Lumber, except No. 1 and No. 2 barn dimension SIS or
S2S, shall be 13^ inches thick.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 529

21. 8/4 No. 1 and No. 2 barn or dimension SIS or S2S, shall
be 1^ inches thick.

22. 10/4 Lumber SIS or S2S, shall be 2^4 inches thick.

23. 12/4 Lumber SIS or S2S, shall be 23^ inches thick.

24. All lumber SlE takes off Vs inch. S2E, i4 inch.

25. All flooring shall be S2S and CM.

26. 4/4 Flooring shall be Yi inch by 2li inch, 3],i inch, 4^4 inch,
5^4 inch face.

27. 5/4 Flooring shall be l^e, 6/4 shall be Ii'^g, by same widths
as 4/4.

28. 3/8 Ceiling shall be worked us inch, .SLS only.

29. 1/2 Ceiling shall be worked ui inch, SIS only.
30. 5/8 Ceiling shall be worked te inch, SIS only.

31. 3/4 Ceiling shall be worked ]/; inch, SIS only.

32. Widths of ceiling to be the same as flooring, unless other-
wise specified. Ceiling up to -;4 inch face to have one bead on one
edge and ceiling wider than 3^4 inch face to be beaded center and
edge.

33. Partition to be finished the same as ceiling, but on both faces

34. Drop siding shall be worked ^ inch by 3% inch, 4^ inch,
5l4 inch, 7li inch, 9J4 inch face, S2S and CM or shiplapped.

35. Bevel siding or bevel cribbing shall be worked yi inch less
in width than the rough strip measure.

Tank Stock.

36. Shall be random widths, and will not be furnished in specified
widths, and shall be graded from the poorer side.

37. Shall be 5 inches and wider, l^j inches to 4 inches thick and 8
feet and over in length. Pieces up to 7 inches shall be free from
sap. Pieces 7 inches to 13 inches may have one inch of sound sap
on one edge, not to exceed half the length and half the thickness of
the piece. Pieces 14 inches and wider may have 1 inch of sound sap
on both edges not to exceed half the length and half the thickness of
the piece. Li all widths sound knots that do not impair usefulness for
tank purposes maj- be admitted.

First and Second Clear.

38. Shall be random widths, and will not be furnished in specified
widths, and shall be graded from the poorer side.

39. Shall be 8 inches and wider, 1 inch to 4 inches thick and 10
feet and over in length. Pieces 8 inches to 10 inches may have 1
inch of bright sap on each edge, or its equivalent on one or both
edges, otherwise they must be clear. Pieces 10 inches and under 12
inches may have 1^ inches of bright sap on each edge or 3 inches
on one edge, and may have one standard knot or its equivalent.
Pieces 12 inches wide may have 2 inches of bright sap on each edge,
or 4 inches on one edge and may have one standard knot; or, in lieu

530 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

of sap, may have two standard knots or their equivalent. Pieces
wider than 12 inches may admit of defects as specified above in pro-
portion as width increases. Pieces 10 inches and wider may admit
of one end split, which shall not exceed in length the width of the
piece. Pieces 12 inches and less in width, free from other defects,
may have bright sap across one face at one end, but this sap shall
not exceed in length one-tenth of the length of the piece. In pieces
13 inches and wider bright sap is not a defect.

Selects.

40. Shall be random widths, and will not be furnished in speci-
fied widths, and shall be graded from the better side, but the reverse
side shall not be of a lower grade than No. 1 shop or No. 1 barn.

41. Shall be 7 inches and wider, but will not be furnished wider
than 12 inches; shall be 1 inch to 4 inches thick, 10 feet and longer.
Pieces 10 inches and under in width shall admit two standard knots
or their equivalent and an additional standard knot or its equivalent
for every 2 inches in width over 10 inches. Pieces free from other
defects, 10 inches and over in width, to admit pin wormholes on one
edge one-tenth the width of the piece. Bright sap is not a defect in
this grade. Slight wane on pieces 10 inches and over in width is
allowed on one edge not over 3 feet in length. When no other defect
appears, slight amount of stained sap may be allowed. Pieces 10
inches and wider may admit of one end split, which shall not exceed
in length the width of the piece.

Selected Common Tank Stock.

42. Shall be 4 inches wide, or wider, \]/2 inches and 2 inches
thick, 8 feet and over in length. Sound sap no defect in this grade,
but must be free from unsound knots or other defects that extend
through the thickness of the piece, and must be square edged to work
the full length of the piece.

No. 1 Barn or Dimension.

43. Shall be specified widths only, shall be 3 inches and wider,
1 inch and thicker, 8 feet and over in length, admitting sap, bright
or stained, shake, season checks, knots, pin wormholes, a small
amount of peck on one side and one edge, or very slight peck on
both sides and both edges of pieces comparatively free from coarse
defects; which defects, however, shall not be sufficient to seriously
impair the strength, or prevent the use of each piece for "common"
purposes in its full length and full width.

No. 2 Barn or Dimension.

44. Shall be specified widths, 3 inches and wider, 1 inch and
thicker, 6 feet and over in length, admitting all the defects allowed
in No. 1 barn, but same may be larger and coarser, and in addition

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 531

will admit peck on both sides; however, the defects sliall not be
sufficient to prevent the use of each piece in full length and full width
for low-grade fencing and other very common purposes.

Cull or Peck.

45. May be random or specified widths 3 inches and wider, 1
inch to 4 inches thick, 4 feet and over in length. Shall admit all
pieces below the grade of No. 2 boxing, and shall also admit the
product of that part of the log known as "pecky;" however, each
piece shall have sufficient strength and nailing surface to permit its
use as a low-grade boxing, crating, sheathing and foundation material.

Finishing.

46. Shall be specified widths 4 inches and wider, 1 inch to 2
inches thick, 10 feet and over in length, and shall be graded from
the better side. A, B and C, but the reverse side should not be more
than one grade lower. All grades of finish, rough or SIS or S2S may
vary % inch from the width specified.

47. "A" Finish. — Pieces 4 inches and 5 inches wide shall be clear
of sap, knots and other defects. Pieces 6 inches wide may have 1
inch of bright sap, or, in lieu of sap, one small sound knot. Pieces
7 inches and 8 inches wide may have 2 inches of bright sap, or, in
lieu of sap, one small sound knot. Pieces 9 inches and 10 inches
wide may have 3 inches of bright sap, or, in lieu of sap, two small
sound knots, or lJ/2 inches of bright sap and one small sound knot.
Pieces 12 inches wide may have 4 inches of bright sap, or, in lieu of
sap, one standard knot, or two small sound knots, or two inches of
bright sap and one small sound knot. Pieces 14 inches or wider may
have more defects in proportion as the width increases.

48. "B" Finish. — Pieces 4 inches, 5 inches and 6 inches wide may
have 2 inches of bright sap and one or two small sound knots, or in
lieu of knots may have all bright sap. Pieces 7 inches and 8 inches
wide may have 3 inches of bright sap and two small sound knots,
or in lieu of knots may have all bright sap. Pieces 9 inches and 10
inches wide may have 4 inches of bright sap and one standard knot
or three small sound knots, or in lieu of knots may have all bright
sap. Pieces 12 inches wide may have 6 inches of bright sap and one
standard or four small sound knots, or in lieu of knots may have all
bright sap. This grade will not be furnished wider than 12 inches.

49. "C" Finish. — All widths in this grade shall admit small sound
knots, stained sap, pin worms and other defects except shake; but
none that will prevent the use of same in its full width and length as
a paint grade, and will admit pieces containing one coarse defect
which can be removed by making two cuts with a waste of not to
exceed 5 per cent in the one piece removed, but which pieces are
otherwise "B" grade or better. This grade will not be furnished
wider than 12 inches.

532 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

50. "D" Finish. — All widths will admit sound knots, stained sap,
pin worms, slight shakes and other defects; but none that will pre-
vent the use of same in its full width and length as a common paint
grade. This grade will not be furnished wider than 12 inches.

Siding.

51. Siding shall be 4 inches and 6 Indus in width, 10 feet to 20
feet in length, and graded from the finislicd side. A, B, C and D.

52. "A" Siding. — May have one inch of bright sap on thin edge
and may contain one small sound knot.

53. "B" Siding. — May have any amount of bright sap, or, if not
all bright sap, may have three small sound knots, shake, split or pin
worm holes not exceeding in damage the three small knots as above,
and may have slight wane on the thin edge. In the absence of other
defects a small amount of stained sap will be permitted.

54. "C" Siding. — May have one to 5 knots, the whole not aggre-
gating over 3 inches in diameter, or knots, splits or other defects
that can be removed in two cuts with waste not exceeding 10 per
cent, of the length, or may have small amount of stained sap and pin
worm holes not exceeding in damage the five small knots above
described.

55. "D" Siding. — May have stained sap and pin worm holes, or
may have other defects that will not cause a waste to exceed one-
third the piece.

Flooring and Ceiling.

56. Shall be specified widths, 10 feet to 20 feet in length and
graded from the finished side, or, if both sides are finished, it shall
be graded from the better side. A, B, C and D.

57. "A" — May have bright sap on one edge one-fourtli its width,
otherwise mUst be clear.

58. "B" — May have one-half of its face bright sap if otherwise
clear, or, in lieu of sap, may contain two small sound knots, or may
have a split not to exceed 9 inches at one end.

59. "C" (10 to 20 feet) — May have all bright sap, or may have
one to five knots, the whole not aggregating over 3 inches, or knots
or other defects that can be removed in two cuts with waste not
exceeding 10 per cent, of the length, or may have three pin worm
holes, or may have check or split at one end, not to exceed 10 per
cent, of the length.

60. "C" (4 to 9 feet) — May have all bright sap, small sound
knots, stained sap, pin worm holes and other defects except shake,
but none that" will prevent the use of each piece the full length.

61. "D" — May have stained sap and pin worm holes, or may have
unsound knots or other defects that will not cause a waste to exceed
one-third the piece

Wnorlpn Rrirlees and Trestles. 533

Partition.

62. Shall be same widths and lengths as flooring and ceiling, bnt
shall be graded from the poorer side, A, B, C and D, same grading
to apply as in flooring and ceiling.

Pickets.

63. Shall be graded No. 1 and No. 2.

64. 1 Inch by 1 inch shall be Headed and S4S to il inch by

i% inch.

65. 1^4 Inches by l]^i inches shall be Headed and S4S to It's

inches by l-^e inches.

66. lJ/2 Inches by lJ/4 inches shall be Headed and S4S to \{'6

inches by lA inches.

67. 1 Inch by 3 inches shall be Headed and S4S to ^'4 inch by

2j4 inches.

68. No. 1 — Shall be well manufactured, bright sap no defect, and

maj' contain one small sound knot.

69. No. 2 — Shall admit stained sap, sound knots, pin worm holes,

slight shake, and pickets thrown out of the No. 1 grade because
of poor manufacture.

Battens.

70. Battens, both flat and OG, are not moldings. Same are in-
variably used with "common" lumber and shall, therefore, be graded
No. 1 barn and better, admitting all defects allowed in No. 1 barn,
but none that w^ill prevent tl^e use of each piece in full length for
batten purposes. Three-eighth inch battens shall be 1 inch strips S2S
to i§ inch by 2i/2 inches and resawed, or 1 inch by 2^ inches to 3
inches S2S and resawed. Unless otherwise specified, 5^-inch or flat
battens shall be S2S only and resawed.

71. OG battens shall be manufactured in the sizes and pattern
shown in the Universal Molding Book.

Shingles.

72. Bests. — A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 inches in width, 16
inches long, each width packed separately, 5 butts to measure 2
inches, to be all heart and free of shake, knots and other defects.

73. Primes. — .A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 inches in width,
16 inches long, each width packed separately, 5 butts to measure 2
inches, admitting tight knots and sap, but free of shake and other
defects, but with no knots within 8 inches of the butts.

74. This grade may contain shingles clipped two-thirds of the
width and one-eighth of the length on the point.

75. Star a Star. — A random width shingle, 3 inches and wider,
14 inches to 16 inches long, otherwise the same as primes.

534 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

76. Economy. — Dimensions 4, 5 and 6 inches, each width sep-
arately bunched, admitting sap and sound knots; may have slight
peck 5 inches from butts, imperfections on points no objection and
admitting 14-inch shingles.

n. Clippers. — All shingles below the above grades which are
sound for 5 inches from butts, wormholes and slight peck excepted,
random widths 2^/2 inches and wider.

78. The count of manufacture of shingles, of all grades, is based
on 4,000 linear inches in width, making 1,000 standard shingles, con-
sequently there would be only 667 6-inch shingles packed and counted
as 1,000 standard shingles; 5 inches dimension being counted in like
proportion,

79. In making re-inspection of shingles, one bundle out of 20
bundles, taken at random, shall be cut open, the results of this in-
vestigation to form the basis of arriving at the grade of the entire
shipment.

Classification and Grading Rules for Hemlock Lumber
Sap

White or bright sap shall not be considered a defect in any of the
grades provided for and described in these rules, except where
stipulated.

Water Stain

In hemlock will often be found streaks or patches of red or
brown discoloralions, sound and firm, the presence of which does not
weaken the wood, nor detract seriously from its utility. Water stain
should not be confused with rot, being firm and strong, while rot is
soft and decayed wood.

Standard Sizes for Hemlock

Rough Lumber
Piece Stuff.

Standard lengths for Rough Piece Stufif are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14,
16, 18, 20, 22 and 24 ft. Standard widths are 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 inches.
Standard thickness is \y^ inches.

Boards.

Standard lengths for Rough Boards are 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18
and 20 ft. Standard widths are 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 inches. Standard
thickness is \\ inch.

Dressed Lumber
Piece Stuff.

Standard sizes for Piece Stuff SISIE are: \j^x3^, l^xS^i
l%x754. 1^x9^, IJ^xim.

vVooden Bridges and Trestles. 535

Boards.

The standard thickness for inch lumber SIS is il inch.

Flooring, Ceiling, Shiplap, Drop Siding.

Standard widths are: 3%, 5%, 7%, 9^ and 11^ in. face. Stand-
ard thickness is \% in.

Estimated Weights of Hemlock Lumber

Per M Feet, Shipping Dry.

3 in. Plank, Rough .3,000

3 in. Plank and 4x4 to 8x8, SISIE 2,700

3 in. Plank, S4S or D & M 2,500

4x10 to 12x12, Rough 3,500

4x10 to 12x12, SlSlE 3,200

4x4 to 8x8, Rough 3,000

Thick D & Better, SIS » 2,500

Thick D & Better, SlSl 2,200

2 in. Piece Stuff, SlSlE 2,200

2 in. Piece Stuff, Rough or SIE 2,500

2 in. Piece Stuff, S4S or D & M 2,000

1 in. Boards, Rough 2,400

1 in. Boards, SIS or S2S 2,000

1 in. Clear and Select, SIS 2,000

Shiplap, D & M, or Drop Siding 1,800

1x6 Well Tubing, Beveled Edges 1,800

Sheathing Lath 1,500

Lath 500

32 in. Lath 300

Grading Rules
Thick D and Better.

1. Thick D and Better shall be 4 in. wide and wider, 1% in.,
1^2 in. and dimension thickness.

2. This grade shall have sound, square edges, and be of grade
of Inch D Stock and Better on the face side, and not below the
grade of Inch No. 1- Common on the back of the piece.

Boards and Strips.

There are six grades made in Boards and Strips :

Inch Clear and Select. No. 2 Common.

Inch D Stock No. 3 Common.

No. 1 Common No. 4 Common.

Inch Clear and Select.

1. Inch Clear and Select should be 4 in. and wider, and 8 ft. long
and longer, not to exceed 10 per cent. 8 ft. long.

536 Wooden Bridges and Trestles .

2. This grade is especially adapted for interior finish and only
the face, or best side, is expected to show, although some attention
should be given to the back of the piece.

3. The face shall show no wane, but the back may show such
an amount of wane or other defects as will not interfere with the
use of the piece for finishing purposes.

4. No shake jor season clieck shall be allowed on the face side,
but a very little tight shake and checks that arc not deep may appear
on the back of the piece.

5. This grade will admit on the face side several tight pin knots
not over fg '"• i" diameter. In a 4 or 6 in., 12 ft. and longer piece,
not more than three knots arc admissible, and i)roportionately more
in a wider piece.

6. A 10 or 12 in. piece, 12 ft. and longer, will not admit of more
than three sound, firmly set knots, not to exceed 54 '"• '" diameter.
Narrower and shorter pieces will admit of fewer large knots, but not
a combination of large knots and other defects.

7. Pieces 12 ft. and longer are admissible that will, with not
more than 10 per cent, of waste, produce two clear cuts, each four
feet long or longer.

Inch D Stock.

1. Inch D Stock shall consist of Boards and Strips below the
grade of Clear and Select 4 in. and wider, and 8 ft. long and longer,
not to exceed 10 per cent. 8 ft. long, and must be of a sound and
water-tight character.

2. All knots must be sound and firmly set. Red knots must not
exceed 1^4 ''i- i" diameter, and spike knots must not exceed in length
one-fourth the width of the piece. Black knots must not exceed 94
in. in diameter, and must be especially well set.

3. A 6-in. strip 12 ft. long shall not contain more than three
defects of the extreme sizes. A wider or longer piece may contain
relatively more of these defects, and narrower and shorter pieces
relatively less. The general appearance of the piece must be taken into
consideration.

4. No shake shall be allowed in this grade, but slight season
checks and water stain shall not be considered defects.

5. This grade shall be suitable for sound Drop Siding, Ceiling
and Flooring, and shall have a smooth appearance, especially on the
edges.

Inch No, 1 Common.

1. The grade of No. 1 Common in Boards or Strips includes
stock of a generally sound character.

2. Some shake is admissible.

3. Numerous knots, whether red or black.

4. Some water stain of a firm character.

Wooden Bridges and Trestles. 537

Inch No. 2 Common.

1. Boards or Strips will admit of considerable shake.

2. Black, unsound knots.

3. Two or three good-sized knot holes, or more of small ones.

4. Streaks, or patches of discoloration, showing partial decay.

5. This grade can be safely recommended for general building
purposes.

Inch No. 3 Common.

1. The defects may consist of excessive shake.

2. Very coarse, unsound knots.

3. Some soft rot.

4. Some cross checks.

Inch No. 4 Common.

4 In. and Wider, 4 Feet and Longer,
This grade includes all serviceable lumber below the grade of
No. 3.

Piece Stuff or Dimension.

No. 1 Dimension

1. The grade of No. 1 Dimension will admit of shake that will
not materially affect the strength of the piece.

2. Also knots, either black or red, that are well located and
fairly sound.

3. Or some slight cross checks or sound water stain.

4. This grade, while admitting the above defects, must at the
same time retain the element of strength required for any building
purpose.

No. 2 Dimension

1. The grade of No. 2 Dimension includes stock not good
enough to be classed as No. 1, and the defects admissible are of the
same general character as the defects found in No. 1, except that
they are more pronounced. '^

2. Considerable shake, large unsound knots, loose knots, knot
holes and cross checks are all admissible in this grade, but not a
serious combination of these defects in any one piece.

Merchantable
The grade of Merchantable is a combination of No. 1 and No, 2,
consisting of approximately 50 per cent, of each.

No. 3 Dimension

1. The defects are excessive shake, numerous knot holes, coarse,
rotten knots, or considerable rot.

2. This grade can be recommended for cheap, light construction.

538

Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

No. 4 Dimension

2x4 and Wider, 4 Feet and Longer.

This grade includes all serviceable Dimension below the grade
of No. 3.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE USES OF LUMBER
1. Bridge and Construction Timber.
A. Combination and Howe Truss Spans.
L Compression members.

2. Tension members.

3. Diagonals subject to re-

versal of stress.

4. Floor beams.

5. Stringers.

Truss timbers.

Centering.

Lagging.

Bracing.

10.

Wedges.

11.

Scafifolding.

9.
10.
11.

Ties.

Guard timbers.

Railing.

Stififeners.

Splices.

Nailing strips.

D. Concrete Forms.

1. Dimension lumber.

2. D. & M. planks.

3. Bracing.

F.. Tanks and Supports.

12.

Grillage.

Piles.

13.

14.

Deck plank.
Bridging.

2.
3.

Sills.
Posts.

Pil

e and Frame Trestles.

Caps.

Piles.

Bracing.

Sills and mud sills.

Joists.

Posts.

D. .& M. flooring.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Caps.

Cross bracing.
Sash bracing.
Longitudinal bracing.
Girts.

9.
10.
11.
12.

Staves.
Rafters. _
Roof.

Ladders, etc.
Frost-box material.

End plank. ^

F. Docks and Wharves.

10.

Stringers.

Piles.

11.

Ties.

Timber sheet piling.

12.

Guard timbers.

Timber in cribs.

13.

Planking for ballasted

Caps.

deck.

Stringers.

14.

Railing.

Bracing.

Fal

sework.

Guard timber.

Piles.

Ties.

Sills and mud sills.

Plank decking.

Posts.

10.

Mooring posts.

Caps.

11.

Fenders and wales.

Stringers.

12.

Warehouse. (See 11.)

Wooden Bridges and Trestles

539

G. Coaling Stations and Ore Sta-
tions.

1. Piles.

2. Sills and mud sills.

3. Posts.

4. Caps.

5. Bracing.

6. Stringers.

2. Frame Buildings.
A. Station Buildings, Passenger,
Freight, Platform Shel-
ters.

1. Piles.

2. Caps.

3. Sills.

4. Posts.

5. Stringers.

6. Joists.

7. Bridging.

8. Sub-flooring.

9. Finish flooring.

(a) Pine.

(b) Fir.

10. Studding and plates.

11. Sheathing.

12. Furring.

13. Siding.

14. Ceiling.

15. Lath.

16. Truss timbers.

17. Purlins.

18. Rafters.

19. Roof boards.

20. Shingles.

21. Door and window frames.

22. Outside finish lumber.

23. Inside finish lumber.

24. Millwork.

(a) Mouldings.

(b) Stairs.

(d) Windows.

25. Partitions.

26. Shelving.

7. Joists.

8. Bin lining.

9. Rafters.

10. Flooring.

11. Chutes.

12. Decking.

13. Coal pockets or bins.

14. Roofing.

B. Engine House.

1. PiHng.

2. Caps.

3. Sills.

4. Posts.

5. Stringers.

6. Joists.

7. Bridging.
8- Flooring.

9. Pit timbers.

10. Studding.

11. Sheathing.

12. Furring.

13. Siding.

14. Ceiling.

15. Lath.

16. Truss timbers.

17. Purlins.

18. Rafters.

19. Roof boards.

20. Shingles.

21. Door and window frames.

22. Outside finish lumber.

23. Inside finish lumber.

24. Millwork.

25. Sleepers.

C. Machine Shops.

1. Piling.

2. Caps.

3. Sills.

4. Posts.

5. Stringers.

6. Joists.

7. Bridging.

8. Flooring.

9. Studding.

(A)

540

Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

10. Sheathing.

11. Furring.

12. Siding.

13. Ceiling.

14. Lath.

15. Truss timbers.

16. Purlins.

17. Rafters.

18. Roof boards.

19. Shingles.

20. Door and window frames.

21. Outside finish lumber.
22- Inside finish lumber.

23. Millwork.

24. Sleepers.

D. Section Houses.

1. Posts.

2. Sills.

3. Caps.

4. Stringers.

5. Joists.

6. Bridging.

7. Sub-flooring.

8. Finish flooring.

9. Studding and plates.

10. Sheathing.

11. Furring.

12. Siding.

13. Ceiling.

14. Lath.

15. Rafters.

16. Roof boards.

17. Shingles.

18. Door and window frames.

19. Outside finish lumber.

20. Inside finish lumber.

21. Millwork.

E. Miscellaneous Small Buildings.

1. Posts.

2. Sills.

3. Caps.

4. Stringers.

5. Joists.

6. Bridging.

7. Sub-flooring.

8. Finish flooring.

9. Studding and plates.

10. Sheathing.

11. Furring.

12. Siding.

13. Ceiling.

14. Lath.

15. Rafters.

16. Roof boards.

17. Shingles.

18. Door and window frames.

19. Outside finish lumber.

20. Inside finish lumber.

21. Millwork.
F. Warehouses.

1. Piling.

2. Caps.

3. Sills.

4. Posts.

5. Stringers.

6. Joists.

7. Bridging.

8. Sub-flooring.

9. Finish flooring.

10. Studding and plates.

11. Sheathing.

12. Furring.

13. Siding.

14. Ceiling.

15. Lath.

16. Truss timbers.

17. Purlins.

18. Rafters.

19. Roof boards.

20. Shingles.

21. Door and window frames.

22. Outside finish lumber.

23. Inside finish lumber.

24. Millwork.

25. Sleepers.
G. Ice Houses.

1. Piling.

2. Sills.

3. Caps.

4. Posts.

5. Stringers.

6. Joists.

Wooden

ridgej

> and Trestles. 541

Bridging.

17. Truss timbers.

Sleepers.

18. Purlins.

Sub-flooring.

19. Rafters.

10.

Finish flooring.

20. Roof boards.

11.

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21. Shingles.

\2.

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22. Door and window frames.

13.

Furring.

23. Outside finish lumber.

14.

Siding.

24. Inside finish lumber.

15.

Ceiling.

25. Millwork.

16.

Lath.

3. Ties.

A. Track Ties.

Switch Ties.

4. Miscellaneous Roadway

Material.

A. Crossing Plank.

2. Bracing.

B. Platforms.

3. Stringers.

Posts.

4. Fence boards.

Caps.

5. Gate material.

Sills.

6. Stakes.

Stringers.

Culverts and Drains.

Joists.

1. Sills.

Bridging.

2. Bracing.

Planking.

3. Timbers.

Railing.

4. Planking.

Steps.

5. Grillage.

10.

Skids.

Stock Pens.

C. Stock Guards.

1. Posts.

Posts.

2. Sills.

Ties.

3. Fencing.

Wing fences and

aprons.

4. Studding.

Slats.

5. Sheathing.

Fillers.

6. Rafters.

D. Signs and Posts.

7. Roof boards.

Posts.

8. Shingles.

. 2.

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9. Outside finish lumber.

Sign boards.

Poles.

Moulding.

Conduits.

E. Fencing, Including

Snow

Bumping Blocks.

Fence.

Cross-arms.

Posts.

542

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REPORT OF COMMITTEE VIII— ON MASONRY

T. J. Yates, Chairman; Job Tuthili., I'ice-ChairtHaii ;

J. T. Andrews, R. L. Humphrey,

R. Armour, Noah Johnson,

G. E. Boyd, M. S. Ketch um,

T. L. Condron. W. S. Lacher,

L. N. Edwards, A. E. Owen,

J. E. Freeman, W. M. Ray,

T. L. D. Hadwen, F. E. Schall,

Geo. T. Hand, Z. H. Sikes,

W. K. Hatt, F. p. SissoN,

L. J. HoTCHKiss, L. L. Tallyn,

S. C. HOLLTSTER, C. C. WeSTFALL,

CoiiDiiittee,
To the American Railivay Engineering Association:

The subjects assigned by the Board of Direction for study and re-
port for 1920 and the sub-committees appointed by the Chairman were
as follows :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

Sub-Committee (1). A. E. Owen, Chairman; Z. H. Sikes, F. P.
Sisson.

2. Report on distintcgration of concrete and corrosion of reinforc-
ing materials in connection with the use of concrete in sea water.

Sub-Committee (2). F. E. Schall, Chairman; J. T. Andrews, R.
Armour, S. C. Hollister.

3. Report on (a) the effect upon the strength and durability of con-
crete not having a sufficiency of moisture present throughout the period
of hardening, as compared with concrete fully supplied with moisture;
(b) methods for providing moisture during this period; (c) remedy for
concrete hardening with insufficient moisture.

Sub-Committee (3). J. E. Freeman, Chairman; L. N. Edwards,
R. L. Humphrey, Noah Johnson.

4. Study and report on the distribution of loads through ballast
and embankments as affecting the design of masonrj' structures.

Sub-Committee (4). Job Tuthill, Chairman; W. M. Ray, W. K.
Hatt.

5. Report on methods for conveying and depositing concrete.

Sub-Committee (5). T. L. Condron, Chairman; L. J. Hotch-
kiss, L. L. Tallyn, T. L. D. Hadwen.
543

544 Masonry.

6. Review and keep advised as to the practical application of specifi-
cations relating to design of concrete and reinforced concrete structures
as developed by the Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Con-
crete.

Sub-Committee (6). Job Tuthill, Chairman; G. E. Boyd, Geo. T.
Hand, M. S. Ketchum, W. S. Lacher, F. E. Schall, C. C.
Westfall, J. J. Yates.

Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Rein-
forced Concrete. Organized February 11th, 1920.

This committee consists of five members each for the American
Society of Civil Engineers, American Concrete Institute, Portland Cement
Association, American Society of Testing Materials, American Railway
Engineering Association.

R. L. Humphrey, Chairman; J. J. Yates, Vice-Chairman; D. A.
Abrams, Secretary-Treasurer.

The members appointed by the Board of Direction were G. E. Boyd,
F. E. Schall, C. C. Westfall, H. T. Welty, J. J. Yates.

Special Joint Committee composed of two members each of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society for Testing Ma-
terials, American Concrete Institute, American Concrete Pipe Association,
American Railway Engineering Association to prepare Specification for
Concrete Pipe.

The members assigned by the Board of Direction were Job Tuthill
and A. F. Robinson.

Committee Meetings

The following meetings of the Full Committee were held : Chicago,
May 20th ; New York, August 24th ; New York, October 25th.

The following meetings of the Joint Committee on Standard Specifi-
cations on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete were held: Philadelphia,
February 11, 1920; Asbury Park, June 22-23-24; New York, October 26-
27-28; New York, December 15-16-17; New York, March 2-3-4, 1921.

In addition there were several meetings of the Joint Committee on
Specifications for Concrete Pipe.

Reports

The Committee presents reports on Subjects 2 and 3.

The work of the Committee has been largely confined to the Joint
Committee on "Standard Specifications on Concrete and Reinforced Con-
crete," a report of which Committee is expected in 1921.

Pending the receipt of the report of this Joint Committee, reports
on Subjects 1-S and 6 are deferred, as the subject-matter contained
therein is being considered in connection with the work of that Com-
mittee.

Progress is being made on Subject 4 and on the Special Committee
on "Specifications for Concrete Pipe" and the experimental work is well
under way.

__^ Masonry. 545

CONCLUSIONS

Your Committee recommends the following action be taken on its
report :

That Conclusions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 as given in Appendix A be ap-
proved and substituted in the Manual for Conclusions 1, 2, 3 and 4 as they
appear on page 294 of the 1915 Manual under Disintegration of Concrete
and Corrosion of Reinforcing Metal.

That the report of Sub-Committee 3 as given in Appendix B be
accepted and printed in the Proceedings as information.

Suggestions for Future Work

Continue Subjects 1-4 and 6.

Continue representation on Joint Committees on "Standard Specifi-
cations for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete" and "Specifications for
Concrete Pipe."

Substitute for Subject 3 the following:

"Study and report on the developments in the art of making Con-
crete."

Study and report on Failures of Concrete Structures.
Respectfull}' submitted,

The Committee on Masonry,
J. J. Yates, Chairman.

Appendix A

(2) DISINTEGRATION OF CONCRETE AND CORROSION OF

REINFORCING MATERIAL IN CONNECTION WITH

THE USE OF CONCRETE IN SEA WATER

F. E. ScHAi.L. Cluiinnaii, Sub-Committee.

General.

The report of the Masonry Committee of March, 1919, contains a
list of a large number of articles published relating to the use and action
of concrete in sea water, either deposited in sea water or precast, and,
after seasoning, placed in sea water.

From the long list, it will be seen that a great deal of attention has
been given in the past to this subject, not only on the American Conti-
nent, but also in Europe and other countries.

Many of the investigations published, however, are based upon
laboratory tests, which, while very interesting and valuable, do not fur-
nish all the facts as to the action of sea water on concrete. Concrete
placed in sea water is not only subject to a chemical action taking place
in the transformation of some of the elements composing the concrete,
but more particularly to the mechanical attacks due to the action of the
tides, waves, ice, drift or accident, the variation of temperature, espe-
cially in the colder latitudes, all tending to injure the film of the exposed
surface. When this film is once pierced or abraded, the aggregates and
binding material offering less resistance, are exposed to these attacks,
causing the more or less rapid destruction and failure of the concrete.

Engineering publications in the past record many failures of con-
crete placed in sea water; the causes are variously ascribed to the
chemical efifect of sea water on concrete, to the mechanical action of the
tides and waves (largely aggravated in Northern latitudes by alternate
freezing and thawing between high and low water level), poor selection
of aggregates or lack of proper workmanship, etc.

Whether such failures were due to any one of the causes mentioned
or to their combined action cannot be answered directly. It is known,
however, that in the development of the various methods of proportion-
ing, mixing and depositing of concrete during the past few years, much
has been accomplished to make a concrete that will better serve the
general requirements of good concrete construction. With proper study
of all the conditions encountered in a particular piece of work, and with
first-class material and workmanship, it is thought possible that concrete
may be made that will withstand the action of sea water in warm cli-
mates, if guarded against abrasion, and by providing special face protec-

546

Masonry. 547

tioii against the action of frost or floating objects, between low and high
water, concrete may also withstand sea water in the colder climates.

The most valuable recent addition to the multitude of publications
on the subject under treatment was made by Messrs. Rudolph Wig of
the U. S. Bureau of Standards, and Lewis R. Ferguson of the Portland
Cement Association, in a series of five articles published in the Engineer-
ing News-Record between September 20th and October 25th, 1917, cover-
ing examination and criticism of most of the marine structures on the
various coasts of the United States.

Your Committee has made a study of man}' of the publications on
tests, experiences and results of concrete construction in sea water;
some report good results, others failures. The question arises, upon what
basis are satisfactorx- results reported in one case and what caused the
failure in another?

Plain Concrete in Sea Water.

For concrete structures in sea water particular attention is to be
given to designing, to the avoidance of all sharp corners, offsets or
pockets tending to obstruct the i^ow or gliding of waves and floating
objects past the structure.

The cement used in this class of work to be Portland Cement, which
must meet the requirements of the current specifications of the American
Railway Engineering Association.

In the proportioning of fine and coarse aggregates, it is most im-
portant that a highh- dense, impervious product be obtained. It is recom-
mended that thorough tests be made to establish that mix which will
result, with the aggregates used, in securing the greatest density of the
concrete, and to continue these tests to maintain this proper mix at all
times, until the completion of the work. Allowance should be made for
the loss of cement when concrete is deposited into sea water. Special
attention must be given to exposed surfaces to secure a hard, even and
non-porous face of concrete.

For pre-cast concrete blocks, piles, etc., placed in sea water, the fore-
going requirements are equally important. Better results have generally
been obtained heretofore witli prc-cast l)locks than with concrete de-
posited into sea water, Imt the blocks must be well seasoned before being
placed in position.

The sand must l»e free frdui clay or (jther foreign matter; clean
well graded fine to coarse sand will produce tlie best results.

The coarse aggregate should be carefully selected. It must be uni-
formly hard and durable. Non-porous screened washed gravel is prefer-
able for sea water work, especially in colder climates, although sound
hard crushed stone ma}^ be used. Gravel affords better mixing and it
settles more easily into place. Bank-run gravel, however, should not be
used, since generally its quality is not uniform.

Sea water has been used in the gauging of concrete, and it was found
that the strength of the concrete is affected only to a small extent. Fresh
water should be used when such can be obtained without unreasonable
expense.

548 Masonry.

The gauging of the concrete is of great importance; the consistency
should neither be too dry nor too wet. If deposited in air, a consistency
that permits of light tamping and packing to bring water to the surface
without much effort, will generally be best; rodding, to secure greater
density, may be employed to good advantage.

The time of mixing of the concrete for sea water construction must
receive special attention, and should be tested out with the particular
mix used, so that all particles of the fine and coarse aggregates are
thoroughly coated and the full strength of the cement used obtained. It
is an established fact that the strength of the concrete increases, accord-
ing to the time allowed for mixing, up to a certain point, and full advan-
tage should be taken of this element; two minutes is considered a mini-
mum.

In depositing concrete into sea water, continuous operations must be
employed and the greatest care exercised if failure is to be avoided, either
using a well-designed watertight tremie or a bottom drop bucket. It is
important that the concrete be deposited systematicall}^ If a tremie is
used, it must be kept filled at all times; when a charge is lost, the tremie
must be withdrawn and refilled. If a drop bucket is used, the concrete
is to be discharged from the bucket alongside the last previously placed;
the whole of the surface should be kept as level as possible. In all
cases, enclosed cofferdams should be used to prevent washing. In case
of unavoidable interruption of the work, it is most important that the
top surface be thoroughly cleaned of laitance after the stoppage of work
before additional concrete is placed. The concrete above the low water
line should be tamped and compacted as it is placed and thoroughly
worked next to the forms, to obtain a dense smooth non-porous surface.

If the foregoing is followed, a good and lasting plain concrete
should be obtained, but this is only possible by constant vigilance, rigid
supervision and care, in every detail of the process pf construction. The
least infraction on the established proportions or laxity in thorough
workmanship may lead to failure.

Reinforced Concrete in Sea Water.

The protection of reinforcing steel in concrete placed in sea water
is dependent upon the density, impermeability and lasting qualities of the
concrete in which it is embedded, and the distance of the reinforcing
steel from the surface of the concrete. When the surface film of the
concrete is once abraded by mechanical or other action, the rein-
forcement may be reached by the sea water either through capillary
attraction or exposure of the metal. The steel will then rust, causing, its
destruction, and also the spalling of the concrete by reason of the en-
largement of the rusted steel. It is, therefore, imperative to construct a
dense, impermeable concrete when steel reinforcement is employed.

Where possible, mass construction should be adopted for such part
of concrete structures as will come in contact with sea water, between

Masonry. 549

high and low water, and even for the parts above the high water line,
steel reinforcement should be so placed that there is at least 3 inches
dense concrete between the surface of concrete and the face of the steel
to prevent moisture from the salt air penetrating to the metal.

Conclusions

1. Concrete for sea water work should be mixed in the proportions
of one part Portland Cement to not more than six parts of fine and
coarse aggregates, measured separately and combined in such proportions
as will produce a concrete of maximum density and impermeability. Only
enough water should be added to secure plastic workability. The concrete
shall be mixed in a batch mixer for not less than two minutes after all
the materials are in the drum. Where concrete is deposited into sea
water, the above proportions should be reduced to one part of cement to
not more than five parts of separately measured aggregates. Tests should
be made from time to time during the progress of the work to maintain
the proper proportions of the aggregates throughout construction.

2. Concrete should be deposited in the air wherever practicable.
When necessary to deposit concrete in water, it should be protected from
currents by cofferdams or similar means.

3. The concrete, where practicable, should be deposited in a con-
tinuous operation to a point 5 ft. above high water. In case of unavoid-
able stoppage of the work, the previously cast concrete should be thor-
oughly cleaned of all laitance.

4. From 2 ft. below low water to 2 ft. above high water, or from a
plane below to a plane above wave action, the face of the concrete should
be adequately protected against mechanical abrasion and frost action.
Construction or other joints should in every case be avoided within this
zone. Sharp corners and projections should also be avoided, but where
necessary they should be rounded to reduce abrasion to a minimum.

5. If reinforcement is used in concrete in sea water, special atten-
tion should be given in the design to the position of the reinforcement.
In no case should the steel be nearer than 3 in. to any plane or curved
surface, and not less than 4 in. from any two adjacent surfaces.

6. The most rigid rules in regard to workmanship and inspection
should be established and constantlv enforced on all sea water work.

Appendix B

(3) (A) THE EFFECT UPON THE STRENGTH AND DURA-
BILITY OF CONCRETE NOT HAVING A SUFFICIENCY
OF MOISTURE PRESENT THROUGHOUT THE PERIOD
OF HARDENING; (B) METHODS FOR PROVIDING
MOISTURE DURING THIS PERIOD;. (C) REMEDY FOR
CONCRETE HARDENING WITH INSUFFICIENT
MOISTURE.

J. E. Freeman, Ckainnau. Sul)-Coinmittce.

This subject was covered by report of the committee as published in
Volume 20, page 748, and there is little to add this year, but in reviewing
its work the Committee was impressed Avith the desirability of broaden-
ing its investigation to include other important elements affecting the
strength and durability of concrete.

The Committee tiiercfore recommends that the next assignment be
included under the subject "Study and Report on the Developments in
the Art of Making Concrete."

It also recommends that a bulletin be prepared and issued next year
incorporating the Specifications for Cement, Reinforcement and Concrete
and Reinforced Concrete as they appear in the Manual, together with an
appendix of selective information on the art of making concrete that may
be of use to the constructing and designing engineer.

In line with the al)Ove, tlic Committee presents the following as
information :

Kffect ok Xcv. .\xi) Coxdiiiox ok Stor.\ge Upo.\ the Strength of Con-
crete (See Note)

A series of tests have been made at the University of Illinois sup-
plemented by investigations made by the C. B. & Q. R. R. to determine
the effect of age and condition of storage upon the strength of concrete.
The results of the tests have been summarized as follows: (See Figs. 1
and 2.)

"1. The strength of the concrete which was stored in contact with
moisture increased rapidly up to an age of 1 year ; the increase in strength
at ages greatei than 1 year, although considerable, took place at a much
less rapid rate.

2. The air-stored concrete attained nearly its final strength at a
comparatively early age and gained little strength with the lapse pf time.

3. The concrete which had been stored in air for a considerable
time increased in strength greatly after it had been stored in contact
with moisture so that further hydration of the cement could take place;
the strength of the specimens stored in damp sand 2 years and 8 months

550

M a s o n r y . 551

after thc\- were 2 years and 4 months old was 1.46 times the strength of
the specimens which remained stored in air for 5 years.

4. The strength of the concrete at an age of 7 days for both damp
sand storage and air storage was about 70 per cent, of the strength at 28
days; at an age of 1 year the strength of the concrete stored in damp
sand was about twice as strong as at 28 days and the air-stored concrete
was only 10 per cent, stronger than at 28 days. At an age of 5 years
the strength of the concrete stored in damp sand was about 2.5 times
the strength at 28 days and the strength of the air-stored concrete about
1.3 times the strength at 28 days.

5. At ages of 3 and 5 years the strength of the concrete stored in
damp sand was about 1.9 times the strength of the air-stored concrete.

6. For the specimens stored in air the strength at an age of 8 years
was slightly more than that at 6 months.

7. The strength of the specimens stored in water for 10 months
after they were 7 years old was 1.3 times the strength of the specimens
which remained stored in air for 8 years.

It seems apparent that concrete in structures exposed to air which
is not damp will gain little strength beyond that attained at the earlier
ages, in the portions where loss of moisture takes place, while concrete
in contact with moisture or dampness will continue to gain in strength
for some years."

Note. — For full description of tests see : "Some Tests on the Effect
of Age and Condition of Storage on the Compressive Strength of Con-
crete."-T-H. F. Gonnerman, University of Illinois. Proceedings American
Concrete Institute, Vol. XIV, page 101 (1918).

Masonry.

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Tests for Plasticity of Concrete

Cencrete must be plastic in order that it may be molded t® the de-
sired eutlines and placed around the reinforcing members, but an excess
of water in the mixture has a very detrimental effect upon the strength
and other properties «f concrete. Similarly a deficiency in the quantity
of mixing water reduces the strength of the concrete though not to such
a marked extent.

The curve shown in Figure 3 indicates the variation in strength
resulting from a variation in the quantity of mixing water. The amount
of water required to produce the consistency needed for greatest strength
is taken as 100 per cent, or "Normal Consistency." The use of more or
less than this amount of water results in a decided falling off in strength.

Slump Test.

For measuring the plasticity of a concrete mixture a method has
been developed called the "Slump Test." A metal form is used, the form
having the shape of a truncated cone 4 in. in top diameter, 8 in. in bottom
diameter and 12 in. high. Figure 4 shows a plan for making this form.
It should be made of No. 20 gauge iron or heavier, and provided with a
handle for lifting. If desired a ring or several lugs may be fastened to
the outside of the cone at the base to assist in holding it down with the
foot when filling with concrete.

The slump test is made as follows : Place the concrete in the form
in three layers of approximately 4-in. thickness, puddling each layer with
25 to 30 strokes from a 5^-in. round steel bar 21 in. long, pointed at the
lower end. Immediately after molding, remove the form by a steady up-
ward pull and measure the height of the concrete in inches ; this height
subtracted from 12 in. is the "slump.' (Fig. 5.)

Concrete of "Normal Consistency" will give a slump of ^ to 1 in. (Fig.
6.) If the plastic condition of the concrete regardless of the quality of
water used is called the "Relative Consistency," which is assumed to be
1.00 for "Normal Consistency," then a relative consistency of 1.10 con-
tains 10 per cent, more water, etc. A relative consistency of 1.10 to 1.20
represents about the driest concrete that can be used in construction
w«rk without interfering with its workability.

Flow Table.

Another method for measuring the plasticity or flowability of c®n-
crete has been developed by the U. S. Bureau of Sta.ndards and makes
use of an apparatus called a "flow table." (Figs. 7 and 8.) A metal cov-
ered table top supported on a frame is arranged so that it can be raised
vertically by means of a cam working at the bottom of a vertical post to
wkich the table top is attached. The amount of drop can be adjusted by
means of a bolt at the lower end of the post.

A sheet metal mold placed at the center of the table top is filled
with mortar or concrete. This mold has the shape of a hollow frustrum
of a cone and for aggregates up to 2 in. maximum size is 6 in. high, 8 in.

554

Masonry

ill diameter at the top and IJ in. at the bottom. For smaller aggregates
when made up in small quantities a 3 in. cone, 4 in. in diameter at the
top and 6 in. at the bottom is substituted. (Figs. 9 and 10.)

The concrete when placed in the mold is tamped just enough to fill it
completely, then the mold is withdrawn vertically and by turning the
cam shaft the table top is dropped 15 times in about 10 seconds through
a distance of ^4 in. This causes the concrete to flatten out and spread
over the table top, usually concentrically. Two diameters at right angles
to each other — the long and the short if there is apparent difference — are
measured with a self-reading caliper, so graduated that the sum of the
two readings is the value for "flowability." This may also be calculated
by dividing the new diameter by the old and multiplying bj' 100.

A typical curve indicating the relation between the quantity of mix-
ing water used and resulting flowabilit}' of concrete is shown in Figure
11.

Table 2 — Approximate Quantity of Mixing Water Required for Cer-
tain CoN'CRETE Mixtures*

Mix.

Appropriate Mix as Usually
Expressed.

Water Required (Gallons
per Sack of Cement.)

Cement

Volume of

Aggregate After

Mixing

Cement

Aggregate

Minimum

Maximum

Fine

Coarse

}

3
4

6J2

2>2

7>i
8>i

5^i
6

7Ji

•Revision of Table on page 729, Vol. 20.

Effect of Low Temperatures on Concrete

Cold retards the hardening action of cement and the effect produced
increases with the decrease in temperature until the hardening action
practically ceases at temperatures below freezing.

By heating aggregates and mixing water in cold weather the tem-
perature of the concrete is increased to that approaching normal tem-
peratures during warm weather or even exceeding such temperatures,
which, combined with adequate protection of the concrete while harden-
ing so as to maintain favorable temperature and moisture conditions, en-
ables the concrete to harden properly.

There has been a tendency to relax cold weather precautions when
temperatures slightly above the freezing point (35 deg.-40 deg.) are en-
countered, but the hardening action of cement at such temperatures is
very slow and good judgment requires that under such conditions the
aggregates and mixing water be heated so that the concrete will have a

*_ M a s o n r },- . 555

temperature of at least 50 deg. Fahr. and precautions taken to maintain
this temperature in the concrete for three days at least.

Hool & Johnson state in "Concrete Engineer's Handbook," p. 77,
"At 40 deg. Fahr. concrete requires four times as long a period to attain
a given strength as the same concrete at 50 deg. Fahr. ; and at 40 deg.
Fahr. about nine times as long as at 70 deg. Fahr. Below 40 deg. Fahr.
the ratio still further increases." A. B. McDaniel in his paper "Influence
of Temperature on the Strength of Concrete' (Proceedings Am. Cone.
Institute, 1916, p. 241), states in his conclusions:

"It is evident that if the concrete is to acquire a reasonable self-sus-
taining or a load-bearing strength in a short time (conditions which ordi-
narily obtain on building work), it is necessary to place the concrete
under the most favorable conditions and maintain these conditions dur-
ing the first few days. Concrete which is protected and maintained at a
temperature of- from 60 deg. to 70 deg. Fahr. will at the age of one week
have practically double the strength of the same material which is kept
unprotected at a low temperature of from 32 deg. to 40 deg. Fahr. Under
freezing temperature conditions the materials should be heated so that
the concrete will have an average temperature of from 60 deg. to 70 deg.
Fahr., and the concrete in place kept under an air temperature of not less
than 45 deg. Fahr. by artificial heat during the first week. This provision
for favorable temperature conditions avoids the well-known injurious
effect of the freezing of the water in the concrete, and also the deteriorat-
ing effect of the alternate freezing and thawing of the concrete."

When aggregates and mixing water are heated the temperature of
the concrete when placed will generally be well above 50 deg. This
minimum was set to prevent use of cold materials and water at tempera-
tures close to but above freezing, as that would make the temperature of
the concrete 35 to 40 deg. Fahr. and would seriouslj^ reduce its ability to
gain in strength, without considering the effect of a sudden drop in tem-
perature upon such a weak concrete.

556

Mason r y ,

Fig. 1 — Effect of Age on Compressive Strength of Concrete of
Different Consistencies and Storage Conditions.

Masonry.

557

■

<ri

'^^

"^^

*^V--

■M

^"^

^■^

'T\

f\j

-~-o

S S S "^i "Si

S S S S> <5>

S S S ^ Q

"^ XJ- «fV «\j -<

■urbffJo'cfs'q/ u/i/^tu6>J4g ^Ais£<s>jdLUO;p

Fig. 2 — Effect of Age and Condition of Storage on Compressive
Strength of Concrete.

558

Masonry

•

III

r-Proper cons/srency-for mass cancrere,
[ concrete h/'ahmiv payen7ents.etc.

- Th/s ra/7<je of consistency shatt/d
be used for cast productSjre/ntbriceo
concrete, etc.,th/n memi^ers require

\the greater arrfount of yvater

[

X 1
1
1

I
1

■^

1 1 1 II

r-V/ith this consistency about

J one-/?aif the sf-renafh k iost

H^/f/? the sloppy concrete some^'^
t/'mes used /h rood yvor/c and /h
buildincj constructior?j ftfo-th/'ras
to three-fourths of the poss/'/p/e
strength of the concrete fs /ostr

^^^

70 BO 90 100 110 ISO 130 14-0 ISO I60 /70 leO 190 tOO

Watfr Used- Figures aceperre/7fcfa.uanfify (ri\^ing ^fax'imum strength.

Fig. 3 — Effect of Quantity of Mixing Water on the Strength of

Concrete.

From tests made by Structural Materials Research Laboratory,
Lewis Institute, Chicago.

777/5 can be
cut frorn a
sheet 1 5 in.
wide and£&
in. /ong^ not
/igiiter
i-hon eO

Fig. 4 — Plan of Metal Form Used for Slump Test.

M a s o n r v .

559

Fig. S — Making thk Sump Test for Plasticity of Concrfte.

560

Masonry.

Fig. 6— Results of the Slump Test.
Batches of concrete of varying consistency showing "slump" after
removal from the mold. Percentages of normal consistency are shown
by figures below each pile. Figures to the side show the amount each pile
has slumped from 12 inches, the height of the mold.

Fig. 7 — Bureau of Standards Flow-Table for Consistency of Concrete.

A mass of concrete is molded in a sheet metal mold in the shape of
a frustum of a cone.

Masonry.

561

teW'';r,'>V^^':'¥ .^r•V

Fig. 8 — Flow-Table for Consistency of Concrete.

By means of a cam the table top is raised 1/2 inch and dropped 15
times. The flowability is determined bj- measuring the spread of the
mass of concrete.

562

M a s o n r a-

i'ic,.9 — IJuKKAu OK Stand \Ri)S [""low-Table Uskd fok Normal Consisticncy
Tksts of Nf.at Cf-micnt wn Staxhakm Saxii Mortars.

Masonry

563

Fig. 10 — This Smaller Flow-Table Can Be Used More Conveniently

IN Making Flowabilitv Tests of Cement Mortars than the

Table Required for Conxrete Mixti-res.

564

Masonry

'4^

U,^-^- -^ /

2/0 ' cwssjsf^aciAS ^

iUW)44W44iWWUti4;|W4)W»l<WUUjlti44UtUmU4J-IHIt[WWIMI4^-H^-l;rlHti!|^

Z7C

Plxces^ive Sei^r^qufjan'—i Fhw/n cnt' ^e -3J parses.

jffi-fTTmi,

From Ar^,cM^ Jryj^B W,JJ*n-<
'CtrorA--h!- ' JOnt ,ifip, ffe^i^ i?S i

Fig. 11— Effect of Quantity of Mixing Water on Plasticity or Flow-
ability OF Concrete as Measured by "Flow Table."

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XVI— ECONOMICS OF
RAILWAY LOCATION

C. P. Howard, Chairman; A. S. Going, Vice-Chainmm;

F. H. Alfred, Edward C. Schmidt,

R. N. Begien, • H. C. Searls,

WiLLARD Beahan, A. K. Shurtleff,

Edwin J. Beugler, C. H. Splitstone,

W. J. Cunningham, C. W. Stark,

C. T. Delamere, M. F. Steinberger,

A. C. Dennis, John G. Sullivan,

W. A. James, Walter Loring Webb,

Fred Lavis, M. A. Zook,

E. H. McHenry, Committee.

To the American Railivay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Economics
of Railway Location for study and report ;

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on the resistance of trains running between 35 and 75
miles per hour.

3. Report on effect of curvature on cost of:

(a) Maintenance of way;

(b) Maintenance of equipment.

4. Report on the effect of train resistance on the amount of fuel con-
sumed.

5. Make final report, if practicable, on the question of economics of
rai4way location as affected by the introduction of electric locomotives.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, May 25th and
August 30th. The names of members in attendance have been given in
the Minutes of the meetings, which have been printed in the Bulletin.

(1) Revision of Manual

In Appendix A proposed changes in the Manual are given.

(2) Resistance of Trains Between 35 and 75 Miles Per Hour

In Appendix B will be found report of the Sub-Committee, with
diagrams, tables and conclusions recommended for adoption and inclusion
in the Manual.

(3) Effect of Curvature on Cost of Maintenance of Way
and Equipment

No progress made on this subject.

565

566 Economics of Railway Location. _^

(4) Effect of Train Resistance on Amount of Fuel Consumed

The Committee wishes to call attention again to data now in the
Manual covering this subject. With the aid of this data fuel consumption
may be estimated for any combination of train and grade resistances and
length of run, using ordinary coal burning (excluding Mallet) loco-
motives. ,

(5) Economics of Location As Affected By Electric Locomotives

In Appendix C will be found the report of the Sub-Committee and
conclusion recommended for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.

Recommendations for Future Work

The general subject of future work and of the means for securing
desired results was considered at both meetings of the Committee. The
Committee believes that funds should be appropriated and expert assist-
ance employed to collect data, conduct investigations and classify and
formulate results, and that the great problems involved in the proper lay-
out and improvement of the railways of America will amply justify such
expenditure.

Respectfully submitted,

The Committee on Economics
OF Railway Location,

C. P. Howard, Chairman.

Appendix A
(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

F. Lavis, Chairman;

WiLLARD BeAHAN,

W. J. Cunningham,
C. P. Howard,

A. K. Shurtlepf,

C. W. Stark,

Major Walter Loring Webb,

M. A. ZooK,

Siib-Committcc.

The subject assigned to it was: "Make thorough examination of the
subject-matter of the Manual, and submit definite recommendations for
changes."

The changes recommended are as follows :

Present Form.
Section 5.

In order to make an economical
location of a railway, the Engineer
must know or make a reasonable
assumption of the amount, direc-
tion and class of traffic that the
railway will be called upon to han-
dle, class of power and the ap-
proximate efficiency and cost of
fuel that will be used, the rate of
wages that will be paid to employes,
the cost of maintenance, materials,
and the rate of interest considered
a proper return for additional ex-
penditures involved in the improve-
ment of the line for the reduction
of operating expenses.

Section 8.

If passing sidings must of neces-
sity be located on ruling gradients,
then such gradients should be com-
pensated through and preferably
for a full train length in each di-
rection from either end of the sid-
ing. The rate of compensation will
be governed bj' the ruling gradient.

Proposed Form.

In order to make a location on
an economic basis, the Engineer
must know, or make a reasonable
assumption of, the amount, direc-
tion of movement, and class of
traffic which the railway will be
called upon to handle and the
probable cost of operation. He
must also consider variations in the
amount and character of traffic that
may be occasioned by changes in
line, gradients or other features of
location.

If passing siding must of neces-
sity be located on ruling gradients,
then such gradients should, if prac-
tical, be compensated for the whole
length of the siding and for a full
train length beyond each end, so as
to permit the maximum train load,
which can be hauled over the rul-
ing gradient to be started from a
full stop at any point within the
limits given. Due consideration
must also be given to the compen-
sation required on the curves at
each end of the turnout.

The Committee desires to call attention to the following changes
which were approved at the 1917 meeting but not incorporated in the
Supplement to the Manual subsequently issued.

567

568 Economics of Railway Location.

Change the words grade and grades to gradient and gradients
throughout the text.

Changes of Sections 9 and 13 as now written in the 1915 Manual.

Also the suggestion that when a new Manual is issued that the
matter under "Economics of Railway Location" be provided with suitable
headings and the following captions are suggested :

Definitions; Comparison of Alternate Locations;

Locations Governed by Traffic ; Train Resistance ;

Engine Districts; Minor Details;

Passing Sidings; Special Structures;

Ruling Gradients; Time;

Lessening First Cost; Distance and Revenue.

Momentum Gradients

The Committee offers for the consideration of the whole Committee
the following neiv matter for the Manual.

Add to Section 13 (as amended at the 1917 meeting) the following:
Inertia resistance, or the additional energy required to increase the
velocity of a train from Vi velocity to Vz velocity may be computed by
the formula :

. 70
P= (V2 — Vi) — in which

s
P = required force in pounds per ton,
Vj and Vi = the higher and lower velocities respectively in miles per

hour, and
s = the distance in feet in which such acceleration is accomplished.
For many calculations Vi = zero. The formula allows 5 per cent for
the extra energy required to produce rotation of the wheels and
axles.
This should be inserted after the first paragraph of Section 13.

Appendix B

(2) THE RESISTANCE OF TRAINS RUNNING BETWEEN 35
AND 75 MILES PER HOUR

Major Edward C. Schmidt, Chairman;
A. C. Dennis,

Sub-Comtnittee.

Sub-Committee (2) was directed to "report on the resistance of trains
running between 35 and 75 miles per hour," with the suggestion by the
chairman "that additional data be secured if practicable, and that a study
be made of the results of tests made by the University of Illinois and
published in recent bulletins."

The publications referred to are Bulletins 43 and 110 of the Engineer-
ing Experiment Station of the University of Illinois. Bulletin 43, Freight
Train Resistance, deals exclusively with the resistance of freight trains
running on straight track at speeds up to 40 miles per hour, and with
average weights per car varying from 15 to 75 tons. Bulletin 110, Passeti-
ger Train Resistance, deals with the resistance of passenger trains run-
ning at speeds up to 75 miles per hour and with average weights per car
ranging from 30 to 75 tons.

The Sub-Committee has been unable to learn of any important de-
velopment in the subject of train resistance since the publication of the
bulletins. It believes that they present reliable information adequate for
all the ordinary purposes of the members of the Association, and that this
report therefore may be confined to summarizing the results presented in
these publications.

Throughout this report the terms "resistance" and "train resistance"
mean the number of pounds of tractive effort required for each ton of
the train in order to keep it in motion on straight and level track, at uni-
form speed. This resistance is only that of the train behind the locomo-
tive tender — the resistance of the locomotive and tender, themselves, is
not included.

The results here presented relate to trains running on good track
and in moderate weather when the temperature is above 30 deg. Fahr.
and the wind velocity not over 20 miles per hour. Poor track, extremely
low temperature, and high winds all increase train resistance; but there
is not yet available enough information to enable the influence of any
©f these factors to be evaluated. The influence of low temperature is
probably the most important.* and some allowance should be made for it
in attempting to predict resistance during extreme winter weather.

*See Bulletin No. 59, "The Effect of Cold Weather Upon Train Resist-
ance and Tonnage Ratingr," Eng-ineering Experiment Station of the Univer-
sity of Illinois.

569

570 Economics of Railway Lo. cation.

It should be emphasized tiiat the resistance of both freight and pas-
senger trains depends not only upon speed, but upon the average weight
of the cars composing the train. Tn order to predict resistance at any
.speed, the average weight of the cars must 1)e either known or assumed.

Freight Train Resistance

The final results of the tests discussed in Bulletin 43 are presented in
Fig. 1 and Table 1 of this report. In using this figure and table the con-
ditions and limitations of the tests must be understood and the following
summary, extracted from the bulletin, is therefore given.

The tests were made with a variety of trains in regular freight service
upon well-constructed and well-maintained main-line track, 94 per tent
of which was laid with 85-lb. rail, the remainder beiivg laid with 75-lb.
rail. The track was ballasted with broken stone. The experiments were
carried on during moderate weather when the minimum air temperature
encountered was 34 deg. Fabr. and the wind velocities were less than 20
miles per hour.

The results are applicable to trains of all varieties of make-up to be
met with in service. They may lie applied, withc)ut incurring material
error, to trains which are homogeneous and to those which are mixed
as regards individual car weight.

The results are primarily applicable to trains which have been in mo-
tion for some time. When trains are first started from yards, or after
stops on the road of more than about 20 minutes' duration, their resistance
is likely to be appreciably greater than is indicated by the results here
presented. In rating locomotives, no consideration need be given this
matter except in determining "dead" ratings for low speeds, and then
only when the ruling grade is located within six or seven miles of the
starting point or of a regular road stop.

It is to be expected that some trains to be met with in service will
have a resistance about 9 per cent in excess of that indicated ])y Fig. 1
and Ta1)le 1, due to variations in make-up or in external conditions within
the limits to which the tests apply. If operating conditions make it es-
sential to reduce to a minimum the risk of failure to haul the allotted
tonnage, then this 9 per cent allowance should be made. This considera-
tion, like the one preceding, is important only in rating locomotives for
speeds under 15 miles per hour. At higher speeds, the occasional excess
in the resistance of individual trains will result in nothing more serious
than a slight increase in running time. It should be understood that this
allowance, if made, is to be added to the resistance on level track — not to
the gross resistance on grades. For all ordinary purposes, however. Fig. 1
and Table 1 may be used as they stand to estimate the resistance of freight
trains running on straight and level track of good construction during
moderate weather.

The train speeds in these experiments did not exceed 40 miles per
hour and the original curves and tables in Bulletin 43 are limited to that
speed. The Committee believes, however, that the original curves may

Economics of Railway Location. 571

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(A)

572

Economics of Railw ay Location.

Table 1 — Values of Freight Train Resistance at Various Speeds and
FOR Trains of Different Average Weights per Car.

Speed
miles
per
hour

Train Resistance— Pounds per ton

Column Headings Indicate the Average Weights Per Car

tons

Ions

tons

Speed

miles

7.6

6.8

6.0

5.4

4.8

4.4

4.0

3.7

3.5

3.3

3.2

3.1

3.0

7.7

6.9

6.1

5.5

4.9

4.4

4.1

3.8

3.6

3.3

3.2

3.1

3.0

7.8

7.0

6.2

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.1

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

3.1

8.0

7.1

6.3

5.6

5.0

4.6

4.2

3.9

3.6

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.1

8.1

7.2

6.4

5.7

5.1

4.6

4.2

3.9

3.6

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.1

8.2

7.3

6.5

5.8

5.2

4.7

4.3

4.0

3.7

3.5

3.3

3.2

8.3

7.4

6.6

5.9

5.3

4.8

4.3

4.0

3.7

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2

8.4

7.5

6.7

6.0

5.4

4.8

4.4

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.3

8.6

7.6

6.8

6.1

5.5

4.9

4.5

4.1

3.8

3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

13 ,

8.7

7.8

6.9

6.2

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.2

3.9

3.7

3.5

3.4

8.8

7.9

7.0

6.3

5.6

5.1

4.6

4.2

3.9

3.7

3.6

3.5

3.4

9.0

8.0

7.1

6.4

5.7

5.1

4.7

4.3

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.5

9.1

8.1

7.2

5.8

5.2

4.8

4.4

4.1

3.9

3.7

3.6

3.5

9.3

8.3

7.4

6.6

5.9

5.3

4.8

4.5

4.1

3.9

3.7

3,6

9.4

8.4

7.5

6.7

6.0

5.4

4.9

4.5

4.2

4.0

3.8

3.7

3.6

9.6

8.5

6.8

6.1

5.5

5.0

4.6

4.3

4.0

3.9

3.8

3.7

9.7

8.7

7.7

6.9

6.2

5.6

5.1

4.7

4.3

4.1

3.9

3.8

9.9

8.8

7.9

7.0

6.3

5.7

5.2

4.8

4.4

4.2

4.0

3.9

3.8

10.0

9.0

8.0

7.1

6.4

5.8

5.3

4.9

4.5

4.3

4.1

4.0

3.9

10.2

9.1

8.1

7.3

6.6

5.9

5.4

4,9

4.6

4.3

4.2

4.1

4.0

10.4

9 3

8.3

7.4

6.7

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.7

4.4

4.2

4.1

4.0

10.5

9.4

8.4

7.5

6.8

6.1

5.6

5.1

4.8

4.5

4.3

4.2

4.1

10.7

9.6

8.5

7.7

6.9

6.3

5.7

5.2

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.3

4.2

10.9

9.7

8.7

7.8

7.0

6.3

5.8

5.3

4.9

4.7

4.4

4.3

11.1

9.9

8.8

7.9

7.1

6.5

5-9

5.4

5,0

4.8

4.5

4.4

11-3

10.0

9.0

8.0

7.3

6.6

6.0

5.5

5.1

4.9

4.7

4.5

11.4

10.2

9.1

8.2

7.4

6.7

6.1

5.6

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.6

4.5

11.6

10.4

9.3

8.3

7.5

6.8

6.2

5.8

5.3

5.0

4.9

4.7

4.6

11.8

10.5

9.4

8.5

7.6

7.0

6.3

5.9

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.7

12.0

10.7

9.6

8.6

7.8

7.1

6.5

6.0

5.5

5.3

5.1

4.9

4.8

12.3

10.9

9.7

8.8

7.9

7.2

6.1

5.7

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.9

12.5

11.1

9.9

8.9

8.0

7.4

6.7

6.2

5.8

5.5

5.3

5.1

5.0

12.7

11 2

10.0

9.0

8.2

7.5

6.9

6.4

5.9

5.6

5,4

5.2

5.1

12.9

11.4

10.2

9.2

8.3

7.6

7.0

6.5

6.0

5.7

5.5

5.3

5.2

13.1

11.6

10.4

9.4

8,5

7,8

7.1

6.6

6,2

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.3

13.4

11.8

10.6

9.5

8,6

7.9

7.3

6.8

6.3

6.0

5.6

5.5

14.5

12.8

11.4

10.3

9.5

8.7

8.1

7.5

7.0

6.6

6.4

6.2

6.0

15.8

13.8

12.4

11.2

10.3

9.6

8.9

8.4

7.7

7.3

7.0

6.8

6.7

Economics of Railway Location. 573

be extended without material error to 50 miles per hour, which is the
maximum speed ordinarily encountered in freight train operation. In
reproducing the curves and the table in this report they have therefore
been extended to 50 miles per hour.

For freight train resistance the Association has already adopted a
straight line formula, which is given on pages 525 and 536 of the Manual.
This formula, for any stated loading, gives uniform resistances for all
speeds from 5 to 35 miles per hour. It is not intended at this time to
suggest the abandonment or modification of this formula, which has the
advantage of great simplicity and is most useful for ordinary purposes.
The Committee has consequently suggested in its Conclusion No. 1 the
use of Fig. 1 or Table 1 in determining freight train resistance at the
higher speeds of 35 to 50 miles per hour, without recommendation as to
their use for lower speeds or as regards revision of the formula now
in use.

Passenger Train Resistance

The final results of the University of Illinois experiments on passen-
ger train resistance are shown here in Fig. 2 and Table 2, which are repro-
duced without modification from Bulletin 110. A summary of the con-
ditions surrounding these tests follows.

The results are derived from tests of twenty-eight passenger trains
in "local" and "through" service. The average weight per car in these
trains varied from 33 to 71 tons, and the number of cars from 4 to 12.
The speeds ranged up to about 67 miles per hour. The tests were made
upon well-constructed and well-maintained main-line track laid with 85-lb.
and 90-Ib. rail, and" ballasted with broken stone. The experiments were
carried on during moderate or warm weather, when the temperatures
were above 40 degrees F. and the wind velocity generally less than 20
miles per hour.

Of the 240 cars composing these twenty-eight test trains, 178 had
six-wheel trucks and 62 had four-wheel trucks. All trains, except one,
contained both four-wheel and six-wheel trucks, but in varying propor-
tions. Concerning this matter Bulletin 110 comments as follows: "Since
car weight afifects the specific resistance, not only through its influence
on air resistance, but through its influence on journal and rolling resist-
ance as well, there is apparently an inconsistency in method in grouping —
as is done in this Bulletin — trains including both four-wheel and six-wheel
truck cars, and especially in thus grouping trains which have in their
makeup different proportions of the two kinds of trucks. This apparent
inconsistency, considering the purpose of the investigation, is not so
objectionable as may appear. It was not possible under the conditions
under which the tests were made to control the makeup of the trains.
The tests had to be made in regular service and the trains had to be
accepted with their usual makeup. This limitation has not defeated the
main purpose of the tests, for they were undertaken, not to distinguish
the resistance of four-wheel and six-wheel truck cars, but to measure the

7-t E c o n o m«i c s of Railway Location.

-s

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31-

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i
1

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111

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1-4

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TRAIN RESISTANCE— LB. PER TON

Fig. 2 — Thjc Rklation Betvvekn Passenger Tra}n Resistance and Speed
FOR Various Average Weights per Car.

Economics of Railway Location.

575

Table 2 — Values of Passenger Train Resistance at Various Speeds
AND FOR Trains of Various An^erage Weights per Car.

Train Resistance — Pounds

per Ton

Speed

Speed'

MUes

Miles

Hour

Column

Headings Indicate the Average Weights per Car-

-Tons

Hour

7.4

6.6

6.0

5.4

6.0

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.3

4.1

7.5

6.7

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.3

4.2

7.6

6.8

6.1

5.5

5.1

4.8

4.7

4.5

4.3

4,2

7.7

6.8

6.2

5.6

5.1

4.9

4.7

4.5

4.4

4.2

7.8

6.9

6.2

5.6

5.2

4.9

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.3

7.9

7.0

6.3

5.7

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.3

8.0

7.1

6.4

5.8

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.7

4.5

4.3

8.1

7.1

6.4

5.8

5.3

5.0

4.9

4.7

4.5

4.4

8.2

7.2

6.5

5.9

5.3

5.1

4.9

4.7

4.5

4.4

8.3

7.3

6.5

5.9

5.4

5.1

5.0

4.8

4.6

4.4

8.4

7.4

6.6

6.0

6.4

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.6

4.5

8,5

7.5

6.7

6.0

5.5

5.2

5.0

4.9

4.7

4.5

8.6

7.6

6.7

6.1

5.5

5.3

5.1

4.9

4.7

4.5

8.7

7.7

6.8

6.1

5.6

5.3

5.1

5.0

4.8

4.6

8.8

7.7

6.9

6.2

5.7

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.8

4.6

9.0

7.8

7.0

6.3

5.7

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.9

4.7

9.1

7.9

7.0

6.3

5.8

5.5

5.3

5.1

4.9

4.7

9.2

8.0

7.1

6.4

5.8

5.5

5.3

5.1

5.0

4.8

9.3

8.1

7.2

6.4

5.9 •

5.6

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.8

9.4

8.2

7.2

6.5

5.9

5.6

5.4

5.2

5.0

4.9

9.5

8.3

7.3

6.6

6.0

5.7

5.5

5.3

5.1

4.9

9.6

8.4

7.4

6.6

6.1

5.7

5.6

5.4

5.1

5.0

9.8

8.5

7.5

6.7

6.1

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

5.0

9.9

8.6

7.5

6.8

6.2

5.9

5.7

5.5

5.2

5.1

10.0

8.7

7.6

6.8

6.2

5.9

5.7

5.5

5.3

5.1

10.1

8.8

7.7

6.9

6.3

6.0

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

10.3

8.9

7.8

7.0

6.4

6.0

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

10.4

9.0

7.9

7.1

6.4

6.1

5.9

5.7

5.5

5.3

10.5

9.1

8.0

7.1

6.5

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.5

5.4

10.7

9.2

8.0

7.2

6.6

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.6

5.4

10.8

9.3

8.1

7.3

6.7

6.3

6.1

5.9

5.7

5.5

10.9

9.4

8.2

7.4

6.7

6.4

6.2

6.0

5.7

5.5

11.1

9.5

8.3

7.4

6.8

6.5

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.6

11.2

. 9.6

8.4

7.5

6.9

6.5

6.3

6.1

5.9

5.7

11.4

9.8

8.5

7.6

7.0

6.6

6.4

6.2

5.9

5.7

11.5

9.9

8.6

7.7

7.0

6.7

6.4

6.2

6.0

5.8

11.7

10.0

8.7

7.8

7.1

6.8

6.5

6.3

6.1

5.9

11.8

10.1

8.8

7.9

7.2

6.9

6.6

6.4

6.2

6.0

12.0

10.3

9.0

8.0

7.3

6.9

6.7

6.6

6.3

6.0

12.2

10.4

9.1

8.1

7.4

7.0

6.8

6.6

6.4

6.1

12.3

10.5

9.2

8.2

7.5

7.1

6.9

6.7

6.4

6.2

12.5

10.7

9.3

8.3

7.6

7.2

7.0

6.8

6.5

6.3

12.6

10.8

9.4

8.4

7.7

7.3

7.1

6.9

6.6

6.4

12.8

11.0

9.6

8.5

7.8

7.4

7.2

7.0

6.7

6.5

13.0

11.1

9.7

8.6

7.9

7.5

7.3

V.l

6.8

6.6

13.1

11.2

9.8

8.8

8.0

7.6

7.4

7.2

7.0

6.7

13.3

11.4

9.9

8.9

8.1

7.7

7.5

7.3

7.1

6.8

13.5

11.5

10.1

9.0

8.2

7.8

7.6

7.4

7.2

6.9

13.7

11.7

10.2

9.1

8.4

7.9

7.7

7.5

7.3

7.0

13.8

11.8

10.3

9.2

8.5

8.1

7.8

7.6

7.4

7.1

14.0

12.0

10.5

»v

8.6

8.2

8.0

7.7

7.6

7.2

576

Economics of Railway Location.

Table 2 — Continued.

Train Resistance — Pounds per Ton

Speed
Miles

Hour

Column Headings Indicate the Average Weights per Car — Tons

Hour

14.2

12.1

10.6

9.5

8.7

8.3

8.1

7.8

7.6

7.3

14.4

12.3

10.8

9.6

8.9

8.4

8.2

8.0

7.7

7.5

14.6

12.6

10.9

9.8

9.0

8.6

8.3

8.1

7.8

7.6

14.8

12.6

11.1

9.9

9.1

8.7

8.4

8.2

8.0

7.7

15.0

12.8

11.2

10.0

9.2

8.8

8.6

8.3

8.1

7.8

15.1

12.9

11.3

10.2

9.4

8.9

8.7

8.4

8.2

7.9

15.3

13.1

11.5

10.3

9.5

9.1

8.8

8.6

8.3

8.1

15.5

13.2

11.7

10.5

9.7

9.2

9.0

8.7

8.5

8.2

16.7

13.4

11.8

10.6

9.8

9.3

9.1

».8

8.6

8.3

15.9

13.6

11.9

10.7

9.9

9.5

9.2

8.9

8.7

8.4

16.1

13.8

12.1

10.9

10.0

9.6

9.3

9.1

8.8

8.6

16.3

13.9

12.2

11.0

10.2

9.7

9.4

9,2

9.0

8.7

16.5

14.1

12.4

11.1

10.3

9.9

9.6

9.3

9.1

8.8

16.7

14.3

12 .€

11.3

10.5

10.0

9.7

9.5

9.2

9.0

16.9

14.4

12.7

11.4

10.6

10.1

9.9

9.6

9.4

9.1

17.1

14.6

12.8

11.6

10.7

10.3

10.0

9.7

9.5

9.2

17.3

14.8

13.0

11.7

10.9

10.4

10.1

9.9

9.6

9.4

17.5

15.0

13.1

1.1.9

11.0

10.6

10.3

10.0

9.8

9.6

17.7

15.1

13.3

12.0

11.2

10.7

10.4

10.1

9.9

9.7

17.9

15.3

13.5

12.1

11.3

10.8

10.5

10.3

10.0

9.8

resistance of ordinary passenger trains of widely different average car
weight; and wide variation in car weight carries with it, in American
practice, a variation in truck construction similar to that encountered in
the trains here discussed. Any train of 35 to 40 tons average car weight
is sure to include in its makeup four-wheel truck cars — and in about the
proportion which prevailed in these tests. Even the heaviest through
trains are likely occasionally to include a car or two with four-wheel
trucks.

A number of the trains tested developed resistance about 8 per cent,
greater than those found in Fig. 2 and Table 2, and it is to be expected
that trains will occasionally be encountered which have a similar excess
resistance, even under conditions of air temperature and wind velocity
such as prevailed during these experiments. In general, however, Fig. 2
and Table 2 may be safely used to predict the resistance of ordinary
passenger trains running on straight and level track of good construction
during moderate weather.

Economics of Railway Location. 577

Conclusions

The resistance data here presented rest upon experiments which
were carefully conducted and adequate in scope, and the Sub-Committee
believes that the results of these tests may be used with confidence for all
the ordinary purposes of the members of the Association; and that, until
there are radical changes in car or track construction or until these
results are supplanted by much more comprehensive experiments, they
may continue to be so used.

It accordingly presents the following conclusions :

(1) Fig. 1 or Table 1 may be used in estimating freight train re-
sistance at speeds from 35 to 50 miles per hour for Class A rating and
temperatures of 35 deg. Fahr. and upwards.

(2) Fig. 2 or Table 2 may be used in estimating passenger train re-
sistance at speeds from 5 to 75 miles per hour and temperatures of 35 deg.
Fahr. and upwards.

Appendix C

(5) ECONOMICS OF LOCATION AS AFFECTED BY INTRO-
DUCTION OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

A. S. Going, Chairman; E. H. McHenry,

F. H. Alfred, C. H. Splitstone,

E. J. Beugler, M. F. Steinberger,

Sub-Committee.

Railroad electrification, while most desirable from the point of view
of the conservation of our fuel resources, is a matter that can not be
undertaken wholesale, for several reasons. First, the capital outlay would
be enormous; second, each individual railroad system or even subdivision
is a problem in itself, to be judged on its own merits.

The modern steam locomotive by the use of brick arches, feed water
heaters, superheater, stokers and trailer boosters has had its efficiency in-
creased practically 50 per cent. At the same time its size and capacity
have increased with this advance, and the question arises wherein the
electric locomotive is superior. From an operating standpoint it has a
number of minor advantages. It ehminates the turntable; cuts down
standby losses; removes the delay at water tanks and coaling stations;
its availability for service is very much greater, and its maintenance is
considerably lower. Its capacity is increased with cold weather — the
reverse of the steam engine. Its simplicity of control relieves the crew
from many duties necessary on a steam engine, and permits closer ob-
servation of track and signals. When properly designed, it is much easier
riding and can have a more uniform distribution of weights with less
nosing and track pounding, and under some conditions tends to lower track
maintenance. In addition there is one great inherent advantage which the
electric locomotive possesses, namely, the ability to concentrate large amounts
of horse power under single control.

In steam railway operation each train has its own source of power,
which has no relation to the propulsion of the other trains on the line.
In electric railway operation every train draws its power from one or
more centrally located power houses.

Steam trains are handled by locomotives only. Electric trains may
be propelled either by electric locomotives or by motor cars.

Advantages of Electric Operation

The operation of trains by electric power is a benefit to the traveling
public and to those near the right-of-way in that the smoke nuisance is
entirely eliminated.

578

Economics of Railway Location. 579

It is the contention of the exponents of electric operation that the
electric locomotive is in numerous respects more efficient than the steam
locomotive. It is pointed out that the entire weight of the electric locomo-
tive can be and frequently is on the drivers, while but 65 per cent, to 75 per
cent, of the steam locomotive (except the switching type) is thus utilized.
A steam engine must haul its own fuel and water, and that this additional
weight cannot be utilized to increase fhe adhesion by being carried on the
driving wheels.

An electric locomotive allows an increase in tractive effort without a
decrease in speed. A limiting factor of the H. P. output of a steam
locomotive is the steaming capacity of the boiler, as well as the amount
of coal per hour which the fireman can throw into the grate continuously
throughout the shift. (The latter does not apply in the case of automatic
stoker fired engines).

A comparison between the maximum weight of train permissible
with the steam locomotive and the standard weight of train prescribed for
electric locomotives shows there is an increase over steam operation of
from 18 per cent, to 25 per cent. The tractive effort, and the motor
capacity are far greater in the electric locomotives, due to the more
effective application of power.

An advantage which is ascribed to electric operation is the benefit
derived from the elimination of work at terminals necessary when steam
locomotives are used. A steam engine must take on coal and water, its
fires must be cleaned, at the beginning of the daj' its fires must be started
or raked forward, at the end of the day the fires must be drawn or banked.
This not only causes additional expense, but requires that the locomotive
be out of service for considerable periods. The electric locomotive
requires no work of this character. It must be frequently inspected, but
the same is necessary for steam locomotives. Outside of this, the electric
locomotive need not be taken from service at all. It may be used con-
stantly for 24 hours a day. With the same service to be handled there
should be less electric locomotives necessary than steam locomotives,
unless there are peculiarities in the service itself. There are conditions
where this advantage is nullified.

It is maintained that under electric operation there is a saving in fuel
of SO per cent, to 65 per cent. It is pointed out that the central plant
which furnishes the power to electric trains is much more efficient than
the steam locomotive, that in the use of coal it consumes but one-half
the amount required by steam locomotive to haul the same tonnage.

Assuming it is correct in stating that the power house consumes but
one-half as much coal for the same number of ton miles, the cost of
power would be more than one-half of the cost of coal. There are other
factors entering powerhouse costs which do not appear in the cost of coal.
The cost of other supplies than coal are the cost of power house labor,
and the expense of maintaining the power house and its equipment, all of

580 Economics of Railway Location.

which are items of no mean importance. This fact should be constantly
borne in mind when discussing relative costs of power and fuel. Another
factor entering into the cost of power which does not affect the cost of
fuel, is the transmission loss between the power house and the locomotive.
These losses increase with the distance between the power house and the
train. A fair comparison of the cost oi repairs to steam and electric
locomotives is particularly difficult, since the latter .are yet in the experi-
mental stage. The cost of locomotive supplies does not materially differ
between the two types of locomotives except in the winter months. On
turning to engine house expense we find the chief items of engine house
expenses are eliminated. While the engine house expenses of steam
locomotives are important factors they are insignificant in electric opera-
tion. It is here that it effects one of its most marked economics.
There is an indirect saving which is made under electric operation, a
saving applying to freight and switching service, namely, the saving in
drawbars on freight cars. This economy cannot be easily determined, but
a considerable saving is made.

Unit costs of electric operation decrease as the volume of traffic
increases, whereas the unit costs in the case of steam operation remain
comparatively constant.

Disadvantages of Electric Operation

As regards the disadvantages of electric operation, the most important
objection is the enormous first cost and the heavy fixed charge which that
involves.

Electric equipment is more costly than steam equipment.

Electrification must not only bring about economics, but very large
reduction in operating cost in order to prove itself economical.

The electric locomotive is a piece of transforming apparatus which
receives its power from an outside source, and is, therefore, subject to
overloads. The capacity of the electric locomotive is limited by the heat-
ing of its motors. This heating must be kept within safe limits to prevent
injury to the insulation, just as the water in a steam locomotive must be
kept at a safe level to prevent injury to the boiler.

The steam locomotive is a self-contained mechanical unit and it is
hardly, possible to injuriously overload it.

There is additional danger to the lives of the employees and others.
This is, of course, much more serious when the power is transmitted at
higher voltage and where freight and switching service as well as pas-
senger is operated by electric power. Elaborate precautions have been
taken by all roads using electric power to guard the lives of employees
and others who might come into contact with wires or other apparatus
charged with electricity.

Another argument against electric operation is that which deals with
the additional liability of train delays. In addition to equipment failures

Economics of Railway Location. 581

which occur on both steam and electric service, there are failures of the
transmission lines. It has been noted that extreme conditions of heat and cold
will sometimes cause a large numtx^r of failures on the line. There is in ad-
dition to the line failure the possibility of the power house being out of com-
mission, in which case the entire electrified section is tied up. It should be
said, however, that these delays are rare.

With electric traction the territory protected with automatic block
signals of the usual continuous current track circuit battery type wiU'have
to be replaced with alternating current track circuit apparatus, because
the use of track circuits with propulsion currents in the rails requires
selective apparatus to prevent false indications. Traffic movements of units
are dependent upon the total integrity of generating and transmission
system.

Normal traffic cannot be exceeded for periods of long duration unless
the system has been designed to take care of maximum traffic, which
greatly adds to the capital charge.

Unless other load than the railway is carried on the generating
stations on small systems a poor load factor is liable to be encountered
which adds to the capital charge through maintenance of under-loaded
equipment. It is susceptible to the vagaries of the weather, as in addition
to the snow, washouts, and other conditions that affect steam operation,'
lightning is apt to interrupt the electrical operation.

Steam locomotives are strictly interchangeable and can be moved
from division to division, as the necessity for varying motive power
capacity develops. Electric locomotives are limited in their field of
operation strictly to electrified track. Traffic must be handled as circum-
stances require. It cannot be spaced conveniently for power demands,
but the terminal yards must be cleared as the cars accumulate.

General

As to the comparative efficiency of the two types of locomotives in
the matter of failures, the electric locomotive seems to hold its own.
There are certain factors, however, which within tiie last few years have
made the steam locomotive a more formidable competitor of electrification.
These are, particularly, the various outside valve gears, the superheater,
the brick arch and the automatic stoker, which have increased the tractive
power and sustained hauling power of an engine as well as resulting in
greater economy of fuel and water.

From available data on the results of heavy electrification it would
appear that the ton miles moved by six and one-half pounds of coal in a
steam locomotive is approximately equal to that which can be moved by
one kilowatt hour delivered from the power station, varying, of course,
with the quality of coal. In a great majority of cases the profits from

582 Econom.icsof Railway Location.

electrification must be realized indirectly rather than directly — increased
track capacity, postponing second tracking or the like.

Steam railroads will generally consider electrification favorably when
the reduction in operating expenses will pay the interest on the necessary
investment, provided the capital requirements can be met, leaving the
unevaluated advantages to be gained by electric operation as an additional
asset. Also, when the traffic capacity is imperative and this can only be
supplied by a large additional expenditure or by electrifying.

Location Economics

The effect of new elements . introduced by electric traction upon
economic values indicates that the values heretofore assumed under classi-
fied heads of Distance, Rise and Fall, Curvature and Rate of Grade will
be affected.

Distance

Train wages, fuel and repairs are the largest single items of expense,
which vary with distance. The first is but little affected. A new additional
charge is created for the operation and maintenance of power stations
and of transmission and distributing systems.

Fuel is materially affected. The saving being from 50 per cent, to
70 per cent., depending upon class of service. Engine repairs are also
reduced — possibly 50 per cent. Track maintenance under some conditions
may be increased by the additional charge for the maintenance of over-
head or third rail contact and distributing systems.

Rise and Fall

The unit values of the several minor classifications under this head
will be determined as before with modified factors of cost. Two new
elements will be introduced and must be included in the final results, viz. :
the time and temperature limitations of the electric motor and the possi-
bilities of regeneration of power on descending grades. The cost of Rise
and Fall will be reduced if advantage is taken of opportunities for the
regeneration of power by trains on descending grades. The value of such
regeneration is considerable under proper conditions. The actual per-
centage of power which can be utilized will depend upon the length and
steepness of incline, total length of electrified section and the number and
distribution of daily trains. Regenerative braking does not become eco-
nomical except on long mountain grades.

Curvature

The effect of a change to electric operation a$ affected by curvature,
will be in degree rather than in kind, with the possible exception that the
shorter rigid wheel base of some types of electric locomotives will result
in reduced resistance and wear of wheels and rails.

Economics of Railway Location. 583

Rate of Grade

The effects of rate of grade and of rise and fall are more closely
inter-related in electric than in steam operation. Train tonnage ratings in
steam service over lines of moderate grades are often determined by the
average resistance of the division and the boiler H. P. of the engine
rather than by the resistance of the maximum grades. If the inherent
characteristics of the electric motor permit the development of higher
speed and horsepower, within its nominal rating, then the resistance of the
maximum grade may become the limiting factor, and its rate becomes
economically important.

In heavy service, and especially on mountain grades, the economic
value of electric operation may be quite high, as it is possible to add
engine units without adding engine crews.

Other differences affecting unit costs differ more in degree than in
kind.

Conclusion

Taking into consideration the heavy fixed charges of investment, no
general conclusion can be given at this time as to the relative economy of
electric and steam operation. Each case must be considered by itself,
taking into consideration all elements of cost and expense, both special
and general, as well as operating conditions and the public comfort and
safety.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XXIII— ON SHOPS AND
LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS

F. E. Morrow, Chairman; A. T. Hawk, Vice-Chair man;
C. N. Bainbridge, J. L. Haugh,

G. W. Burpee, L. P. Kimball,
Leland Clapper, W. T. Krausch,
C. G. Delo, M. a. Long,

G. H. Gilbert, J. B. JMaddock,

Walter Goldstraw, Adam Ritter,

J. G. GWYN, L. K. SiLLCOX,

E. M. Haas, John Schofield,

R. J. Hammond, E. M. Tucker,

G. W. Harris, A. M. Turner,

E. A. Harrison, Committee.

To the American Raikcay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Shops and
Locomotive Terminals for study and report :

1. Report on Ashpits.

2. Report on Engine House and Power Plants and Shop Extension,
collaborating with Division V — Mechanical.

3. Report on Storehouses.

4. Report on Design of Car Shops.

5. Report on Design of Coaling Stations.

6. Report on Tj'pical Layouts for Storage and Distribution of Fuel
Oil, including Fuel Oil Stations between Terminals, collaborating with
Division V — Mechanical.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, May 25th and
September 17th, with Committee of Division V — Mechanical, American
Railway Association, on Engine Terminals, Design and Operation, and
in Cleveland, Ohio, November 9th and 10th, 1920.

(1) Ashpits

The Committee has actively studied this subject, but is not prepared
at this time to make a final report. Certain information has been com-
piled by the Committee which is shown in Appendix B.

585

586 Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

(2) Engine House and Power Plants and Shop Extension, Collaborat-
ing with Division V — Mechanical

The Committee reports progress. Sub-Committees have been as-
signed to collaborate with the Mechanical Committee on Engine Ter-
minals, Design and Operation.

(3) Storehouses

The Committee reports progress.

(4) Design of Car Shops

The Committee reports progress. In Appendix A is shown certain
studies which have been prepared by the Committee and is submitted as
information.* The Committee in the further study of the subject expects
to collaborate with the Mechanical Division Committee assigned to this
subject.

(5) Design of Coaling Stations

The Committee reports progress.

(6) Typical Layouts for Storage and Distribution of Fuel Oil, Includ-
ing Fuel Stations Between Terminals, Collaborating
with Division V — Mechanical

The Committee reports progress.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that subjects (1) to (6), inclusive, be
reassigned.

Respectfully submitted.
The Committee on Shops and Locomotive Terminals,

F. E. Morrow, Chairman.

Appendix A

DESIGN OF CAR SHOPS

L. K. SiLLCOX, Chairman; J. G. Gwyn,

Walter Goldstraw, E. M. Tucker,

Adam Ritter, A. M. Turner,

Sub-Committee.

Many railroad companies find it desirable to provide shops for
handling repairs to freight cars either on account of climatic conditions,
legal requirements, or the belief that the provision of such shops will
result in a higher degree of efficiency. Arguments advanced in favor of
such shops are that their provision will insure a better grade of workmaij^
ship, a lower rate of labor turnover, and that cars repaired in a shop wtlf
give better service.

The Committee feels that each railroad company must from the very
nature of the problem determine in accordance with its own operating
methods and conditions whether a shop is justified and what expenditure
is warranted, so that the fixed charges per car, due to this expenditure,
may not exceed the advantages secured by better workmanship, lower unit
cost and less delay in conducting repairs.

In order to facilitate the design of car shops where their construction
may be necessary or desirable, the Committee has collected a considerable
amount of data to which it has devoted careful study, and as a result
presents general drawings of several plants actually in service and several
proposed for the future, as an outline of actual possibilities in construc-
tion as experienced at this time. It is to be noted that, in general, the
layout of many plants has been governed by existing property and
trackage limits, and this condition is one which will probably be encoun-
tered even more seriously in the future, except where very extensive
plants in new localities arc contemplated.

In reviewing freight car repair layouts throughout the country, we
find that they divide themselves into two general classes : light repairs and
heavy repairs. The first-named group consists of equipment receiving
running repairs given in transportation Awards with trains under blue
flag protection, where the safety appliances, doors, brake equipment,
lubrication, brasses and minor truck repairs receive attention. Further to
this, light repairs are handled, but require switching of the cars out of
trains. Under this heading, cars are spotted on improvised tracks, where
wheels are changed, brake rigging repaired, draft rigging and couplers
replaced, and cars necessitating more extensive attention are temporarily
strengthened and put in shape to meet Safety Appliance requirements, so
as to be m.oved to heavy repair points having facilities and forces to do
whatever is required,

587

€

588 Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Sheds or shops are not to be recommended as practicable at this time
for the light repair work mentioned above, because of the frequent switch-
ing necessary and the further fact that many hundreds of cars in this
class are worked upon each day, depending upon the amount of business
handled through any territory, and the number requiring repairs has little
fixed relation to a road's ownership.

In the case of heavj'^ repairs, however, shops may be desirable at
certain points, especially when considered in conjunction with the power,
tool and handling equipment necessary to intensive production. There are
three subdivisions into which heavy repairs may be classed, namely :
Medium repairs, consisting of moderate attention to trucks, underframes
and superstructure with entire repainting; heavy repairs, occasioned by
severe wreck damage or extreme deterioration ; and rebuild, where cars are
strengthened and made modern in construction through the application
f steel underframes, ends, roof, etc. Where it is possible, most railroads
'refer to do heavy repair work on their own cars, due to having suitable
standard material, and the further fact that cars can be segregated by
series and the work standardized. There are practical reasons requiring
the rebuilding of foreign cars occasioned by the handling lines' responsibil-
ity, but this only represents a small percentage of the total.

Where a railroad owns a sufficient number of steel cars to justify the
expense, a special shop .should be given consideration for this purpose.
From what the Committee can observe, based on experience throughout
the country, it recommends :

(1) Track Centers: In cases where material tracks are employed,
24 ft. centers are recommended and in cases where material tracks are not
used, 18 ft. centers as a minimum.

(2) Space Allowance per Car: With the track centers named in
section No. 1, it is desirable, considering present and future practice, to
allow 60 ft. per car. Railroads using wider track centers, such as 30 ft.
with material tracks, and 22 ft. without, usually only employ 50 ft. per car
due to rearrangement of work.

(3) Supply Tracks : Standard gage seems to be preferred through-
out the country, due to the ease in handling wheels and the usual design
of section push car upon which material can be carried. Further to this,
erecting shops can be supplied with standard freight car loads of heavy
material, such as underframes, sills, etc., which is not possible with
narrow-gage tracks.

(4) Clearances : It is recommended that a minimum clearance of
10 ft. from center of track to face of pilasters and 12 ft. from center of
track to face of wall.

(5) Headroom: Measuring from top of rail, overhead clearance in
shops where cranes are not emploj'ed should be 20 ft. minimum, 22 ft.
desirable. Where cranes are used, clearance should be not less than 25
ft. unless careful study of local operating conditions should dictate a
smaller dimension advisable. In mentioning clearance, it is the purpose

Shops and Locomotive Terminals. 589

to define it as the exact clearance possible either from the crane hook
or crane cage or girder, whichever forms the limiting element and the
farthest downward projection. Shops designed with cranes should be
limited to include bays not to exceed four repair tracks.

(6) Doors : The minimum dimension for end doors in car shops,
which the Committee recommends, is 13 ft. wide and 17 ft. high, obtaining
as large a door on supply tracks as clearance and general construction
will permit.

(7) Paint Shops: Separate accommodation in line with the normal
movement of cars through shops should be provided and installed in such
a way so that equipment can be handled expeditiously and prevent block-
ing repair tracks.

(8) Expected Increase: Committee wishes to point out that in con-
structing any shop, full consideration should be given to expected in-
creases in demand and future extensions which can be foreseen. In cases
where shops are constructed with traveling cranes, it is felt advisable
to recommend that runways be advanced beyond the covered space which
will provide for flexibility of operation and permit men to work either
out-doors or in-doors as local conditions may govern ; also will assist in
the handling of material and the adjustment of loads in cars.

(9) Handling Material for Effective Service : Every possible
means should be provided for a prompt and economic handling of ma-
terial through the application of necessary cranes, hoists, mono-rails,
supply tracks, runways, and storage space, all located with the single pur-
pose of concentrating work and materials into definite groups.

(10) Lighting: Ample lighting is essential. Construction of roof
and walls should be such as to admit the maximum amount of natural
light and ample artificial light should be provided, which, in a general
way, should amount to just as much as is required in usual locomotive
shop practice. Interior walls and ceilings should be painted and main-
tained as nearly white as possible.

(11) Heating: The question of proper heating should be carefully
studied out so as to maintain a temperature of between 40 deg. and 50 deg.
Fahr. in the shop itself, whereas in adjacent machine sections and other
points requiring operators remaining stationary at tools, etc., a temperature
of 60 deg. to 70 deg. is preferable. The expense permissible in providing
a heating plant will be governed largely by the form of construction to
be employed. During cold weather it should be remembered, that equip-
ment has to be thawed out when brought into the shop in order to
facilitate repairs, so that the heat should be delivered as near the floor
line as practicable and well distributed so as to avoid drafts.

For next year, the Committee will attempt to study and give definite
recommendations on some features governing economics of freight car
shop operation as well as a partial or complete report on the design and
construction for passenger car shops. The submissions for designs of
various shops can be briefly stated as follows :

590 Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Fig. 1 : Freight Car Repair Shops, Grand Trunk Railway, Elsdon, Chi-
cago, 111.
This plant was formerly constructed for the construction of new

cars and was known as the Whipple Car Works. We have had occasion

to personally observe the operation of this plant several times and it is

very well equipped throughout.

Fig. 2 : Freight Car Repair Shop, New York Central Railroad, East
Buffalo, N. Y.

Figs. 3 and 19 : Freight Car Repair Shop, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe

Railway, Topeka, Kan.

This layout is worked into a large freight car and passenger facility
and therefore has no direct connection with the blacksmith shop, which
would be difficult to provide on account of two freight car shops being
included; one of old standing and the other more recently installed.

Fig. 4: Car Repair Shops, National Transcontinental Railwaj', Winnipeg,

Man., Canada.

This is a fairly new plant and material is handled on the trans-
verse plan.

Fig. 5 : Proposed A. R. A. Freight Car Repair Shop.

Fig. 6: Car Erecting Shop of the Bettendorf Axle Companj', Bettendorf,

Iowa.

This layout is particularly included to indicate the location of various
facilities and transmission.

Various railroads have had considerable steel car repair work done
at this plant, for which they are adequately adapted.

Fig. 7: Car Erecting Shop, Pacific Car & Foundry Company, Renton,

Wash.

This plant is very well adapted to repair work, except painting facili-
ties are not sufficient. However, this has since been corrected. The con-
struction of the building is nicely adapted to the service.

Fig. 8 : Typical Layouts Car Repair Facilities, Austin Company, Cleve-
land, Ohio.
We had copies made of print which the above company furnished.

Fig. 9: Proposed Car Repair Shed, Wabash Railway, Moberly, Mo.

This is simply a covering over existing tracks to comply with the
state law.

Figs. 10 and 11 : Wooden Shed for Light Freight Car Repairs, Baltimore
& Ohio Railroad, Connellsville, Pa., and Locust Point.
This simply provides a covering over existing train yard tracks, which

is advisable where climatic conditions justify.

Figs, 12 and 23 : Car Repair Shed, Northern Pacific Railway, Watertown,
N. D., Car Repair Shed, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway,-
Marmarth, N. D.

Shops and Locomotive Terminals. 591

Both repair sheds were apparently erected to meet requirements
of the state law and are similar. A covering existing on repair tracks
intended to accommodate the norrrfSl run of medium classified repairs
both for system and foreign cars such as require attention on a heavy
trans-continental division.

Fig. 13: Car Repair Facilities, Canadian Pacific Railway, Calgary, Alta.
The layout is not unusual and is worked out to operate in conjunction
with coach and locomotive repairs, besides providing for extension.

I'"ig. 14: Freight Car Repair Facilities, Illinois Central Railroad, Cen-

tralia. 111.

The layout is quite typical as used by the railroad mentioned, as well
as others in adjacent territory.

Fig. 15 : Freight Car Repair Shop, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western

Railroad, Scranton, Pa.

This simply gives the style of construction employed and indicates the
use of traveling cranes, which is advisable considering the high price of
labor at this time.

Fig. 16: Car Repair Shed, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.

Proposed standard construction on one of the large trunk lines is
shown herein which indicates considerable use of wire glass.

Fig. 17: Steel Car Repair Shop, New York Central Railroad, Ashta-
bula, Ohio.
This provides one of the most extensive layouts in this country

and is adequately adapted for the work intended.

Fig. 18: Car Shop, Wabash Railway, Decatur, 111.

The style of construction employed is indicated in the drawing herein
mentioned.

Fig. 20: Car Repair Shops, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad,

Kej'ser Valley, Pa.

A very good layout is indicated in this plant and shows adequate
painting facilities.

Fig. 21 : Car Repair Shop, Canadian Pacific Railway, North Bay, Ont.

The layout indicated herein shows considerable study and is adapted
to cold climatic conditions, also provision for future extension is possible.
Everything is kept convenient and under cover as far as possible to
preserve heating facilities, etc.

Fig. 22 : Steel Freight Car Shop, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Mt. Clair,

Md.

This layout, while quite extensive, only provides service for a limited
number of units.

592 Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Fig. 24: Car Repair Shed, Boston & Maine Railroad, Boston, Mass.

This sliows style of construction proposed by above company and
indicates installation of lighting thnough the use of corrugated wire glass
laid similar lu the practice employed with roof tile.

Fig. 25: Car Repair Shed, Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway,

Tacoma.

This unit was hurriedly constructed and forms part of installation
which is expected to be increased 475 ft. over its present size. The addi-
tional length to be equipped with traveling cranes.

Fig. 26: Car Repair Shop, proposed by Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul

Railway, Milwaukee, Wis.

The plan submitted is the result of study given by all of the prac-
tical talent the railroad had available in making the best recommendation
to the management for the class of service intended. The longitudinal
type of shop was selected, since it permits whole strings of cars to be
pulled at a time and does not make it very difficult to classify repairs so
that cars which may be in shop a longer time than others can be assigned
to individual sections. Six repair tracks arc provided in a building 500
ft. long, giving a capacity of approximatel}^ 50 cars. Overhead crane
service in conjunction with jib cranes on two tracks is provided for lift-
ing underframes, metal superstructures, steel ends and other heavy re-
pair parts. As a matter of economy, cinder floor is recommended since
it is fireproof, which is necessary where so many heating operations are
carried on. A good floor, but one much more expensive, would be that
composed of a 9-in. concrete base with some plastic surface about 2
in. thick on top, since concrete is entirely too hard for men to stand and
work upon all day. Provision is made for all operations to be performed
in connection with the repairs considered, such as drilling, threading
bolts and rods, blacksmithing, reclaiming brake beams and equipment,
straightening structural steel, wood machine work, etc., all in conjunction
with necessary washrooms, rest rooms, and locker rooms. It is felt that
these operations can be best carried on at the sides of the main shop in the
form of low bays, 24 ft. wide, which not only cheapen the construction,
but makes it possible to deliver raw material with greater ease and leaves
the main shop space available for reconstruction purposes. It is proposed
that vises and drills in the general shop will be found very useful and
provide considerable saving in time ])y avoiding having the men travel
to machine department. Also, grinding wheels can be used for rough
work of various kinds. An electric winch at each end of the shop, cen-
trally located, is contemplated by a system of snatch blocks. Any track
can be drawn or filled with little effort, as well as permit individual cars
to be handled.

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

593

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594

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

595

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Shops and Locomotive Terminals

Shops and Locomotive Termi-nals

603

(A)

604

Shops an d Locomotive 'Terminals.

Shops an d Locomotive Terminals

605

-'SkyAgAfs^

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Fig. 11 — Wooden Shed for Light Freight Car Repairs, Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad, Locust Point, Md.

606

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

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Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

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Appendix B

ASHPITS

G. H. Gilbert, Chairman; ' R. J. Hammond,

C. N. Bainbridge, J. L. Haugh,

Leland Clapper, F. E. Morrow,

C. G. Delo, Sub-Committee.

Practically all railroads of the United States and Canada were re-
quested to furnish the following information regarding ashpits:

1. Essential description of types used, with blueprints showing

cross-section, length and track layout.

2. Statement regarding number of locomotives handled over

such pits per day and per rush period of two hours, to-
gether with statement regarding normal forces employed
day and night, with rates of pay.

3. Approximate estimates of cost of construction at 1919 prices

and average cost of maintenance per annum.

4. Statement of advantages and disadvantages of each type, with

recommendations as to its use in new construction.

The replies received from the railroads failed to develop a deal of
information sought by the Committee. It did show the use of many
diflferent kinds of ashpits. Nearly every type in common use was very
favorably recommended by some roads and adversely criticized by other
roads. The essential information obtained is shown below in tabulated
form, grouped as to :

(a) Depressed track pits, where ashes are shoveled into cars.

(b) Water pits, both shallow and deep, where ashes are re-

moved by buckets operated from various kinds of cranes.

mechanical means.

Your Committee is still investigating various features of ashpit de-
sign "and operation and expects to complete its report and present conclu-
sions next year. The tabulation of data obtained from the various rail-
roads, is submitted this year merely as information and progress.

621

622

S hops and Loc o m o t i v e T e r m i n a 1 s

Depressed Track Ashtits.

Railroad

Location

Description

I^ength
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Niglit Separatel y

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Algoma Central &
Hudson Bay —

Sault Ste. Marie,
Ont

Single- track con-
crete pit with
openings next to
a depressed
track

75'

(50

to 60 engi

nes per W

EEK)

Ann Arbor

Manhattan

Single - track pit.
One rail carried
on retaining-
wall, other be-
ing carried on
two rails and-
filler blocks sup-
ported by iron
pedestals

CO'

1 man 10 hours
daily

Atchison, Topeka

& Santa Fe

(Coast Lines)

Winslow, Ariz

Two single pits
served by inde-
pendent depress-
ed tracks.
Tracks carried
on I-beams sup-
ported by piers
9 ft. on centers. .

84'

1 each

3-8- hr. shifts, 1
man per shift...

Flora, 111

Single-track con-
crete pit. One
rail supported on
retaining-w all,
other carried on
I-beamssupport-
ed by piers
spaced lO'-li'
on centers

150'

Boston & Albany.

East Chiftham

N. Y . , .

Engines dump on
running track
and cinders
shoveled onto

17 man-hours
daily

6 man-hours
Sundays

These men being
used balance of
time on other

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

623

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Considered desir
able for new con
st ruction

Depressed track
not considered
advisable on
acct. heavy
snowfall.

Would recommend
handling cinders
mechanically.

None

Bride

^II:'a'» '^^.-I^M'^'^-'iV^-M

Would not recom-
mend this type
pit for new con-
struction

Location Plan

'/^"CJ. Dra/h

Cu/yf/-/-,

Moin\fra/'t
IVoMro-iCo/.

m//'^ Wfc/7

Location Plan

624

Shops an d Locomotive Terminals ,

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Railroad

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush
Period
of 2 Hrs.

Boston & Maine. .

Dover, N. H

Single - track pit.
One rail car-
ried on retaining-
wall, other on
I-beams s u p -
ported by piers
spaced 10-25'
on centers

200'

2 men 8 hours each
1 each trick

Central of Georgia

Albany, Ga

Open top shallow
pit. Depressed
track on side.
Cinders shovel-
ed by hand

SO'-B'

Days 2 men

Nights 2 men

Central of Georgia

Industry

Open top shallow
pit. Depressed
track on side.
Cinders shovel-
ed by hand

81'

Days 2 men

Nights 2 men

Central Railroad
of New Jersey . .

Phillipsburg, N.J.

Single-track
"dry" pit. Re-
inforced con-
crete walls and
floor. Steel gir-
ders encased in
concrete

140'

8 A. M.-4P. M.,
11 men

4 A. M.-12 M.,
3 men

12 M.-8 A. M.,
3 men

Chicago, Indian-
apolis & Louis-

La Fayette, Ind. .

Single-track con-
crete pit. Rails
supported on I-
beams carried
on cast-iron
posts spaced 7'
on centers

50'

2 men, 6 hours. . . .
Days only

Chicago, Milwau-
kee & St. Paul...

Standard pits ....

Single and double-
track concrete
pits. Rails sup-
ported 0 n I-
beams carried
on pedestals
spaced 10''-9" on
centers

Chicago, Milwau-
kee & St. Paul. .

Bensonville, 111., , .

2 single - track

pits with one
track between.
Railssupported
on I-beams car-
ried on pedestals

165'

Shift No. 1-6 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 2-6 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 3-6 men,
8 hours

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

625

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Cost of installa-
tion for minor
terminals, capa-
city to store
cinders for sev-
eral hours

Hand shoveling.

Would recommend
this type pit for
new construction

Limited capacity .

None

Would recommend
this type pit for
new construction

Limited capacity.

None

Efficient at points
where installa-
tion of machin-
ery is not advis-
able

Excessive corro-
sion due to hot
gascb and vi-
olent changes in
temperature.

StandabdSinsu

Not considered
desirable for new
construction at
similiar loca-
tions.

Location Plan

Two Standard Single-Track Pits

626

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Depresseii Track Ashpits

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

Railroad

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Chicago, Milwau-
kee & St. Paul..

Dubuque, Iowa.. .

Single - track pit.
Railssupported
on I-beams car-
ried on pedestals

CO'

30-40

4-5

Shift No. 1-2 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 2-2 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 3-2 men,
8 hours

Chicago, Milwau-
kee* St. Paul..

Galewood

Double-track pit.
Rails supported
on I-beams car-
ried on pedestals

64'

Shift No. 1-4 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 2-2 men,
8 hours

Shift No. 3-2 men,

Chicago, Milwau-
kee* St. Paul..

Savanna, 111

Double-track pit.
Rails supported
on I-beams car-
ried on pedestals

112'

75-80

Days-6men,

11 hours

Night8-5 men,

11 hours

Chicago, Milwau-
kee & St. Paul. .

Western Avenue,
Chicago, 111. . .

Double - track pit.
Railssupported
on I-beams car-
ried on pedestals

64'

Days-12 men,
10 hours

Nights-8 men ....
10 hours

Chicago, Milwau-
kee & St. Paul..

Yankton, S.D....

Single - track pit.

Hails .supported on
I-beams carried
on pedestals ....

44.5'

Day3-2 men

Nights-1 man. . . .

Chicago, Rock

Two single-track
pits with de-
pressed track
between. Out-
side rail carried
on reinforced
concrete wall; in-
side rail carried
on inverted rail
supported by
cast-iron pedes-
tals

129'-63'

Shops an d Locomotive Terminals

627

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Not considered
desirable for
new construction
at similar loca-
tions

Pit too short

Not considered
desirable for
new construction
at similar loca-
tions

Not considered
desirable for
new construction
at similar loca
tions

Pit not deep
enough

Not considered
desirable for
new construction
at similar loca-
tions

•Not long enough
for two passen-
ger engines

None

Location ^'~~--~ Plan

Standard Single-Track Pit

Location Plak Ash-pit-^ 5^^ vMer

Standard Double-Track Pit

Location Plan mier -tanks

Standard Double-Track Pit

I Sand House [
o Wafer ^ TrefHer

LOCATIOK ^""^---.^PlAN

Standard Double-Track Pit

Ash-p'if
Location Plan
Standard Single-Track Pit

\ /Engine No

628

Shops and Loco motive Terminals.

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Ix>cation

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

Railroad

At
once

In
24Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Cleveland, Cincin-
nati, Chicago &
St. Louis

Brewster, Ohio . . .

Two single-track
pits served by
depressed track
located between
pits. One rail
carried on re-
taining- wall,
other on in-
verted rail sup-
ported by steel
pedestals 4-2}'
on centers

151 '-6'

lOfr-120

Cleveland, Cincin-
nati, Chicago &
St. Louis

Norwalk, Ohio. . .

Single - track pit.
One rail carried
on retaining-
wall, other on
inverted rail
supported by
steel pedestals
4'-2i' on centers.

15-20

Cleveland, Cincin-
nati, Chicago &
St. Louis

Sharonville, Ohio.

Two single-track
pits served by
one depressed
track located
between them.
Outside rails
carried on re-
taining-walls.
Other on rails
supported by pe-
destals 5-6' on
centers

136-6"

2 men each 8-hour
shift, on piece-

work basis.

Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & West-
ern . .

Standard pit for
small terminals.

Single- track pit.
Track supported
by cast-iron
chairs with con-
crete platform
for shoveling

140'

4-8

Shift No. 1-2 men,
Shift No. 2-2 men.
Shift No, 3-1 man.

Delaware, Lacka-
wanna, & West-
ern

Gravel Place, Pa.

Two single-track
pits. Track sup-
ported by ped-
estals 2' high
and spaced 3'
on centers

140'

4-6

Shift No. 1-

2 laborers

1 fire cleaner .

Shift No. 2-

1 fire cleaner . .
Shift No. 3-

1 fire cleaner . .

(8-hour shifts)

*Built entirely of concrete and will need resurfacing in about a year.

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

629

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Safe, and cannot
be congested or
blocked when
labor is avail-
able

Inability to switch
cinder-cars
promptly

•2a-p,/es

Safe, and cannot
be congested or
blocked when
labor is avail-
able

Inability to
switch cinder-
cars promptly

Location Plan

Safe, and cannot
be congested or
blockedwhen
labor is avail-
ble :

Inability to
switch cinder-
cars promptly

Difficult to obtain
efficient labor

Difficult to get
laborers, espe-
cially in cold
weather

None

630

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
3ver Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

Railroad

At
once

In
24Hr8.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Elgin, Joliet &
Eastern

Rossville, 111

Concrete pit

127'-10J"

Days-2 men

Nights-2 men

99 '-3 r

20-30

1 man cleaning
clinkers

3 men cleaning
fires and help-
ing hostlers

Nights-same

Long Island

Morris Park, NY.

Two single -traok
concrete pits
with depressed
track between.
Outside rail car-
ried on wall. In-
side rail carried
on pedestals
spaced 3 '-6" on
centers

198'

100

Days-18 men

12 hours

Nights-8 men

12 hours

Michigan Central.

Niies, Mich

Two single - track
concrete pits
with depressed
track between . .

125'

Cedar Lake

Marshalltown

Oskaloosa

Twin pits, track
between

/ 1-47'
\ 1-90'
/ 1-48'
I 1-88'
\ 1-47'
/ 1-90'

2
2
2

3
3
2

8
8
6

Days-4 men

Minneapolis & St.

Days-5 men
Nights-3 men

Days-4 men

Nights-2 men

Minneapolis, St
Paul & Sault
Ste. Marie

Shoreham

Single - track con-
crete pit. Rails
earned on I-
beams supported
by pedestals
spaced 9'-4J'' on
centers

68'

Shops and Locomoti ve Terminals.

631

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Satisfactory only
where small
number of
engines are
handled

Expensive and
slow loading by
hand. Pit burns
out

■
None

Does not consider
this type desir-
able for new con-
struction

Cinders have to
be handled by
hand

None

Ash-pi'f-^

Location Plan

Would recommend
this type pit for
new construction

Hopper

Location Plan

I Considered desir-
\ able for new
!• construction on
I similar loca-
tions

Concrete walls
break down
under heat and
pedestals burn
out

CemenfCap

632

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

Railroad

At
once

24Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Missouri Pacific. .

Standard pit

Single-track con-
crete pit. Out-
side rail carried
on wall. Inside
rail carried on
two inverted
rails supported
by pedestals
spaced 6 feet on
centers

Multiple
of
30'

Missouri Pacific. .

Falls City, Neb..

Single-track con-
crete pit. Rails
carried on I-
beams sup-
ported by ped-
estals spaced
7-6" on centers.

225'

New York Cen-
tral

Gardenville

Double-track con-
crete pit. Out-
side rails carried
on wall. Inside
rails carried on
pedestals spaced
3' on centers ....

200'

115

Shift No. 1-12 men

8 hours

Shift No. 2- 7 men

8 hours

Shift No. 3- 7 men

8 hours

Norfolk Southern .

Charlotte, N. C.

Single-track con-
crete pit. Each
rail carried on
inverted rail
supported by
pedestals spaced
5' on centers

70'

Seaboard Air Line

Cayce. S. C

Single-track con-
crete pit. Rails
carried on C. I.
pedestals spaced
2-3'' on centers.

61'

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

633

Depressed Track Ashpits

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Very satisfactory

Difficulty in ob-
taining and
high cost of
labor. Small
amount of
storage space

t-:-:-!^- lV--.iv. r-.y.

l?eihforc/nff JPoafs

634

Shops and Locomotive Terminals,

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Railroad

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Union Pacific

Hugo

Sharon Springs . . .

Northport

La Salle

Twin concrete pits
with one de-
pressed track be-
tween. Outside
rails carried on
walls. Inside
rails carried on
I-beams sup-
ported by ped-
estals spaced 12'
centers

34 '-4'

Wheeling & Lake

Pine Valley, Ohio.

Single-track con-
crete pit. Out-
side rail carried
on inverted rail
supported by
pedestals spaced
5' on centers

119'

Miscellaneous

VIechanical Ashpits.

U. P

Pullman, Col

Combination coal,
ash and sand
handling plant, .

A. C. Y

Akron, Ohio

Steam conveyor

D. R. G

Soldier Summit,
Utah

Steam conveyor

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

635

Depressed Track Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Miscellaneous Mix-hanical Ashpits.

"t=^

TAROCT e<

.i afiADC-^

-TO ASH PUC

(A)

636

Shops a n d L ocomoti\e Terminals.

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashpits.

Kttilroad

I.ocation

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

15. & O

Clarksburg, W.Va.

Steam ejector
system

1.50-0'

C. H.I.&P

Joliet.Ill

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 1 unit, 2
conveyors

2.5 '-D'
About

Nights-2 men. . . .
Days-none

A.T. &IS. F

Gallup, N. M

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 2 units, 2
conveyors

24 '-0'

6 men, 3 shifts

I.. V

Wilkes-Barre.EPa.

Robertson Mfg.
Co. Pneumatic
type ash pit,
2 eon^-eyors

14 '-0'

6 fire cleaners

5 laborers

(3 shifts)

I,. K. & W

Robertson Mfg.
C 0 . single and
double conveyor

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 2 conveyors

14 '-.3'

•Now have under way removal of motors and installation of air.

tLooation plan for Ewing Avenue, St. Louis, where 4 pits 6' long each having single conveyors were used.

S.h ops and L o c o m o t i \- c Terminals

631

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIACiUAM

Difficulty of
properprotection
on account one
track. Also air
operation cost.

^SROUND LINE

None ~]^

OROUno LINE

CINDER PITS

No elasticity in
case of elevating
machinery fail-
ing as no space
for dumping and
holding cinders
is provided

LOCATION PLAN

(A)

638

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashtits.

Hailroa<l

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At In
once 24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

C. M. &St. P....

Milwaukee, Wis.. .

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 3 units, 9
conveyors

39 '-6'

100

6 men, 3 shifts

C. M. &St. P....

No. McGregor, la.

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 2 units, 8
conveyors

52 '-6'

9 men, 3 shifts

S. Ry. System . . .

Memphis, Tenn. . .

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 1 unit, 2

3 men, 3 shifts

H. & A

No. Adams Jet.,

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 2 units 1
conveyor

13'-0'

3 fire cleaners

(3 shifts)

C. of G

Savannah, Ga. . . .

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 1 unit, 2
conveyors

32 '-3'

30-35

1 man day

1 man night

C. of G

Macon, Ga

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 1 unit, 2
conveyors

32 '-3'

1 man day

1 man night

C. of G

Columbus, Ga

Robertson Mfg.
Co. 1 unit, 2
conveyors

32 '-3"

3-0

1 man day

1 man night

D. <V- I. I{

Traveling c r a n e
witli air hoist.. .

50 '-0'

4 laborers, 3 shifts.

•Capacity based on switch engines.

Shops and L o c n m o t i \' c Terminals

639

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashpits.

Allv;^Ilta^l'^

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

Satisfactory; very
economical

,r6»ouwO LINC

CINDt« PiTJ

Air fails in cold
weather

®^

ciNoen PITS

5Z%

=0^ — :u-

Same as for Milwaukee, Wis.

f— 6R0UND LINE

A-'^^^

CiNDCR Pns

None:

<groi;nd^i.inc

(A)

640

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashimts.

Hail road

Eocation

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and

Niglit Separately

At In '" ^^y^}
once -.MHrs J -"^^^

I'. A L. E

Haselton, Ohio. . .

Trolley on inclined
runway for
handling cinder
hucket.s

125'-0'
135'-0'
142 '-6"
152 '-6'

120

3 men nights

3 men days

P. & L. E

Briglitwood, Pa .

Ash car in tunnel
and skip hoist
system

14 '-0'

Traversing bucket
and trolley sys-
tem

70 '-0"

Shops and L o c o m o t i v c Terminals

641

Miscellaneous Mechanical Ashhts.

Advantages

DIAGRAM

Difficulty in push-
ing the ash
buckets? in the
pit in severe
winter weather

^^^\^~^ ^

642

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Water Ashimts.

Railroad

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Single-track pit,
adjacent and
parallel to coal
pit, with a com-
mon crane track
between

100'

3 men days

3 men nights

Boston & Albany.

West Springfield,
Mass

Twin pits. Wet ash
loading track
between them
on same level.
Ashes handled
by gantry crane

240'

164

6 fire cleaners
days

6 fire cleaners
nights

1 crane operator
8 hours

Boston & Maine...

East Deerfield,

Double-track pit.
Wet ash loading
track on side.
Ashes handled
by gantry crane

343'

140

12 men days

9 men nights. . . .

Central of New
Jersey

Jersey City.N.J..

Twin pits. Wet
ash loading
track between
them on same
level. Ashes re-
moved by over-
head crane.
Reinforced con-
crete walls and
floor

200'

275

23 men days

20 men nights ....

Chicago, Indianap-
olis & Louis-
ville

Bloomington, Ind.

Single-track ash
pit, adjacent
and parallel to
coal pit with a
common crane
track between...

100'

C. M. &St. P....

Sioux City, Iowa..

Double-track pit.
Loading track on
one side. Ashes
handled with
clam shell

100'

3 men days.'.

3 men nights

*Only 10 hours days and 10 hours nights chargeable to cleaning fires and handling ashes.

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

643

Water Ashpits.

Advantages

Disadvantages

DIAGRAM

For lurgeterininals

Compact arrange-
ment for con-
gested points. . .

High maintenance

Xone.

Original cost and
cost to operate.

Necessity of hand-
ling wet ashes in
cold weather.
High initial cost

. J . -

P <>v ^<a.\\-r

.\ /'S'

■

■.'.

I i

^ X

:-:-:>W:4

«44

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

Water Ashpits.

Hailroad

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Enginw
Handled

Force Employed
Giving Day and
Night Separately

At
onct

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

CM. A St. P....

lOttumwa, Iowa..

Double-track pit.
Loading track
on one side.
Ashes handled
with clam shell.

100'

•

3 shifts, 2 men
each

C. R. I. & P

Burr Oak, 111

Double-track pit.

205'

127

5 men nights

2 men days

8 hours each

Del.,Lack&West.

Scranton, Pa

Twin pits. Wet
ash loading track
between them.
Ashes handled
by gantry crane

400'

150

6 men days

6 men nights

1 crane operator
days

E. J. &E...

Kirk Yard

Double-track pit.
Loading track
over center,
with gantry
crane to remove
cinders

l.W

12 men days

12 men nights

E. J.<kE

Ea.'^t Joliot, 111....

Double-track pit.
Loading track
over center,
with gantry
crane to remove
cinders

152'

115

15 men da.\s

15 men nights

'.ehigh \'alley.. . .

Coxtoa, Pa

Double-track pit.
.\shes removed
by electric trav-
eling crane

400'

110

9 men on each
8-hour .<iliift

1 crane operator
8 hours

L. & N

Latoaia, Ky

Double-track pits.
100 feet long, 30
feet wide, and
12 feet deep.
Ashes removed
by locomotive
crane

100'

Approx.

1900
per mo.

J men each S-hour
shifts. lyocomo-
tive crane for
1 hour per day .

*Pit is cleaned cms a veek with a clam shell at a cost of 5 hours' labor.

jA spe<MaJ feature ii> t¥e construe tion of the ashing platform lietween the engine tracks over pit.

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

643

Water Ashpits.

\ilv;intajies Di^ulviintageft

DIAGRAM

C i n (1 (• r s drop
into the water,
eliminating
gaxeg

Advantageous for
large terminals.

Difficult to protect
when placed be-
tween tracks.

Hot a.shes.
Kink rails.

% X

E'.:,- ■.. >*--»■ 'X A. ■ r- J ■ X. 1 '. " 'I

No Diagram

tfa-K* KoW

No Diagram

646

Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Water Ashi'its.

Railroad

Location

Description

Length
of Pit

Num-
ber of
Tracks
over Pit

Number of Engines
Handled

At
once

In
24 Hrs.

In Rush

Period

of 2 Hrs.

Force lOmploye*!
Givine Day and
Night Separately

N. V C ASt.L

N. V.,N. H &H.

Cedar Hill, Conn,

.Southern.

Southern .

C. & W. I

Twin pits with
gantry crane
between. Ashes
removed by
clam shell
shovel

Birmingham, Ala.

Atlanta, Ga.

Chicago, 111

Rectangular water
pit. .Ashes load-
ed by crane ...

Duplicate installa-
tion. Each unit
consists of 2
cinder pit tracks
and a center
loading track.
Ashes removed
by electric crane

Double- track pits.
90 feet long, 22
feet wide, 12 to
13 feet deep.
Ashes are re-
moved by loco-
motive crane . . .

Double-track pits,
adjacent and
parallel to coal
pit, with a com-
mon crane track
between. Also
a crane track for
cinders only ....

90'

2 each

1-200'
1-250'

130
to
1.50

Depend.-^
on class
engine
and num-
b e r of
fires
dumped

i men, 8-liour
hifts .

2 foremen

18 men

1 crane operator..

5 men each

12-hour shifts. . .
1 crane operator

2 hours per day ,

4 men each, 8-hour
period

.Also engineer and
fireman for loco-
motive crane,
which is also
used for coaling
engines

9 men days .
9 men nights

Shops and Locomotive Terminals

647

Water Ashpits.

Advantages

Di,«advantages

DIAGRAM

All fire is put out
by water. No
burning of cinder
cars. No han-
dling of cinders
by laborers ....

^'ery satisfactory.

None

No Diagram

*n»» »< C.>»^« ^^->.~aM 'B.o.'/

Xi) Diagram

Very satisfactory . ICoal sometimes
drops into the
water when coal-
ing from cars
I alongside of pits

COMMITTEE V— ON TRACK

W. P. WiLTSEE, Chairman; J. V. Neuhert, Vice-Cliairnian;

L. B. Allen, |. B. Jenkins,

V. Angerer, H. a. Lloyd,

W. G. Arn, J. De N. Macomr,

J. B. Baker, F. H. McGuigan, Jr.,

R. A. Baldwin, F. L. Nicholson,

G. H. Bremner, R. M. Pearce,

H. G. Clark. H. T. Porter,

E. A. Hadley, J. H. Reinholdt,

G. W. Hegel, G. J. Slibeck,

E. T. HowsoN. J. B. Strong,

T. T. Irving, J. R. Watt,

Comniittee.

To llie American Railway Engineering Association:

The [ollowing subjects were assigned the Committee on Track for
study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Man-
ual, and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Report on typical plans of turnouts, crossovers, slip switches, dou-
ble crossovers, and railroad crossings, and prepare detail plans for such
work, including necessary fixtures, etc., conferring with Committee on
Signals and Interlocking. Submit complete plans for clamped frogs.

3. Make final report, it practicable, on reduction of taper of tread
of wheel to 1 in 38, and on canting the rail inward, conferring with Corn-
mil Ice ou Rail.

4. Make final report, if practicable, on (a) tests of tic plates subject
lo brine drippings; (b) on the etifect of brine drippings on track
appliances.

5. Submit plans and specifications for track tools.

6. Study and report on the limit of wear on frogs, including, if pos-
sible, rules for determining when frogs are sufficiently worn to warrant
removal from track.

7. Submit plans and specifications for switch stands, switch lamps
and switch locks.

8. Submit plans and specifications for tie plates, derailers and anti-
creepers, con ferring with Committee on Ties and on Rail.

9. Study and report on specifications and piece work schedules for
contracting track maintenance work.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in North Asbury Park, N. J.,
June 21st, 1920; in St. Louis, Mo., September 20th, 1920, and in Chicago,
III., November 17th, 1920. The names of the members in attendance
have been given in the minutes of the meetings which have been for-
warded to the Secretary.

649

(A)

650 Track.

(1) Revision of Manual

Proposed changes in the Manual, items I, II, III, are given in
Appendix A.

(2) Typical Plans of Turnouts, Crossovers, Slip Switches, Double
Crossovers, and Railroad Crossings, and Detail Plans for Such
Work, Including Necessary Fixtures, Etc.

In Appendix B the Committee reports on this subject, and its recom-
mendations are given under Conclusions.

(2a) (Special Committee) Gages and Flangeways for Curved Cross-
ings
In Appendix C the Committee submits a progress report on this

subject.

(7) Submit Plans and Specifications for Switch Stands, Switch Lamps
and Switch Locks

In Appendix D the Committee submits a progress report on this
subject.

(8) Submit Plans and Specifications for Tie Plates, Derailers and
Anti-Creepers

In Appendix E the Committee submits a progress report on this
subject.

(9) Study and Report on Specifications and Piece Work Schedules for
Contracting Track Maintenance Work

In Appendix F the Committee submits a progress report on this
subject.

The Committee also reports progress on subject (3) Make Final
Report on Reduction of Taper of Tread of Wheel 1 in 38, and on Canting
the Rail Inward; on subject (4) Make Final Report on (a) Tests of Tie
Plates Subject to Brine Drippings, and (b) on the Eflfect of Brine Drip-
pings on Track Appliances: on subject (5) Submit Plans and Specifica-
tions for Track Tools, and on subject (6) Study and Report on Limit
of Wear on Frogs, including Rules for Determining When Frogs Are
Sufficiently Worn to Warrant Removal.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends the changes in the Manual as sub-
mitted in Appendix A be approved and the revised matter be sub-
stituted for the present subject matter in the Manual.

2. In Appendix B the Committee submits detail plans as per in-
structions, recommending certain of them for adoption and others to be
received as information. These plans are the result of the study and
co-operation of your Committee and the Frog and Switch Manufac-
turers of the Manganese Track Society. Appendix B also covers
Progress Report on uncompleted work, and the Committee recommends
reassignment of the subject.

Track. 651

2a. In connection with subject 2, a special subcommittee was ap-
pointed to make an investigation on the subject of Gages and Flange-
waj-s for Curved Crossings. In Appendix C a theoretical study is sub-
mitted on the subject, which the Committee recommends be accepted
as information. The Committee also recommends that the subject be
reassigned.

3. The Committee reports progress and recommends the subject be
reassigned.

4. On account of delay in getting tie plates for tests the Committee
has no report to make and recommends the subject be reassigned.

5. Plans of various track tools have been prepared, but more time
is desired to get answers from questionnaires as to the extent of use
of the alternate details, etc. The Committee recommends the subject
be reassigned.

6. The Committee has this subject under investigation and recom-
mends that the subject be reassigned.

7. The Committee recommends that the Progress Report, being
Appendix D, be accepted as information, and the subject be reassigned.

8. The Committee recommends that the Progress Report, being
Appendix E, be accepted as information, and the subject be reassigned.

9. The Committee recommends that the Progress Report, being
Appendix F, be accepted as information, and the subject be reassigned.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends in addition to continuing the above
assignments the subject of Gages and Flangeways for Curves and for
Curved Crossings be assigned as a separate subject.
Respectfully submitted.

The Committee on Track,
W. P. WiLTSEE, Chairman.

Appendix A

(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

W. P. WiLTSEE, Chairman; T. T. Irving,

J. V. Neubert, J. De N. Macomb,

k. A. Baldwin, F. H. McGuigan, Jr.,

G. W. Hegel, H. T. Porter,

\l. T. HowsoN, Sub-Committee.

Item I.

The Committee recommends that the design of the Cut Track Spike
shown on page 22 of the 1918 Supplement to the Manual be withdrawn,
and the designs for ^-in. and i''c-in. Cut Track Spikes submitted here-
with be substituted therefor, as the present design in the Manual does
not correctly show the slope of the underside of the head of the spike
to agree with the slope of the top of the rail base. The accompanying
designs fit the rail base most commonly in use.

The accompanying design of 5^" Cut Track Spike is the same as
♦hat submitted last year and as published in Vol. 21, Bulletin 221, except
the width at the toe end has been changed to J/2" instead of 5^", and
the curve under the head has been changed for greater strength and
better contact of the jaw of a claw bar.

Reports as to the practicability of this design for manufacture in
automatic machines have been received from various steel companies
and samples have been submitted to this Committee.

652

Track.

653

654 Track.

Item II.

Omit pages 168 to 186 inclusive, commencing with article "Length
of Switches" and ending with and including article "Crossovers," and
substitute the following:

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SWITCHES, FROGS, CROSSINGS AND

GUARD RAILS

General Instructions

1. The Purchaser will furnish the Manufacturer specifications and
drawings, giving rail sections, splice drilling, angles, alincment and gen-
eral dimensions, and such special details as may be required.

2. Unless otherwise specified the construction, design and details
shall conform to the plans adopted by the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association as recommended practice. For track structures for which
no such plans have been adopted, the Manufacturer shall, when requested,
submit for approval detail drawings.

3. The detailed drawings shall be on sheets 22 in. wide between
outside border lines, with inside border lines 15^ in. from the top and
bottom. The standard length of thje sheet shall be 30 in. between outside
border lines with inside border lines ^ in. from the right-hand edge and
V/2 in. from the left-hand edge. When longer sheets are necessary they
shall be in multiples of 6 in. and folded back to the standard length.

Drawings shall be confined to one subject. The title shall be placed
in the lower right-hand corner. The scale of the general drawings shall
be V/z in. equals one foot, where practicable. Details not less than 3 in.
equals one foot wherever practicable. Dimensions and distances under
2 ft. should be shown in inches ; 2 ft. and over in feet and inches. Cross-
sections shall be section lined for the material to be indicated in accord-
ance with standard sections as shown in the A.R.E.A. Manual. Man-
ganese steel section to be indicated by heavy single lines.

4. The drawings shall be part of the specifications. Anything that
is not shown on the drawings, but which is mentioned in the specifica-
tions, or vice versa, or anything not expressly set forth in either, but
which is reasonably implied, shall be furnished, the same as if specifically
shown and mentioned in both. .Should anything be omitted from the
drawings or specifications that is necessary for a clear understanding of
the work, or should any error appear in cither the drawings or specifi-
cations afifecting the work, the Manufacturer shall notify the Purchaser
and shall not proceed with the work until instructed to do so.

Material
RaU.

5. The rail used shall be first quality open-hearth steel of the sec-
tion called for, manufactured according to A.R.E.A. specifications or to
Rail Manufacturers' standard specifications, imless otherwise specified.

Track. 655

Grey Iron Castings.

6. Grey iron castings shall be of a good commercial grade of me-
dium grey iron.

Steel Castings.

7. Steel castings shall be of good commercial grade manufactured
in accordance with standard specifications of the American Society for
Testing Materials for steel castings class "B"; except that steel castings
exposed to wheel wear shall have a hardness approximately that of rail
steel.

Cast Manganese Steel.

8. The cast manganese steel shall conform to the standard specifi-
cations of the Manganese Track Society (Page 410, Volume 18, A.R.E.A,
Proceedings).

Malleable Iron Castings.

9. Malleable iron castings shall be of a good commercial grade,
properly annealed.

Rolled or Forged Steel.

10. Rolled or forged steel parts shall be of a medium grade of com-
mercial mild steel. Parts exposed to wheel wear shall be equal in hard-
ness to rail steel.

Fillers.

11. Fillers shall be of rolled or forged steel, wrought iron or of
good quality grey cast iron as called for on plans and as specified.

Heel Risers.

12. Heel risers shall be as called for on plans and provide wearing
surface equal in hardness to rail steel.

Foot Guards.

13. Metal foot guards as shown on plans shall be of rolled steel or
malleable iron. Wooden foot guards shall be good quality hard wood.
Filler blocks when acting as foot guards may be of grey iron.

Bolts.

14. Bolts, other than where heat treated bolts are called for on
plans or specified, shall be of mild carbon steel and shall have a tensile
strength of not less than 50,000 lb. per square inch and an elongation of
not less than 15 per cent, in 8 in.

Heat treated or high tensile bolts shall be of carbon or alloy steel
and conform to the following minimum requirements :

Tensile Strength 100,000 lb.

Yield Point 70,000 lb.

Elongation in 2 in IS per cent.

Reduction of Area 40 per cent.

666 Track.

Full-size bolts shall bend cold without cracking through 180 deg.
around a pin of the same diameter as the bolt. The yield point, elonga-
tion, and reduction of area may be determined from a finished bolt or
from a test piece Yi in. by 2 in. turned from a finished bolt. Nuts may
be Bessemer or open-hearth carbon steel not heat treated and shall be of
sufficient thickness to develop the full strength of the bolt.

Rivets.

15. Rivets shall Ijc made of steel manufactured in accordance with
the standard specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials

for rivet steel for ship or structural work.

Reinforcing Bars.

16. Reinforcing bars shall be of wrought iron or mild open-hearth
steel.

Plate*.

17. Switch plates, .special frog tie plates, and bearing plates shall be
of mild open-hearth steel.

Switch Clips.

18. Switch clips shall be of mild open-hearth steel, except special
designs which may be of cast steel or malleable iron.

Switch Rods.

19. Switch rods shall be of mild rolled steel or wrought iron.

Stops and Hold-Downs.

20. Stops and hold-downs shall be of mild rolled steel or wrought
iron.

Anti-Creeping Device.

21. Anti-creeping devices shall be of mild rolled steel or wrought
iron.

Braces.

22. Braces shall be of mild rolled steel, malleable iron or cast steel.
Washers.

22). Washers shall be of mild rolled steel, malleable iron or cast steel.
Nut Locks.

24. Nut locks shall be of good strong spring steel.
Switch Heel Blocks.

25. Switch heel blocks shall he of grey iron, cast or forged steel
as specified.

Springs.

26. The steel in springs shall conform to the standard specifications
of the American Society for Testing Materials for carbon steel bars for

Track. 657

railway springs. Springs when forced down solid and held in the com-
pressed position for thirty seconds, upon release, must not vary from
their original free length.

Spring Housings.

27. Spring housings shall be of grey cast iron, malleable iron or
cast steel.

Forged Crossing Knees.

28. Forged crossing knees shall be of mild rolled open-hearth steel
or wrought iron.

Special Splice Bars.

29. Special splice bars shall be of mild rolled steel or cast steel.

Workmanship
Workmanship.

30. Workmanship shall be first-class and in accordance with best
current practice. The assemblj- of the several parts shall be such that
uniformity of detail and finish will result.

Alinement and Surface.

31. The alinement and surface of all finished work shall be even
and true and conform to the angles specified.

Length.

32. Length of frogs and crossing arms shall not vary more than
14 in. from lengths specified. Switch-point rails and guard rails shall
not vary more than >4 in. from length specified. Rail ends shall be cut
square to the axis of the rail, unless otherwise required.

Flangeways.

33. The width' of flangeways shall not be less than nor more than tV
in. greater than the width specified, when measured on the level of gage
line 5^ in. below tread surface. Flangeways shall not be less than 1^ in.
deep measured from top of the tread surface, unless otherwise specified.

Bending.

34. Bends shall be made accurately in arcs of circles and without in-
jury to the material. It is desired that rails be bent cold. If heating of
the rails is resorted to it must be done in a manner so as not to injure
the metal.

Planing.

35. All planing must be true and all abutting surfaces must fit accu-
ratelj'.

Grinding.

36. Running surfaces of the manganese steel parts shall be ground to
practically as good a surface as that of the rolled rail. Manganese steel
portions fitting into rails or other parts shall be ground to a good fit.

658 Track.

Drilling and Punching.

Z7. All holes in carbon steel rails must be drilled. In other parts all
holes for turned pins or bolts and for tight fit of rough bolts must be
drilled. Drilling to be done accurately, on bevel where necessary. Punch-
ing will be permitted only in wrought iron or mild steel parts for rivets,
loose rough bolts and spikes, except when such holes come so close to-
gether or close to the edge of the piece that the metal between holes or
between hole and edge is less in width than the thickness of the material,
in which case holes must be drilled.

Fit of Bolts.

38. Main or body bolts in frogs and crossings shall have a tight fit
in straight true holes. Heads and nuts shall have a square bearing.
Other bolts not requiring a tight fit, unless otherwise specified, shall have
a clearance of not more than -h in. in drilled or punched holes and not
more than y% in. in cored holes. Threads must be U. S. Standard, accu-
rately cut within tolerance of best practice for cut threads. Nuts must
have a tight fit.

Rivets.

39. Rivets shall be of full diameter called for on plans and rivet
holes shall not be more than -h in. greater in diameter. When not other-
wise called for by plans or specifications, rivets shall have standard button
or cone heads of uniform size for the same size rivet. The heads shall
be concentric with the holes. Countersunk rivets shall be flush with the
surface and fill the countersink.

Fit of Fillers, Braces and Reinforcing Bars.

40. Fillers, except as otherwise called for or permitted by plans and
specifications, shall fit closely into the fishing space of the rail and into
the fillets of the web for not less than 5^ in. below the head and above
the base flange. When the raised brand of the rail interferes with fit of
filler the brand shall be removed. Fillers shall be grooved or cut to clear
rivet heads and bolt heads.

Switch braces shall fit the fishing space of the rail when the brace
is tight against the shoulder of the switch plate.

Reinforcing bars shall fill the height of the fishing space of the rail.

Plates and Bars.

41. All plates must be flat and true to surface. Bars must be straight
and of the full size called for.

Painting.

42. No paint, tar or other covering shall be used unless specified,
and, in any case, shall not be applied before final inspection.

Welding.

43. No welding shall be permitted on rails or on surfaces of other
parts exposed to wheel wear. Welding in other portions may be permitted
if in the judgment of the inspector the strength of the piece is not
impaired.

Track. 659

Marking.

44. The finished articles shall be plainly stamped with ^ in. figures
and letters for indentification. The manufacturers' name or initials,
section and weight of rail and month and year of manufacture must
be stamped on a rail portion of the sctructure not exposed to wheel
wear and where marking can be plainly seen, or may be stamped on a
separate rust-proof plate, riveted to the web of the rail, in which case
smaller letters may be used. Frogs must be marked with the frog num-
ber. All loose parts or fixtures shall be similarly stamped with suitable
size letters and figures, the stamping also to show the numbers of the
parts appearing on the plan and detail number, where established. On
cast parts all or part of the lettering may be cast on the piece. All heat-
treated bolts shall be marked on the head with letter or symbol indicating
the manufacturer.

Inspection

45. Material and workmanship shall be at all times subject to inspec-
tion by a duly authorized representative of the purchaser. The inspector
shall have all reasonable facilities afforded to him by the manufacturer
to examine the work during its progress, as well as the finished product,
to satisfy himself that the work is manufactured and finished in accord-
ance with these specifications.

46. All inspection shall be made at the place of manufacture. Tests of
material may be made at the expense of the manufacturer if the amount of
any particular kind of material is 50 tons or more. If less than 50 tons,
the manufacturer shall certify that it is furnished in accordance with this
specification; however, if the purchaser desires that a test be made he
shall bear the expense of same, unless the material fails to meet the
specifications, in which case the manufacturer shall stand the expense of
such test. For the rails used in the work the manufacturer, when re-
quested, shall supply the purchaser with a certificate of inspection from
the rail manufacturer.

47. The acceptance of any material by an inspector shall not prevent
subsequent rejection if found defective after delivery, and such defective
material shall be replaced by the manufacturer at his own expense.

FROG DESIGNS

Data for laying out Bolted Rigid Frogs, Railbound Manganese
Steel Frogs and Solid Manganese F"rogs as given below will aid in laying
out frogs of different angles and number from those covered by plans
submitted by this Committee. Several railroads have asked for this in-
formation.

Bolted Rigid Frogs — For data for laying out see T'lan No. 320.

Railbound Manganese Steel Frogs — The rules given below for
designs of Railbound Manganese Steel Frogs are applicable for all rail
sections from 80 lb. per yard up, and from 2-% in. to 3 in. width of head.
Design A is applicable to all angles of from No. 4 to No. 20, both in-
clusive. Design B is applicable to angles of from No. 16 to No. 20, both
inclusive.

Sections and other details are to conform to those for similar angles
shown on Plans 601 to 607, inclusive. Lengths shall conform to A.R.E.A.
standard lengths for Bolted Rigid Frogs.

Rules for L.aying Out Design A
Applicable to All Frogs from No. 4 to No. 20, Inclusive.

1. Heel.

The heel end of manganese point is placed where the spread between
gage lines is 434 in.

2. ^'^-.':] Blcrh Exter.don.

The heel block extension running out from the heel of manganese
point between the heel rails to be 23 in. long for frogs Nos. 4. 5 and 6 and
26 in. long for No. 7; above No. 7, the heel extension is to run 6 in.
beyond the point where spread between gage lines is 7y4 in. The heel
block extension is integral with the manganese body casting on all frotrs
up to and including No I.t; for frogs No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive, the
integral part is made 10',4 in. long from the heel of manganese point and
a separate heel block casting forms the balance. The riser at the end
of all heel blocks is to have a slope from Yi in. below the level of the head
of rails at the end to tread level in a length of 6 in.

3. Heel Rails.

The heel rails arc offset horizontally toward the gage line by a
short bend at the end of the heel block extension and a reverse bend
15^ in. from the point end of the rails on all frogs up to and
'including No. 1.^, and 20^' i"- from the point end of the rail for
frogs No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive, so as to bring the center line of web
74 in. (+ tV in.) from gage line of frog and running parallel to gage line
from point end to reverse bend. Head on gage line is planed to straight
line conforming to side contour of head. Back of head is planed to a

660

Track-. 661

straight taper with a vertical side from I1/2 in. net width of head at
point to full section at end of heel block extension.

The point end of rail is cut at an angle of 45 deg. to the gage line
and the back of head at point end is rounded by 5 in. radius.

4. Wing Rail.

Wing rail laps heel rail from point end t(j reverse bend or for
a length of 15^2 in. for all frogs up to and including No. 15, and
20>2 in. for No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive, and is parallel to gage line
with a width of Hangeway of 2J4 in. using a standard section filler made
lor a. \}^ in. flangeway with full rail heads, but producing a width of
2% in. between the line of head of wing rail and the planed away head
of heel rail. The side of the head of wing rail is planed for a straight
flare on the guard side running on a line from the m in. width flange-
way opposite to a 2% in. spread of the gage lines (except for No. 4 and
No. 5 frogs) to a 3'/4 in. flare opening at the end of a flare measured
^ in. below tread level. The side of flare planing on the wing rail com-
mencing at the end of the manganese wing to be on a bevel of 25 deg. from
vertical. For No. 4 and No. 5 frogs the beginning of the flare line is
placed at opposite spread between gage line of l^ in. instead of 2J4 in.

Where the flare line intersects the side of the head of wing rail at
the 2^ in. width of flangewaj' measured 5^ in. below tread level, head of
wing rail is notched to a radius of 5^ in. for the reception of the man-
ganese steel wing and rail is bent outward on a straight line so as to bring
side of full head 4 in. from gage line opposite theoretical point. Opposite
theoretical point wing rail is bent back on a line running to a gage line
toe spread of 3 in., but on an angle of not less than 1 in 8 with gage line
(frogs No. 4 to No. 10, inclusive). If angle come? out smaller than 1
in 8, reduce toe spread (2.91 in. for No. 11 frog and 2.67 in. for No. 12
frog) to make the angle 1 in 8 until a minimum toe spread of 2^ in. is
reached (frogs No. 14 to No. 20, inclusive) when such minimum .spread
and minimum angle of 1 in 8 are kept and the middle bend of wing rail
moved toward the toe end ot the frog by extending the line of wing rail
running from the notch to the point 4 in. out at theoretical point until
such line meets the line drawn from 2^ in. toe spread on the 1 in 8
angle. Head is planed with vertical side from notch to full section of
head at middle bend.

5. Manganese Steel Body and Wings.

l->om the heel end of the manganese point at the 4^4 in. spread
the manganese is carried across the flangewa}' on an angle of 30 deg. to
the gage line to the web of the wing rail. It then follows the web of bent
wing rail to the bend at toe, where the manganese body ends. The back
of the manganese wing fits into the notch in the wing rail and follows the
planed and bent head of the wing rail to the toe end, where it lies up
against the side of the full head section of the wing rail, the end being
sloped and rounded. Manganese wing is flared to follow flare line from
1^ in. width of flageway to 2^4 in. opening at notch to meet flare planed

662 Track.

in wing rail. Bottom bearing of the manganese steel casting on top of
base of wing rail to be continuous throughout except at bends. Bearing
under head and against web of wing rail to be 3 in. long at every other
through bolt commencing with the second bolt from the manganese heel
towards the toe down to the first bolt from the theoretical point towards
the heel and then at every bolt to the toe end; and for a length of 4 in.
at the last bolt through the toe end of manganese body.

Heel extension to have continuous bearing on the top of base of heel
rails and to bear against the web and under head continuous from the
point end of heel rails for same length as flailgeway filler, then for 3 in.
at each bolt beyond end of filler and 4 in. at end of heel block extension.

6. Fillers and Toe Blocks.

Fillers between heel rails and wing rails are of a constant length
of 14J4 in- for frogs No. 4 to No. 15, inclusive, and 19^ in. for frogs
No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive, measured on gage line, being cut on an angle
of 30 deg. to correspond to angle of manganese steel body carried across
flangeway and square on outer end, except when wing rails are beveled,
when filler is cut flush with end of the same angle as the wing rail.

Toe blocks are placed 2 in. from the toe end of the manganese body
and are 7 in. long, with one bolt for all frogs up to and including No. 15,
and 12 in. long with two bolts for frogs No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive.

7. Bolt Spacing.

At heel end spacing of bolts through heel rails, wing rails and
fillers is constant; 3 in. -5 in. -5 in. for all frogs from No. 4 to No. 15,
inclusive, and 3 in. -5 in. -5 in. for frogs No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive,
measured on gage line from point end of heel rail. Bolt at end of
heel block extension is placed 2 in. from extreme end of all frogs. In
26 in. long heel block extension one additional bolt is placed midway be-
tween end bolt and last bolt through filler (No. 7 and No. 8 frogs). In
longer extensions (No. 9 frog and above) first bolt outside of end of
wing rails is placed dVz in. from last bolt through flangeway fillers and
additional bolts (No. 11 frog and above) are spaced between this bolt
and the end bolt in least number of equal spaces not exceeding 10 in.
from c. to c. At toe end position of bolts through toe block is constant,
being 6 in. measured on gage line from toe end of manganese body for
7 in. toe block and 4 in.-8 in. for 12 in. toe block. Position of first two
bolts through manganese body at toe end is constant 2 in.-7 in. for all
frogs, measured on gage line from toe end of casting. Body bolts be-
tween fixed positions of bolts at heel and toe ends are spaced in least
number of equal spaces not exceeding 12 in. from c. to c.

Rules for Laying Out Design B

Applicable to All Frogs from No. 16 to No. 20, Inclusive.

The rules for the laying out of Design B are the same as given for
Design A for frogs No. 16 to No. 20, inclusive, with the following modifi-
cations :

Track. 663^

8. Heel.

The heel end of manganese point is placed where the spread be-
tween gage lines is 4^ in. instead of 434 in.

9. Heel Block Extension.

To correspond with rules for Design A.

10. Heel Rails.

To correspond with rules for Design A.

11. Wing Rail.

To correspond with rules for Design A, from heel down to op-
posite theoretical point at 4 in. out from gage line. The wing rail is
then bent back on a straight line to meet guard line at opposite the
point where the toe spread between gage line is 1 in. (equals 25^ in.
wide throat). Angle of this line with guard line to be not smaller than
1 in 8 (1 in 7.1 for No. 16 frog). In No. 18 and No. 20 frogs run line
on angle of 1 in 8 from guard line from opposite the 1 in. toe spread and
extend line of wing from notch to 4 in. from gage line at theoretical
point until the two lines meet. Toe end of manganese wing is placed at
opposite the 1 in. toe spread. Wing rail then follows a straight line
through throat to a 2% in. spread between gage line, where it is again
bent to the line of the frog angle.

12. Manganese Steel Body and Wings.

To correspond with rules for Design A, commencing at the 4^ in.
heel spread to toe end of manganese wing at throat. Manganese body
is extended beyond end of manganese wing toward toe asa filler between
.wing rails a distance of 10 in. with continuous bearing on top of base and
under head and against web of rail from toe end of casting to second bolt
through manganese wing.

13. Flangeway Fillers and Toe Blocks.

Fillers between heel rail and wing rail same as Design A. Toe
blocks are placed 2 in. from end of manganese steel body — 1 block 20 in.
long for No. 16 frog — 2 blocks 2 in. apart, outer one 16 in. long — inner
one 6 in. long for No. 18 frog; and 2 blocks 2 in. apart — outer one 16^
in, long — inner one 9^^ in. long for No. 20 frogs.

14. Bolt Spacing.

Rules for bolt spacing at the heel and heel block extension are the
same as for Design A.

At the toe end the position of the first four bolts through the man-
ganese steel body is constant : 2 in. -5 in.-6 in. -7 in. from end of body
extension between wing rails. Bolts through toe block arc spaced as
follows : From first toe bolt through manganese body towards toe end of
from— No. 16 frog, 8 in. -12 in.; No. 18 frog, 7 in.-7 in.-12 in.; No. 20
frog, 8}i in.-9 in.-12 in.

Body bolts between fixed position of bolts at heel and toe ends are
spaced in the least number of equal spaces not exceeding 12 in. from c.
to c. same as Design A.

SOLID MANGANESE STEEL FROGS

The rules given belcw for the design of solid manganese steel frogs
are applicable to all frogs from a No. 4 to a No. 20, inclusive, and for
all connecting rail sections from 80 lb. per yard up, and from 2^ in. to
3 in. (inclusive), width of head.

Abbreviations and Definitions: Base = Base of rail connecting
from; Head = Head of rail connecting frog; Minimum Width of Head =
width of head of rail at a point 5^ in. below top; Design 1 = Type of
frog without easer extensions ; Design 2 = Type of frog with easer
extensions.

Sections shall conform to those shown on Plans 651 to 655, inclusive.

Typical details of heel-ends, toe-ends and Hare are appended.

Grouping of Rails. To establish a m.inimum of different standard
lengths of frogs, rails are grouped as follows, and composite standard
lengths for each group tabulated as per appended tables of "Standard
Dimensions."

Class "A."— Rail with a base of 5^ in. down, but not including 5>2
in. and head 27/^ in, to 2Y% in. wide, inclusive; or rail head at or exceeding
2^ in. when head and base do not exceed 8^ in.

Class "B." — Rails with a base of 5^ in. down, but hot including 5^
in. and head 2\% in. to 2fs in. wide, inclusive; or rail head at or exceed-
ing 211 in. when head and base do not exceed %-h in.

Class "C." — Rails with a base of 5^ in. down, but not including 5
in. and head 2\h in. to 2-iii in. wide, inclusive; or rail head at or exceed-
ing 2\l in. when head and base do not exceed 7i% in.

Class "D." — Rails with a base of 5 in. down, but not including AYz
in. and head 2ii in. to 2/5 in. wide, inclusive; or rail head at or exceed-
ing 2\l in. when head and base do not exceed 7ii in.

1. Lengths. (General Rule.)

For Design 1, Toe Lengths. Toe Lengths from theoretical Yz in.
point = (maximum base minus minimum width of head plus Yz in.) times
frog number. Minimum toe length for 15 in. maximum splicing = 2j4
in. times frog number plus 13 in. (below a No. 11 frog, class "A"; a No.
12 frog, class "B" ; a No. 14 frog, class "C," and a No. 18, class "D").

For Design 2, Toe Lengths. Toe Lengths from theoretical Yt in-
point = (maximum base minus minimum width of head plus Yz in.) times
frog number. Minimum toe length = 2% in. times frog number plus 6 in.
(below a No. 5 frog, class "A"; a No. 6 frog, class "B"; a No. 7 frog,
class "C," and a No. 8 frog, class "D").

664

Track. 665

For Designs 1 and 2. Heel Lengths. Heel Lengths from theoretical
VS in. point = (maximum base plus maximum width of head minus Yi in.)
times frog number. Minimum heel length for 15 in. maximum splicing
and 15 in. length of flare = 3 ft. 6 in. (frogs No. 4 and 5 all classes).

All lengths to be taken to the even inch (lower for fractions up to
Iiut not including ' _• in., higher for fractions >< in. or more).

2. Heights.

Heights of frog casting to be (both designs) :

45^ in. high for connecting rails of 4^s i"- to 41e in. high, inclusive.

5 in. high for connecting rails of 4^-4 in. to 5tV in. high, inclusive.

5^ in. high for connecting rails of 5j/^ in. to 5/b in. high, inclusive.

554 in. high for connecting rails of 5j^ in. to 5-11 in. high, inclusive.

6^ in. high for connecting rails of 57/^ in. to 6^ in. high, inclusive.

dYi in. high for connecting rails of 6^4 i"- to 6^ in. high, inclusive.

3. Heel Extension.

Heel extension to run 15 in. beyond heel joint.

For Design 1— Its top to be 1-5^ in. below tread of connecting rails.
Easer to be formed in front of heel extension, between tread lines, slop-
mg from Yz in. below at heel joint to flush with tread in 6 in.

For Design 2 — Its top to be flush with tread of connecting rails, slop-
ing to Yt in- below tread in 6 in. at extreme end.

Side walls or webs to fit fishing section of connecting rail. End walls
to be 54 in- thick.

4. Toe Extension.

For Design 1 — Toe extension to run between rails for 15 in. beyond
toe joint. Its top to be level with bottom of flangeway. Side walls or
webs to fit fishing section of connecting rail. End wall to be 54 in. thick.
Outside splice bars and through bolts to be used for fastening rails.

For Design 2 — Toe extension, to run along outside of connecting rails
for 15 in. beyond toe joint, forming easer; and fitting outside section of
connecting rails. Its top to be flush with tread of connecting rail, sloping
to Yi in. below tread in 6 in. at extreme end. Vertical web of extension
to be flush with outside and ^ in. thick. Method of fastening toe rails
by toe block and through bolts or direct independent bolting or supple-
mentary tie plate, optional with manufacturer.

5. Width of Tread Surface.

Width of tread surface to vary with height of frog casting:

666 Track.

Design 1

2^ in. wide for 4^ in. high frog casting.

2^ in. wide for 5 in. and 5}i in. high frog casting.

2}i in. wide for 5^ in. high frog casting.

27^ in. wide for 6% in. high frog casting.

3 in. wide for 6^ in. high frog casting.

Design 2

4 in. wide for 4^ in., 5 in. and Sj^ in. high frog casting.
4^ in. wide for 5^ in., 65^ in. and 6^ in. high frog casting.

6. Flare and Side Lines of Frog.

For Design 1 — Carry full width of tread surface (see rule 5) from
toe end to opposite theoretical yz in. point, following gage, throat and
guard lines.

For Design 2 — Carry outer line of tread surface (see rule 5) from
toe end, including toe extension, parallel to gage line to opposite theo-
retical point.

Then (for both designs) taper width to 1^ in. wide guard for 1^4 in-
wide flangeway, at a point opposite beginning of flare. Flare begins
where spread of gage lines is 2J4 in. (except frogs Nos. 4, 5, 6, all classes,
and No. 7, class "D"), and runs to a 2^/2 in. opening in 10 in. and then
in 6 in. to a 3^ in. opening at the end. If this brings end of flare (16 in.
from point of commencement) opposite a point where spread of gage
lines is less than 4 in. (above a No. 9 frog), then extend flare by placing
outside end at the 4 in. spread, go back 6 in. reducing opening from 3^4
in. at extreme to 2^ in. in that distance, same as on wide end of the nor-
mal standard flare, then reduce width of opening by a sti-aight line from
the 2^ in. to the regular 1^4 in. width of flangeway at the point where
spread of gage lines is 2^4 in.

Note. — For flangeways wider than 1^4 in- the length of flare will be
shortened correspondingly.

If end of flare comes closer than 23A in. from heel joint, reduce 10
in. portion of the normal standard flare to a length of 6 in. and relocate
end of flare at 23is in. from heel joint (for frogs Nos. 4, 5, 6, all classes,
and No. 7, Class "D").

7. Joint Surfaces at Heel End.

Run web lines parallel to gage line for a length of 17 in., round oflf
with a 3}i in. radius to a 45 deg. line joining the regular outer wall.
(Both designs.)

8. Joint Surface at Toe End.

Design 1 only — Run web line from toe joint parallel to gage line
without regard to top line for a length of 17 in., round oflf with a 3j4 in-
radius to a 45 deg. line joining the regular outer wall. If this would
bring outer web line closer than ^4 in- to guard line at throat, reduce joint
surface from 17 in. long to necessary shorter length to make wall 54 in-
thick (Nos. 4 and 5 frogs).

Track. 667

9. Bolts at Joints.

Bolt spacing at joints to agree with purchaser's specifications. Bolts
to be of high tensile steel. Bolt holes to be ^ in. larger diameter than
diameter of bolts specified by purchaser. Through bolts in heel of de-
signs 1 and 2 and toe of Design 1 to have }i in. minimum to % in. maxi-
mum thick metal around bolt, extending from web to web of section.

668"

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674 Track.

Item III.

The Committee recommends that article "Requisites for Switch
Stands" on page 168 be withdrawn, and the following substituted :

"REQUISITES FOR SWITCH STANDS, INCLUDING CONNECT-
ING RODS

1. Provision shall be made for spiking or bolting switch stands to
two head blocks.

2. Classification of Switch Stands according to heights (Note. —
Height of Switch Stands is measured from top of tie to bottom of
taper of lamp tip) :

A. High Sivitch Stands:

Height greater than 14' 0"

Standard height 18' 0"

B. Intermediate Switch Stands:

Height greater than 2' 0"

To and including 14' 0"

Standard Heights :

(a) First Intermediate 7' 9"

(b) Second Intermediate 6' 0"

C. Low Szvitch Stands:

Height greater than 1' 0"

To and including 2' 0"

D. Extra Low Switch Stands:

Height I'O"

or less

Note. — Extra low switch stands are for general use
with target lamps without separate targets.

3. The operating lever of extra low and low switch stands shall
work parallel with the track.

4. The switch stand shall be so arranged that it can easily be
inspected.

5. There shall be no lost motion in the bearings. The connections
between the various parts of the switch stand shall be such as to insure
against movement of switch points without corresponding movement of
the operating lever.

6. The connection between the connecting rod and the switch stand
shall be by a turned bearing of not less than 1%" diameter, and shall
be so arranged that the separation cannot occur under operating con-
ditions.

7. Provision shall be made for adjusting the throw of either or
both switch points without moving the switch stand.

8. The throwing apparatus shall be so arranged that it will lock
or latch in either extreme position without the use of the switch lock.

9. Lengths and details of connecting rods shall conform to plan
No. 251, dated November 17th, 1920.

Track

675

10. The target and lamp tip when used on a switch stand shall
revolve through 90 degrees with the movement of the switch points,
and indicate their position.

11. Shapes and sizes of targets shall conform to plan

12. Lamp tips shall conform to plan "

On account of the variety in the detail of switch stands now on the
market and the fact that many of the features are patented the Com-
mittee recommends that it would not be desirable to prepare plans nor
complete specifications for switch stands, and in lieu thereof recom-
mends the above. The requisites of switch stands have been drawn
sufficiently broad to include the more efficient and complete switch
stands now commercially available.

-w

. I

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(/) CD

Appendix B

(2) TYPICAL PLANS OF TURNOUTS, CROSSOVERS, SLIP
SWITCHES, DOUBLE CROSSOVERS AND RAILROAD
CROSSINGS, AND PREPARE DETAIL PLANS FOR
SUCH WORK, INCLUDING NECESSARY FIXTURES,
ETC.

J. V. Neubert, Chairman; J. De N. Macomb,

W. P. WiLTSEE, R. M. Pearce,

V. Angerer, H. T. Porter,

.1. B. Baker, G. J. Slibeck,

E. A. Hadley, J. B. Strong,

E. T. HowsoN, J. R. Watt,

H. A. Lloyd, Sub-Committee.

The Committee recommends the following plans for adoption :

Plan 901 — Layout No. 6 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 902 — Layout No. 7 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 903 — Layout No. 8 Turnout and Crossover with Rigid Frogs.

Plan 904 — Layout No. 8 Turnout and Crossover with Spring Frogs.

Plan 90S — Layout No. 10 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 906 — Layout No. 11 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 907 — Layout No. 16 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 908 — Layout No. 20 Turnout and Crossover.

Plan 190 — Diagram Preferred Names for Split Switches with Uni-
form Risers.

Plan 191 — Diagram Preferred Names for Split Switches with Gradu-
ated Risers.

Plan 390 — Diagram Preferred Names for Bolted Rigid Frogs.

Plan 490 — Diagram Preferred Names for Spring Rail Frogs.

Plan 590 — Diagram Preferred Names for Guard Rails.

Plan 690 — Diagram Preferred Names for Rail Bound Manganese
Steel Frogs.

Plan 691 — Diagram Preferred Names for Solid Manganese Steel
Frogs.

The plans of turnouts and crossovers, Nos. 901 to 908, inclusive, are
the result of study of several railroads, and they speak for themselves.
Attention is called to using short ties in the crossovers to eliminate the
heavy expense of longer ties, which are used as alternates. The plans,
901 to 908, inclusive, were published as information in Supplement to
Bulletin 221, and in Vol. 21 of the Proceedings. As the changes from
previous publication are of a minor nature only, principally in modifying
some of the tie lengths, their reprinting at this time was deemed an un-
warranted expense. If approved, the corrected plans will be published
in the revised Manual, to be issued after this convention. Prints from
the corrected plans, if desired, can be obtained upon application to the
Secretary.

676

Track. 677

The plans showing diagrams of preferred names of parts were
piibhshed as information in Supplement to Bulletin 221 and in Vol. 21 of
the Proceedings, and are now ofifered supplementary to the Definitions
printed on pages 115, 116 and 117 in the 1915 Manual. The Committee has
been working on a rather extensive glossarj' of the definitions of terms
for addition and revision to those printed in the Manual on the pages above
mentioned, but at present can only make a Progress Report on work done
thus far.

The following changes are recommended on the plans adopted at the
March convention, 1920:

Plan 501 — Details of Guard Rails. (See Vol. 21, Proceedings.)

Make the following changes in Gage Line Diagram : Show dimension
line between gage line of frog point and guard line of guard rail, stating
this distance must be maintained 4 feet 634 inches instead of showing
this distance as 4 feet 5 inches between guard line oF wing rail and guard
line of guard rail.

Plan 502 — Details of Guard Rail Fixtures. (See Vol. 21, Proceedings.)

Under notes, the second item, correct to read "For 16 feet 6 inches
guard rails and for congested traffic, with 11-foot guard rails, use two
clamps applied in Position C-2" ; and note under Alternate should be re-
vised to read "For 16 feet 6 inches guard rails and for congested traffic,
with 11-foot guard rails, use two adjustable guard rail braces applied in
Position B-2."

The Committee also recommends that the following plans be ac-
cepted as information :

Plan 309— No. 4 and No. 5 Bolted Rigid Frogs.

Plan 608 — No. 4 and No. 5 Rail Bound Manganese Steel Frogs.

Plan 656 — No. 4 and No. 5 Solid Manganese Steel Frogs.

As these are special angle frogs and there is very little call for
them, they are submitted only as information so they will be available
in case thej' are needed.

The following plans for railroad crossings, dated November, 1920,
are submitted as information and for criticism :

Bolted Rail Crossings :

Plan 701 — Angle 50 to 90 deg., Three Rail Crossings.
Plan 702— Angle 50 to 90 deg.. Two Rail Crossings.
Plan 703 — Angle 35 to 50 deg. minus. Three Rail Crossings.
Plan 704 — Angle 35 to 50 deg. minus, Two Rail Crossings.
Plan 705 — Angle 25 to 35 deg. minus. Two Rail Crossings with easer.s.
Plan 706 — Angle 25 to 35 deg. minus. Two Rail Crossings
without easers.

Manganese Steel Insert Crossings :

Plan 751 — Designs and dimensions of manganese steel inserts for

angles 45 deg. to 14 deg. 15 min.. Details A.
Plan 752 — Designs and dimensions of manganese steel inserts for

angles 45 deg. to 14 deg. 15 min., Details B.
Plan 753 — Designs and dimensions of manganese steel inserts for

angles 14 deg. 15 min. to 8 deg. 10 min.
Plan 754 — Typical crossings, angles 35 deg. to 45 deg., Details A,

with continuous easers.

678 Track.

Plan 757 — Typical crossings, angles 25 deg. to 35 deg., Details A,

without easers.
Plan 762 — Typical crossings, angles 35 deg. to 45 deg., Details B,

with continuous easers.

The following plans for clamp frogs, submitted as information last
year, have been re-examined and no corrections or changes found neces-
sary. They are resubmitted without recommendations :

Plan 331 — No. 6 Clamp Frog.
Plan 332— No. 7 Clamp Frog.
Plan 333 — No. 8 Clamp Frog.
Plan 334— No. 10 Clamp Frog.
Plan 335 — Detail of plates for Clamp Frogs.

The Committee has not reprinted the plans (Nos. 331-335, inclusive)
for clamp frogs, as they have been published in Vol. 21 of the Proceedings
for 1920. Reference is therefore made to these plans, included in the
folder accompanying Vol. 21. Prints of these five plans will be available
at the annual meeting for those interested.

Appendix C

(2-a) GAGES AND FLANGEWAYS FOR CURVED CROSSINGS

^V. Angerer, Chairman; J. B. Strong,

G. J. Slibeck, Special Committee.

The Committee submits herewith a theoretical study of the subject
as information, for criticism and comparison with results obtained in
practice. Appended hereto are :

(1) A tabulation of the Gages and Flangeways for curved cross-
ings specified by a number of railroads and the practice of some of the
crossing builders in the absence of such specifications, together with a
comparison with the gages for curves recommended by the 1915 Manual,
page 117.

This tabulation suffices to show that there is no uniformity of prac-
tice and that the Manual is not followed.

(2) A set of tables and formulae, with an explanation attached, set-
ting forth the various factors affecting the gage and fliangeway required
on different degrees of curvature and how the same may be determined
mathematically for a given locomotive — some of the formulae are in a
simplified form. , }- , v <2>'

Report of a former Committee, on the subject, as per 1908 Proceed-
ings, may be referred to for comparison.

(3) A set of tables (4 sheets) giving the gage on various degrees
of curvature worked out for a number of the principal types of locomo-
tives (not including the Mallet or Articulated types). The tables give
the "Free Gage," being the calculated neat gage for rigid wheel base
with all wheels set to standard wheel gage and without allowance for
lateral motion. The tables also give the "Minimum Gage," with all
allowances taken up for the lateral play provided at the journal boxes
and for the closer setting of the outside drivers and the wheels bearing
tight against both the running and guard rails, except for such flexibility
as there may be in the frame of the locomotive. The gages are given in
steps of % in. as being close enough for practical purposes. The limit
of widened gage is taken at 4 ft. 95^ in. and no figures are carried
above it. There will further be found in the tables the swing or lateral
motion necessary on the front and rear trucks for the locomotive to
operate over the degree of curve and free gage given.

An analysis of these tables leads to the following conclusions :
(1) Practically all locomotives will operate on curves of 6 deg. or
less laid to standard gage of 4 ft. 8j^ in. and standard width of flange-
way of 1^4 in-

679

680 Track.

(2) Locomotives with not more than two pairs of flanged drivers
will operate over all curves within the limits of the table on standard
gage of 4 ft. 8V2 in. and 1^4 i"- flangeway.

(3) The operation of locomotives with trucks is limited by the
swing or lateral motion of the trucks and such locomotives will not take
a sharper curve than the maximum swing, provided for thereon, permits.

(4) For locomotives with three or more pairs of flanged drivers
"Free Gage" should preferably be used and practical width of flangeway
made = F. G. — 4 ft. 6^4 in- Exact figures call for slightly wider flange-
way in numerous cases, but the usual side play of the axles will com-
pensate for the difiference. Minimum gage would call for a distance of
less than 4 ft. 6^ in. between gage line and oppo.site guard line, and
should not be used through curved crossings. A practical minimum gage
may be made = F. G. — Yi (FG — AIG) and flangeways made this prac-
tical minimum gage G — 4 ft. 6^ in.

(5) Gage and flangeway thus determined for the locomotive giving
the greatest values will satisfactorily admit the operation of locomotives
and trucks calling for lesser values.

In specifications for locomotive the degree of the sharpest curve
over which it is to operate is usually given and necessary provision is
then made in side play, setting of wheels, lateral motion of trucks and
sometimes special provision for floating axles are added if further re-
quired for the type under consideration.

Gages and flangeways for curved crossings should similarly be speci-
fied for the type of locomotive that is to be operated over the crossing
and that requires the widest gage and flangeway, according to wheel
base, number of flanged drivers and maximum degree of curve for which
it is arranged. If such details are not available, but the types of locomo-
tives operating over the crossing are known, the greatest value of gage
and flangewaj' for such types and given curve may be used.

Where no definite information is available the rule for gage as per
1915 Manual with the flangeway made = G — 4 ft. 6^ in. will admit
most of the general types of locomotives with less than 10 drivers up to a
20-deg. curve, except where swing of trucks is insufficient. In locations
where the operation is restricted to certain types of locomotives, the rule
may give a wider gage than would be necessary.

The Committee recommends a reassignment of the subject for fur-
ther study, practical tests and the working out of simplified concrete rules
for actual practice.

1 0-

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G, -TABLE

48' 54 60 66' 72 78> 84

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F - TABLE.

WHEEL DIA.

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ABBREVIATIONS.

ANGLE 0FFLAN5E IN FLANQEWAY.

RIGID WHEEL-BASE (in feet).

DIST. BETW. FLANGE ft GAGE LINE.

DEGREE OF CURVE.

FLANGE ROOM FOR Gj .

NEAT GAGE -2 FLANGED DRIVERS.

NEAT 'GAGE -3 OR MORE FLANGED DRIVERS.

NEAT WIDTH OF FLANGEWAV FOR S3.

MIDDLE ORDINATE OF CURVE IN B.

RADIUS OF CURVE (in feet).

J OF TOTAL SWING OF TRUCK (infeetI.

THICKNESS OF FLANGE ;

WHEEL FLANGE DISTANCE j"BEL0W-4-8'

C - TABLE

WHEEL DIA, 1

48-

54 60-

78-

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da-

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4"-

-i—

EXPLANATION
and figar«3 are takra a|

For locomotives with only 2 pain
of Qange.] drivers find P: (mini-
mura wi.ith of flaneewaj) in F
table from fisared v^oe of A
Mimmom gage is foond in G-2
^ble. figiiret! t.y fonniila for G-2.
For practical widths of flangnraTs
add for clearance and same uaomt

ard 4'-8'.4-
— « iu.iuet lacrea^ naagewa? by
one-half of the diffcrenoe, bat Ui
""•: less Uian 1-7^". Shan>eT

and F from tables and fignw N
— neat width of flangewar r«-
auired. I.y fonnala. Fi^are nent
eage by formala G-3. The ngjir.
lateral play allowed at jcmmal hoic-
of locomolis^es will afford clear-
ance for free operation on nea;
San^eway. If sat;--
.—- ^ luan -I'-Si^" ^tantbnL-
id standard l^^" Qao^eway

Outside flaneeway msj be «**»!
*■ ' asd- inside OaniK^

.- .„ whed settings. An» >

clearance desired in rasv

below top of bead

I locomotives with pilot tracks

ar trucks the trtkcks boss hav*

ins or lateral nocioo «<iu«l t»

per formola : trocks wrthevt

al motion may for practical

....^Koses be considened the same as

inother pair of flaiwed driivn. hot

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685

Appendix D

(7) PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR SWITCH STANDS,
SWITCH LAMPS AND SWITCH LOCKS

J. De N. Macomb, Chairman; H. T. Porter^

W. P. WiLTSEE, J. H. REINHOLttT,

J. V. Neubert, _ G. J. Slibeck,

L. B. Allen, J. B. Strong,

\'. Angerer, J. R. Watt,

Sub-Committee.

In Appendix A, Item III, are given the Committee's recommenda-
tions for Requisites for Switch Stands, including Connecting Rods.

Plans of switch targets have been prepared covering sufficient shapes
and sizes to meet various operating requirements. It is found that at
present there are in service a large variety of dimensions of the
same shape or style, the dimensions varying in some cases by only a
fraction of an inch, each set of dimensions requiring individual dies.
The Committee desires to hear from the Committee on Signals and In-
terlocking before submitting these plans, and desires a conference.

It is found that at present there are in service lamp tips of a large
variety of dimensions, varying in many cases by only a small fraction
of an inch, each set of dimensions requiring individual patterns or dies.
As one detail of lamp tip could not be proposed to meet all conditions,
a plan has been prepared offering a sufficient variety of styles to meet
various operating requirements. Before submitting this plan the Com-
mittee wishes to get an expression from the Committee on Signals and
Interlocking. A conference with the Committee on Signals and Inter-
locking is desired.

The subjects of switch lamps and switch locks are being investigated,
and the Committee's report is not ready for presentation.

686

Appendix E

(8) PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR TIE PLATES, DE-
RAILERS AND ANTI-CREEPERS

H. T. Porter, Chairman; F. L. Nicholson,

W. P. WiLTSEE, R. M. Pearce,

H. G. Clark, J. H. Reinholdt,

E. A. Hadley, J. R. Watt,

Sub-Committee.

The Committee submits the following Progress Report and suggested
specifications on Tie Plates to invite criticism or suggestions.

The reports made by the Special Committee on Stresses in Track by
the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Railway
Engineering Association indicate that the angles of force acting outward,
approximately 10 deg., cut the plane of the base at a point outside of the
center line of rail for a distance as shown for the following sections :

Intersection of Angle

of Force Outside of

Zail Section

Base, In.

Height, In.

Center of Base. In.

75 lb.

80 lb.

85 lb.

ASCE

5i\

24/64

90 lb.

ARA-A

'/2

100 lb.

ARA-A

5/2

100 lb.

ARA-B

5 41/64

100 lb.

5ii

105 lb.

5^/^

125 lb.

5/a

tV2

130 lb.

5/2

43/64

These results are deductions from observations of a Mikado loco-
motive drifting at various speeds. It is more than probable that work-
ing under steam, these results would be increased somewhat, but in the
absence of more definite information consider them useful for comparison
with tie plates in use whose dimensions are based on judgment and
experience.

The above results indicate and experience proves the following.
First, that the canting of the rail outward results in the imbedding of
the outside edge of plate in the tie producing wide gage, and, second,
that the imbedding of the tie plate in the tie results in mechanical destruc-
tion of tie with the assistance of moisture causing decay.

Therefore, to properly take care of this angle of force it will be
necessary to make the center of tie plate coincide with the point where
the angle of force cuts the base of rail. As a matter of fact, this angle
should be computed to the bottom of the tie plate in place of base of rail.

687

688 Track.

For purpose of comparison we give on an attached sheet a tabula-
tion showing the relation between that portion of tie plate which is inside
base of rail toward the center line of track and the portion outside of
base toward end of tie, as now exists in the standard tie piates of the
reporting railroads classified as to weight of rail used.

While the attached table representing a comparison between the
standards of tvvonty-iiinc railroads indicates considerable variation, your
attention is called particularly to cases of the New York Central Railroad
and Illinois Central Railroad, where the actual and calculated figures
correspond very closely, while the balance vary from a maximum of
5^ in. to a minimum of \% in.; the actual in all cases being less than the
theoretical.

Width — The tie plate should be as wide as the face of the tie at
least up to 8 in.

Thickness — Since the thickness of the plate will depend upon the
length and the wheel load it must be thick enough to resist buckling. It
is therefore our opinion that tie plates should be from 5/2 in. to ^ in.
thick.

Height of Shouldkr — The height of shoulder should be not less
than J4 in. or more than ^ in.

Location of Spike Holes — It is thought that two spike holes on each
side of rail seat spaced equidistant V/z in. each side of tenter line parallel
with tie will be sufficient with the idea that where ties happen to be less
than 7 in. the spikes will be etifective as near to center of tie as possible.
A hole may be punched on center line of plate at each end when desired.

Size of Holes — >}i in. holes are recommended for 5^ in. spikes and
li in. for :ftr in. spikes.

Top of Plate — It is thought that a slight convex upper surface in
plate at right angles to tie will be beneficial in preventing ties from
"rocking" and reduce noise due to suction where spikes are loose, espe-
cially with the lighter sections of rail, where rail deflection is greatest.

Bottom of Plates — (Under consideration.)

General — Plates for several sections of rail should be designed for
the heaviest type of rail, especially as to length; but as a general proposi-
tion recommend that a standard plate be used with only those sections
of rail having approximately the same width of base.

A copy of tentative specifications for High Carbon Steel Tie Plates
has been submitted to thirty-four railroads and to various manufac-
turers of tie plates. From the replies received from the railroads report-
ing it was found that four were either using or considering the use of
these nlates ; thirteen have not considered their use, while two do not
approve of them. From replies received from five manufacturers who
are in a position to roll high carbon steel plates one approved the specifi-
cations; one pointed out the difficulties of manufacture, while three
offered suggestions.

From all the suggestions ofifered the following specifications have
been drawn up and are submitted :

Track. 689

SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGH CARBON OPEN-HEARTH STEEL

TIE PLATES

( I ) Materials
Process.

L Steel shall be made by the Open-Hearth process.
1-b. Cold steel accumulated in the form of ingots, billets or rolled
shapes which meet chemical requirements may be used.

(II) Chemical Requirements

Chemical Composition.

2. Steel shall conform to the following requirements as to chemical
composition.

Carbon not less than .50 nor more than 80

Phosphorus not more than 05

Ladle Analysis.

3. An analysis of each melt of steel shall be made by the manufac-
turer to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese, phosphorus and
sulphur. This analysis shall be made from drillings taken at least % in.
beneath the surface of a test ingot obtained during the pouring of the
melt. The chemical composition, thus determined, shall be reported to
the purchaser or his representative, and shall conform to the require-
ments specified in Section 2.

Ladle analysis of cold steel correctly identified by melt number may
be taken from the mill record.

Check Analysis.

4. Analysis may be made by the purchaser from a finished tie plate
representing each melt of steel. The carbon content thus determined
shall conform to the requirements specified in Section 2, and the phos-
phorus content shall not exceed that specified in Section 2 by more than
25 per cent.

(III) Physical Requirements
Bend Tests.

5. The finished tie plate shall bend cold through 90 deg. around a
pin, the diameter of which is equal to twice the thickness of the plate,
without cracking on the outside of the bent portion.

One bend test may be required from each lot of one thousand tie
plates.

Tie plates that fail to meet this test may be annealed and retested.

(IV) Design
Plan.

6. The tie plates shall conform to the drawings submitted to the
manufacturer, with the following permissible variations:

690 Track.

Tolerance.

7. (A) For plates with shoulders parallel to the direction of rolling
a variation of 3*2 in. in thickness. % in- '" rolled width and -^ in. in
sheared length will be permitted.

(J3) For plates with shoulders perpendicular to the direction of
rolling a variation of s's in. in thickness, % in. in rolled width and ^4 •"•
in sheared length will be permitted. The distance from the face of
shoulder to the outside end of the plate shall not Vary more than % in.
and from the face of shoulder to the inside end not more than J/2 in.

(V) Manufactukc
Workmanship.

8. The tie plate shall be smoothlj' rolled, true to templet, and shall
be straight and out of wind on the surface which will form the bearings
for the rail.

9. The plates shall be punched, slotted and sheared hot at a tempera-
ture which will give the best results, and immediately thereafter placed in
a metal box for gradual cooling from the initial heat.

Finish.

10. The finished tie plates shall be free from burrs and other surface
deformations caused by the shearing and punching; they shall also be free
from other injurious defects and shall have a workmanlike finish.

Marking.

11. The name or brand of the manufacture, the section and the
year of manufacture shall be rolled in raised letters and figures near the
inside end of the plates, and a portion of this marking .shall appear on
each finished tie plate, imless otherwise specified.

(VI) Inspection
Inspection.

12. The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entrj-,
at all times, while work on the contract of the purchaser is being per-
formed, to all parts of the manufacturer's work which concern the manu-
facture of the tie plates ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the in-
spector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him that tie plates
are being furnished in accordance with these specifications. All tests
(except check analysis) and inspection shall be made at the place of
manufactui'e prior to shipment, unless otherwise specified, and shall be
so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with the operation of the
works.

Rejection.

13. (A) Unless otherwise specified, any rejection based on check
analysis (Article II, Section 4) shall be reported within five working
davs from the receipt of samples.

T r a c k . 691

(B) Tie plates which show injurious defects subsequent to their
acceptance at the manufacturer's works will he rejected, and the manu-
facturer shall be notified.

Rehearing.

14. Samples tested in accordance with Section 4 which represent
rejected tie plates shall be preserved for two weeks from the date of the
test report. In case of dissatisfaction with the results of the tests, the
manufacturer may make claim for a rehearing within that time.

(VII) Shipment or Delivery
Packing.

15. Tie plates shall be wired together in bundles of uniform number,
weighing not to exceed TOO lb., unless otherwise specified.

692

Track

Name of Railroad

hesapeake & Ohio.

essemer & Lalce Erie

. R. R.of N. J

enn'a Lines East

I ichigan Central

>. L. &\V

[ew York Central

lev., Cinn., Chi. & St. L.
enn'a Lines East

irand Trunk

ouisville & Nashville

linois Central

"hicago, R. I. & Pacific.

'. R. R.of N.J

lissouri Pacific

'anadian Pacific

Norfolk & Western

Chicago & Northwestern.

!hesapeake & Ohio

lessemer & Lake Erie. . .

'. & L. E.

outhern Pacific

)enver & Rio Grande . . .

'.Tie -.

forthern Pacific

■real Northern

Chicago, R. L & Pacific.
lOuisville & Nashville. . .

'. & L. E

;. R. R. of N. J...

t. Loui.s-San Francisco ...

.. T. &S. F

outhern

itlantic Coiist Line

itlantic Coa.st Line

ieaboard Air Line

it. Louis-San Francisco ...

Norfolk & Western

Jew York, N. H. & H...
'ere Martjuette

2,534

204

684

10,004

1,862
981

5,675

2,409

4,785

5,041
2,259
6,136
8,055
684
7,300

13,338

2,203
8,090

225
7,106
2,605

6,642
8,256

PS
PS

PS
Dudley

5,257
6,258
8, .520
4,555

3, .563
5,257

1,996

2,247

ARA-A

ARA-A
AR.\-A
ARA-A
ARA-A
ARA-A
ARA-A

ARA-B
ARA-B
ARAB
ARA-B
ARA-B
ARA-A
ARA-A
AR.\-A
ARA-A
ARA-A
AR.VA
ARAB

ASCE
ASCE
ASCE
ASCE
ASCE
ASCE
ASCE

130
130
135
125
105
105
105
105
100

100

100
100
100
100
100
100

100

ASCE

PS
ARA-A
ARA-A

5 1/2
5 1/2
6

5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2

5 1/2

5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2
5 1/2

5 5/32

5 9/64

5 1/8

4 49/64

5 3/8
5 3/8
5 3/8
5 3/16
5 3/16
5 3/16
5 3/16

4 13/16

5 1/2

5 1/S

K£

6 5/8
6 5/8
6 1/2
6 1/2

5 41/64

5.5/8

5 5/8

5 17/64

5 3/8
5 3/8

5 3/8
5 3/16
5 3/16
5 3/16
5 3/16

4 13/16

6,5/8

6 1/2
5 5/8

Lundie

Herringbone
Sellers
Sellers

RRS

Lundie

Sellers

Herringbone

RRS

13/4
2 1/8
1 11/16
2 5/8
17/8
2 1/4

1 1/2
15/8

2 5/8

2 3/16

1 3/4
1 9/16

1 1/2
13/8

2 1/4
1 1/2

15/8

1 13/16

1 7/8
1 38/64

2 5/8
2 55/128
2 47/64

1 1/2

1 15/16

2 1/64
13/4
13/4

2 27/64

RRS

2 17/32
1 11/16
1 17/.32
1 11/16

1 7/16
1 1/2

2
1 1/2

2 3/32
2 3/16

2 11/32
1 7/8

2 1/4

3 1/8
2 13/16

3 1/8

2 1/2

2 9/16

2 3/8

3 1/8

3 3/16

2 1/2

2 1/16

2 3/4

2 1/8

2 13/16

2 7/8

2 1/2

2 1/4
2 17/64

3 1/8
2 55/128

2 1/2

1 7/8

2 1/16
2 7/32

2 1/4
2 1/8
2 13/16

3 1/32

2 1/8

13/4

1 13/16

2 9/16

2
2 1/8

3 5/16
3 11/32

2 1/4

1/2
1

1 1/8
1/2
5/8
3/4

11/16
3/4
1/2

3/4

1/2
1 1/4

3/4
9/16

1/2
1 1/4

11/16
3/8

43/64
1/2
0

4/16
3/8
1/8

13/64
1/2
3/8

25/64

1/2
5/16
19/32
7/16
5/16
.5/16
9/16

1/2

1/32

1 1/8

3/8

43/64
43/64
41/64
41/64
9/16
9/16
9/16
9/16
9/16

9/16

9/16
9/16
9/16
9/16
9/16
9/16

1/2
1/2

1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
27/64

28/64
28/64
28/64
13/32
13/32
19/32
13/32
25/64
11/32
43/64
9/16
1/2

Track.

693

X a

O t.

Size of Holes
Inches

Tie Plate Bottom

'a
c

-0

B
ea

Tie Plate Top

Computed
Difference
Between Inside
and Outside, In.

.op

"3
S-2

-a

•2

.n
c
O

-0

a
O

1 11/32

9 1/2
10 3/4
10 1/2
10 3/4

10
10 5/8
9 1/2
9 1/2
10 3/4
10 3/4
10 1/2
10
9
9 3/4

9
10 1/2

9
10 1/2
10 1/2

7
7 1/2
7
7
7
7

6 1/2
7

7 1/2
7

7 1/2

7
7 1/2

3/4
3/4
5/8

11/16
3/4
3/4
5/8
5/8

11/16

9/16

7/16

9/16

1/2

5/8

3/4

|.6875

4
6
4
4
4
5
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4
No in

4
4
4
6
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
0=31/32
3/4
3/4
3/4

11/16

11/16x3/4

11/16x13/16

11/16

3/4

formation

3/4

3/4
11/16

3/4

11/16

11/16x13/16

11/16.X21/32

11/16

11/16x3/4

D— 7/8

3/4

5/8
11/16

3/4

5/8
11/16
11/16

5/8

3/4

3/4
11/16

Yes

4 Y'es

Yes
Yes
Y'es
Y'es

Yes
Yes

1 11/32

1 9/32

Y'es

1 9/32

Yes

1 1/8

Y'es

Yes

1 1/8

Yes

1 1/8

2 Y'es

1 1/8

2 Yes

Yes

1 1/8

Yes

1 1/8 (
1 1/8

Y'es

Y'es
Y'es

Y'es

Y'es
Y'es
Yes

Y'es
Yes

1 1/8

Yes

1 1/8

Yes

1 1/8

Y'es

Yes

1 1/8

Yes
Yes

4 Y'e.s

9 1/4

9
10 3/4
10
10
8 1/2
9
9
9
9
10

7
6
7

6 1/2
9 1/2

6
7
7
7

7 1/2
7 1/2

1/2
1/2
3/4
1/2

"i/i
7/16
1/2
7/16
1/2
9/16

8 Y'es

Y'es
Yes
les
Yes
Y'es
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Y'es
Y'es
Y'es

' Yes ■

1 Y'es

3Y^es

Yes

4 Y'es

Yes

4 Y'es
4 Yes
2 Y'es

Yes
Y'es

Yes

27/3£

2 Yes

Y'es

Yes

28/32

11
9
9
9

8 3/4

8 1/2

9 3/4

8 1/2
9

11
10 1/2

9 1/4

6 1/2
6

7 1/2
6

6
7

6 1/2
7

7 1/2
6

5/8

1/2

7/16

1/2

5/8

1/2

3/4

9/16

4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
3

28/32

Yes

Y'es
Yes
Y'es
Y'es
Yes

28/32

2 Yes
2 Y'es

Yes

13/16

Yes

13/16

4 Y'es
4 Y^es
4 Yes

13/16

Yes

25/32

Y'es
Yes

11/16

2 Yes

Y'es

1 11/32

Yes

Yes
Yes
Sligh

1 1/8

2 Yes

4 Y^es

tly

Appendix F

(9) SPECIFICATIONS AND PIECE WORK SCHEDULES FOR
CONTRACTING TRACK MAINTENANCE WORK

E. T. HowsoN, Cliainiian; II. (i. Clark,

W. P. WiLTSEE,. I. II. Jenkins,

L. B. Allen, 11. A. I.i.oYn,

W. G. Arn, Sub-Committee.

Owing to the abnormal conditions under which maintenance of wa}'
work has been conducted during the past jear, jour Committee has been
unable to find that any considerable amount of maintenance ol way
work has been handled under contract or piece work schedules.

The standard track work system which was in effect on the Balti-
more & Ohio Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad prior to Federal
control, and which had as one of its essentials the establishment of iniit
performance or piece work schedules was abandoned by the Railroad
Administration and has not been re-established.

While many roads resorted to the cost-plus form of contract in
handling maintenance work during the last year, this plan was in effect
little more than the recognition of the contractor as a labor agent, the
work being done as heretofore under the immediate direction and super-
vision of ihc regular railway officers. As such, it was not considered
that this was the form of contract work which the Board of Direction
had in mind when assigning this subject to the Track Committee. The
Committee is, therefore, only able to report progress.

694

REPORT COMMITTEE I— ROADWAY

J. R. W. Ambrose, Chairman; J. A. Spielmann, V ice-Chairman;

E. J, Bayer, H. W. McLeod,

C. W. Brown, C. M. McVay,

H. W. Brown, W. H. Penfield,

C. C. Cunningham, P. Petri,

W. C. Curd, J. W. Pfau,

W. M. Dawley, Frank Ringer,

Paiil Didier, R. B. Robinson,

S. B. Fisher, R. A. Rutledge,

R. D. Garner, H. E. Tyrrell,

J. A. Lahmer, C. E. Weaver,

J. G. Little, VV. H. Woodbury,

Committee.

To the American Railivay Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Roadway for
study and report:

1. Make thorough examination of subject-matter in the Manual and
submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Make final report, if practicable, on methods of determining ex-
tent, character and effect of subsidence under embankments.

3. Make a final report, if practicable, on shrinkage of embankments,
selecting a number of specific instances, reciting all the conditions, such
as locality, weather, foundations, character of filling material, height of
fill, method of construction, etc., to be used as a guide in estimating
shrinkage.

4. Report on the use of corrugated metal culverts in railway work
and prepare specifications for material and workmanship.

5. Report on sealing bad cracks in rock cuts with cement gun.

6. Report on the effect of standing water in borrow pits upon the
stability of embankments.

7. Report on drainage of long cuts.

Committee Meetings

Meetings were held in Chicago, May 19th ; Pittsburgh, September
24th, and Toronto, November 11th.

The names of the members who attended these meetings have been
given in the Minutes, forwarded to the .Secretary for printing in the
Bulletin.

695

696 Roadway.

(1) Revision of the Manual

Sub-Committee — J. G. Little, Chairman; J. A. Spielmann, R. D. Gar-
ner, W. M. Dawlej'.

The proposed changes and additions to the Manual are given in
Appendix A.

(2-3) Subsidence and Shrinkage '

Sub-Committee — C. M. McVay, Chairman; H. W. Brown, C. C. Cun-
ningham, Paul Didicr, W. H. Woodbury.

The report and recommendations of this Committee are given in
Appendix B.

(4) Metal Culverts

Sub-Committee — W. H. Penfield, Chairman; H. W. McLeod, J. A.
Lahmer, R. D. Garner.

The findings of this Committee are given in Appendix C.

(5) Sealing of Cracks by Cement Gun

Sub-Committee — C. W. Brown, Chairman; S. B. Fisher, P. Petri,
J. A. Spielmann, J. W. Pfau.

This Committee reports progress, as shown in Appendix D.

(6) Standing Water in Borrow Pits

Sub-Committee — W. C. Curd, Chairman ; R. A. Rutledge, H. E. Tyrrell,
C. E. Weaver, E. J. Bayer.

A progress statement is given in Appendix E.

(7) Drainage of Long Cuts

Sub-Committee — R. B. Robinson, Chairman; H. W. Brown, Frank
Ringer, C. C. Cimningham, W. C. Curd.

The report and conclusions of this Committee will be found in
Appendix F.

CONCLUSIONS

Your Committee recommends that the findings and conclusions of
the Sub-Committees on Subjects 1, 2, 3 and 7 be adopted and placed in
the Manual, and those on 4, S and 6 be accepted as information only
and incorporated in the Proceedings.

Respectfully submitted.

The Committee on Roadway,
J. R. W. Ambrose, Chairman.

Appendix A
(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

J. G. Little, Chairman, Sub-Committee

Present Form

Berme

Subsidence

Shrinkage — The contraction of
material.

Proposed Form

Berm

Sub si'DENCE

Shrinkage (noun) — The term
Shrinkage as applied to grading
material is the difference in
volume between the material ex-
cavated and the ultimate volume
of the same material in the em-
bankment after it has reached a
state of equilibrium ; negative
Shrinkage is known as Swell.

Settlement (noun) — The term
Settlement as applied to grading
material is the reduction in height
of an embankment caused by
shrinkage or subsidence.

Allowance for shrinkage in Delete,

embankments (page 38).

697

Appendix B
(2-3) SUBSIDENCE AND SHRINKAGE OF EMBANKMENTS

C. M. McVay, CliairDian, Sub-Committee

Subsidence.

In June the Committee sent out a questionnaire to about sevent^'-five
representatives of as many roads, from which much information was re-
ceived; unfortunately, however, only a small portion of it could be ap-
plied to the subject in question.

1. Subsidence. — Subsidence occurs principally and to the greatest
extent in marshes, swamps, bogs and wet lands, the reason obviously be-
ing that the natural ground will not sustain the combined embankment,
track and loads.

In many cases the yardage below the original natural surface of the
ground was found to be several times the quantity of that above it. In
preliminary work there is no fixed rule for determining what amount of
subsidence will occur. The Engineer locating a new or additional line
through bogs, swamps, marshes, etc., would do well to make allowance
for considerable subsidence. In some cases, before building, soundings
have been taken with a view to locating the hard surface under swamps,
bogs, etc., and allowance made for the fill to subside to that level. This
is not always possible, however, and it sometimes happens that this hard
surface will break under the weight and subsidence continue indefinitely.

It was found that subsidence to some extent will invariably occur
under embankments built through ordinary grazing or agricultural land.
This applies to the greater percentage of embankments as most of the
land in the country comes under this class. This is due to the loose for-
mation of the upper crust of the ground, which has not the bond, weight
or density of the lower beds due to the roots of grass and other vegeta-
tion, plowing and the action of frost keeping the bond continually broken
up. The percentage of subsidence will be much greater on the small fdls
by reason of the smaller area of the base and the tamping action of trains.
On the larger and higher fills the base is spread over a much greater area
and the tamping action is not so pronounced at the base, consequently
the subsidence is proportionately less.

There are three methods of determining the extent of subsidence,
viz. :

(1) Trenching.

(2) Bar or auger borings.

(3) Wash borings.

These methods are described in the 1920 report of the Proceedings of
this Committee, Vol. 21, pages 820 to 822.

698

R o a d w a V .

699

The Committee would like to call attention to the good results se-
cured in determining the extent of subsidence on small fills bj- means of
a slotted and pointed bar, which, when driven to the bottom of a fill and
turned leaves in the slot a specimen of the material at that point. For
convenience of handling an extension may be put on the bar. This
method, however, would not be practical on fills of over ten (10) feet.
Great care should be taken in recording the measurements of the different
depths. A plan of the grooved point sounding rod referred to is attached
as Exhibit A.

Exhibit A

SECTIOMS

A--Q <t-

V-

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WcLO' Connection

Fig. 1 — Grooved Point Sounding Rod.

Trenching is the most accurate method of determining subsidence. It
is not, however, always practicable or possible to trench, in which case,
the boring methods must be used. Wash borings are more or less in-
accurate and should be used with care. Several roads report they are
unable to get any real results from their use, the holes filling with soupy,
muddy water and the dividing lines of the strata impossible to determine.
Dry borings protected by casing, if necessary-, have given good results
when proper care has been taken in making and recording same. In de-
termining the extent of subsidence, care should also be taken in locating
the line of the natural surface at the toe of the embankment. On account
of the earth often sliding or washing down and spreading out at the toe,
a very gentle slope is left, which can easily be mistaken for the natural
surface.

Subsidence occurs in two distinct ways. By compression and by dis-
placement. On ordinary land the upper strata of earth being weakly bonded
will tamp and compress, permitting the fill to subside. This will also
occur in shallow swamps, such as muskeg, or where water standing on
the ground will lessen its bearing power. Subsidence from this cause.

700 Roadway.

as a rule, is not serious from an operating standpoint as it will cease
after the strata of soft material immediately under the fill is sufficiently
compressed or tamped. Great and serious subsidence is caused by dis-
placement. In deep, bottomless bogs and swamps, the embankment often
continues to subside, displacing large quantities at the sides and requir-
ing constant attention to prevent the interruption of traffic. In some such
cases embankments have been known to reach a state of equilibrium
without having reached a solid bottom, but this has taken a considerable
lime. Others are still subsiding after many remedies have been tried,
and it seems probable will continue to do so indefinitely.

The effect of subsidence is to lower the base of the fill, causing a
corresponding shrinkage of the track structure, involving heavy main-
tenance charges, and in some cases so large as to justify the abandon-
ment and relocation of the line.

Conclusions

Some subsidence occurs under all embankments built on any ground
except rock. It is very light in sand and gravel. The percentage of
subsidence is greater imder small fills than under larger ones.

Subsidence is due to compression or displacement of the strata of
earth under the embankment.

Subsidence must always be anticipated in swamps, marshes and bogs,
and any land on which there is standing water.

Serious subsidence is local and it is impossible to fix any rule as a
guide in estimating or anticipating same.

Shrinkage. — The question has been raised as to whether shrinkage
actually exists. It is felt by the Committee that the existence of shrink-
age is proven by every ditch or sewer line and every post hole. Every
observant person knows that material excavated for a sewer when placed
back in the trench after'lthe laying of the pipe even if it be ridged up on
top, will, in a short time, pack and settle so as to leave a depression,
showing the earth excavated to occupy less space than before the bond
was Ijrokcn. In fencing it will be noticed that the dirt excavated will
not fill tiic hole up even after the post has been placed in it.

The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, Duluth Missabe & Northern and
Duluth & Iron Range have made shrinkage tests by the density method,
which may be briefly described as follows : Samples are taken from vari-
ous points in embankments with an iron or steel cylinder of known
cubical capacity, care being taken to neither compress nor expand the ma-
terial. The same thing was done in adjacent excavation when it was
quite certain that the embankment was built from this excavation. These
samples were taken to the laboratory where they were weighed and placed
in a dry, warm or hot place. When samples were quite dry they were
again weighed. The differences in weight is taken as measurement of
change in volume. For this method in detail, see Railway Age Gazette,
issue of June 4th, 1920, page 1573. Photographs showing apparatus and
method of taking samples are attached as Exhibit "B" to this report.

Roadway

701

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704 Roadway.

The results obtained indicate that the experiments should be carried
on more extensively. Some remarkable ideas are developed, such as
that the shrinkage of material is proportional to its weight, and weight
depends on the depth in the natural bed. These subjects are capable of
great and interesting development. From the results as obtained bj' this
method it would seem the net shrinkage (making no allowance for sub-
sidence) of common earth, would average close to 9.5 per cent, and as
10 per cent, is the commonly used allowance this, would show it to be
approximately correct. It is recommended that further experiments be
made and the profession be given the benefit of the results. The experi-
ments prove that shrinkage does exist.

Shrinkage is composed of four elements:

(a) Wastage due to loss in hauling material from cut or pit to
embankment. This is usually very small and may be neglected.

(b) Wastage due to wind erosion. This is an element which varies
with the climate and nature of material. The exact percentages are prac-
tically impossible of determination.

(c) Wastage due to water erosion. This is a large factor and very
difficult of exact determination, except where large washouts have oc-
curred. It varies with climate, but often is quite as large in dry climates,
which have sudden freshets, as in wet climates where there is an almost
continuous water erosion.

(d) Compression, which is by far the most important cause of
shrinkage. The condition of the material in its natural bed is usually
the result of sedimentation in water and generally the particles are not
compactly assembled, but are slightly cemented and thus have a temper
that may be very hard to break up. Heavy plowing, picks or even blast-
ing may be required to make it workable. After this cementaceous bond
is broken up the particles will settle together much more compactly, par-
ticularly if mechanical means are used to compact them, such as the
trampling and rolling caused by teams, wagons, slip or wheel scrapers
and later by the pounding of locomotives and cars. Water tamping will
produce a similar compacting to a large extent. This water tamping is
sometimes artificially applied, but usually rains furnish the water, and
the railway traffic, during both wet and dry weather, brings about a com-
bination of water and mechanical tamping. The result is a very great
shrinkage.

There is considerable confusion in the use of the terms shrink and
settle. For instance, the following is a common statement. "Fills built
by teams and scrapers will shrink very little while fills built by dumping
from trestle settle enormously." Investigation shows that this is in error,
as the fills constructed by dumping from trestle will sometimes take years
to be water and train tamped to their ultimate compactness. Two fills,
one built by each of these methods from identical material will finally
show very little difference. The only way shrinkage can be definitely
determined is by comparison with the excavation quantities.

Settlement, as used herein, may include three elements, which are
shrinkage, subsidence, and a reduction in height and volume that is

Roadway. 705

neither. Settlement is the decrease in height or voUnne or both, of an
embankment or the bed of a cut from the moment of construction, until
it becomes stable. Settlement maj' cover a change from a volume, which
is larger than that found in excavation, to a volume that eventually is
less. It may be a reduction from a swelled volume to the ofiginal volume
as fovmd in excavation. From this point, settlement would also be
shrinkage, if the volume decreases. Subsidence is an element of settle-
ment and may be defined as the result of a downward movement of em-
bankment or ballast material below the natural surface line. Subsidence
causes a compression downward or a displacement horizontally of the
underlying material. It may be either under embankments or in cuts.
Settlement may occur without there being either shrinkage or subsidence,
but there can be no shrinkage or subsidence, as herein defined, without
settlement.

From the information received by the Committee, it is found that an
allowance of 10 per cent, for shrinkage of earth is almost universal and
is generally verj- nearly correct. In practically all cases this is assumed
to also cover the slight subsidence which will occur in arable land or
glacial drift. Every problem has certain local aspects and it would
always be well to determine what has happened locally in the way of
shrinkage and subsidence if very accurate results are desired. In com-
mon practice, however, when grading with earth, a 10 per cent, shrinkage
allowance is recommended. When the harder substances, such as rock or
shale, are encountered a negative shrinkage or swell is found. Reliable
data received by the Committee shows that in many cases of work of this
nature the swell has been from 2 or 3 per cent, to 60 and 70 per cent.

The method of handling as well as the material will have a bearing
on the swell of this material. Rock and shale will be found to vary con-
siderably in different parts of the country. No rule is found that can be
generally applied. The method of handling and shooting must be con-
sidered in anticipating swell. Local formations and conditions will gov-
ern to a great extent in this class of work.

It is estimated that approximately 90 per cent, of the grading quan-
tities in this country would be classed as earth or common excavation.
Rock and shale work, therefore, would constitute only approximately 10
per cent, of the quantities.

As stated previously by this Committee, it is not recommended that
the height of fills be raised to allow for shrinkage, but that the additional
width be put on the shoulder. Proceedings, Vol. 18, page 662. This is due
to anticipated settlement not always occurring, especially in fills built by
teams and scrapers. Quite a number of roads, however, are following
the practice of building fills by dumping from trestle on fills ten' (10)
feet and more high, constructing the trestle one foot above the grade
to allow for settlement. This, of course, cannot be done if the location
of bridges interferes, but seems to work out well generally.

706 Roadway. __

Concluaiuns

(1) Figure a shrinkage of 10 per cent, on earth removed from ex-
cavation to emhankmcnt.

(2) Ascertain local conditions and results and use them as a guide
in estimating' swell of rock, considering nature of formation and method
of handling.

(3) The Committee recommends that the conclusions on both
shrinkage and subsidence be printed in the Manual and that the subjects
be closed for the present.

Appendix C
(4) CORRUGATED METAL CULVERTS

W. H. Penfield, Chairman, Sub-Committee

Corrugated metal culverts can be used to advantage on new construc-
tion work where the cost of haul for concrete, cast iron, or timber cul-
verts would be excessive ; also for waterways under higliway approaches
at grade crossings when the cost complete for corrugated pipe is less than
for concrete or cast iron pipe.

They will give the best results when the top of the pipe is placed not
less than three feet and not more than ten feet below sub-grade. They
should not be used in sizes with a diameter in excess of forty-eight inches.

Care should be used in preparing foundation on v/hich to place corru-
gated pipe culverts. The foundations must be of good firm material, and
never of made ground or embankment if it can be avoided. A sufficient
amount of camber should be provided in longitudinal bed for the pipe to
insure its not settling under the center of embankment to such an extent
as to permit a depression in which water and silt will collect and remain.

Before the construction of embankment over corrugated pipe culvert
is begun, selected earth or filling material must be carefully placed, and
thoroughly tamped and packed above and around the pipe to a height of
at least three feet above the top of pipe and ten feet each way horizontally
from it. This to prevent unequal pressure and distortion of the pipe
when it receives the weight of the embankment; otherwise, the pipe will
be flattened and its vertical diameter lessened and its horizontal diameter
increased.

Corrugated pipes must be of greater diameter than required for con-
crete or cast iron pipes, as the corrugated surface retards the flow when
pipes are discharging imder head.

Concrete or cast iron pipes cannot be successfully drawn through
corrugated iron pipe culverts for renewing them in the manner that tim-
ber culverts are frequently renewed, as the distortion in the corrugated
pipes will make this difficult or impossible, and it is usually necessary to
dig out corrugated iron pipes when making renewals.

707

708 Roadway.

Wichita Falls & Northwestern Railway — 329 Miles
Located in Southwestern Oklahoma

GALVANIZED CORRUGATED IRON CULVERT PIPE LAID
DURING CONSTRUCTION— STILL IN SERVICE-
ALL NO. 18 GAGE

From Notes of I. C. C. Structural Survey; July, 1920.

Diameter

1906

1907

Year Installed
1909 1910

1911

Totals

12 in

1
4

444

4
1

35
1,178

3
2

113

270

10,055

122
2

11
85
32
29

316
14,846

16 in

18 in

20 in

24 in

248

26 in

30 in

36 in

1
2

37
148

42 in

48 in

Number

Length

... 4
... 136

636
25,659—5 1/10
Miles.

Under inspection 13 of these culvert pipes show a flattening and
bending at middle of about 6 in., 17 show 2 or 3 in., due apparently to
soft ground and subsidence. This flattening is about 5 per cent, of the
number, 3 1/3 per cent, of the length. There were no failures of material.
Apparently the life of these culverts will be 30 or 40 years. On the
Trinity District, in Southeast Texas, there are 35 of these culverts; total
length 882 ft., 2 in. to 36 in. in diameter, 17 of them 24 in., which have
recently been put in during maintenance.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CORRUGATED METAL CULVERTS

All corrugated metal pipe shall be of first quality, of true circular
form, and shall be of such lengths as are specified in the order. The pipe
shall be true and straight throughout its entire length, and free from all
imperfections.

Construction.

1. Culverts may be either (1) full circle riveted, or (2) sectional
nestable construction, and each section of the culvert shall be of the same
kind, quality and gage of metal throughout.

All full-circle riveted culverts shall be lap-joint construction. They
shall be straight and true to form, tightly riveted, and of first-class work-'
manship.

All sectional nestable culverts shall be constructed of upper and lower
sections, admitting of each section nesting one within the other in a com-
pact manner for knock-down shipment, and of their being joined together
when set up by the use of bolts or clamps in a mechanical, practical,
strong, and permanent manner.

Roadway. 709

Material.

2. The metal used in the construction of corrugated culverts shall
be guaranteed by the manufacturers to conform to the following chemical
requirements.

Sulphur Not more than 0.04 per cent.

Phosphorus Not more than 0.015 per cent.

Total of carbon, sulphur,

phosphorus, manganese and

silicon Not more than 0.25 per cent.

Copper Optional.

Note. — The above is subject to the customary leeway for chemical
error of 0.04 per cent, plus or minus.

Galvanizing.

3. The galvanizing shall consist of not less than two (2) ounces of
prime spelter per square foot of sheet uniformly distributed over the
surface of the sheets of metal. It shall be applied in such a manner that
the spelter will not peel off during fabrication, or in transporting or lay-
ing the pipe. Any uncoated spots, due to poor workmanship, rough
handling, or any other reason, shall be sufficient cause for rejecting the
pipe.

Defects in the Sheets.

4. Sheets must be thoroughly free from all scales, cracks and other
defects in the underlying metal. Sheets must also be free from spots,
holes, unevenness or blisters in the coating of zinc spelter. All sheets
must classify as prime quality in shape, in uniformity of thickness, and
in uniformity of zinc coating.

Gage of Metal.

5. The standard of gage shall be the United States Standard Gage.

(a) All culverts of a diameter from 12 in. to 20 in., inclusive, shall
be made from No. 16 gage material.

(b) All culverts of a diameter from 24 in. to 36 in., inclusive, shall
be made from No. 14 gage material.

(d) All culverts of a diameter of 60 in. shall be made of No. 10
gage material.

Corrugations.

6. The corrugations shall be not more than two and one-half (25.'2)
inches, center to center, and not less than one-half (]/^) inch in depth.

Joints.

7. (a) Longitudinal laps .shall be not less than 2 inches in 12-inch
to 24-inch culverts, inclusive, and 3 inches on 30-inch to 60-inch culverts,
inclusive.

(b) Circumferential laps shall be not less than one full corrugation;
that is, a lap of not less than 2j/2 inches on all culverts.

710 Roadway. ^^^

Rivets and Riveting.

8. All rivets, bolts or clamps shall be of the same material as speci-
fied for the culverts, or of such other material as may be approved. Riv-
ets shall be thoroughly galvanized, and shall have the following dimen-
sions :

No. 16 gage material — A in. diameter x ^, in. long.

No. 14 " " — (Two thicknesses of sheets) — ife x 5^ in.

No. 14 " " —(Three " " ' " )-^A x 5^^ in.

No. 12 " " —(Two )— 5^x^in.

No. 12 " " —(Three " " " )— J^x^in.

No. 10 " " —(Two ' )— >gx^in.

No. 10 " " —(Three " " " )-4^ x 1 in.

All rivets shall be driven cold in such a manner that the plates shall
be drawn tightly together throughout the width of the seam. No rivet
shall be closer than twice its diameter from the edge of the metal. All
rivets shall have neat, workmanlike, and full hemispherical heads ; shall
be 'driven without bending; and must fully fill the hole. Circumferential
.shop riveted seams shall have a maximum rivet spacing of eight (8)
inches, and shall lap at least one full corrugation.

Coupling Bands."

9. Coupling bands shall be made of the same material as the culvert
and shall be not less than eight (8) inches wide on culverts of diameters
up to and including 36 inches, and 12 inches on diameters 36 to 60
inches inclusive.

Such coupling bands shall be connected at the ends by angles or
straps of malleable castings, or by corrugated flanges turned directly
on and integral with the body of the joining band and having a cross-
section at least equal to 1 in. x J4 !'''•> ^nd fastened by galvanized bolts
not less than ^ inch in diameter, and there shall be not less than two
bolts on each side of the joining band.

Inspection.

10. At any and all times, during working hours, a representative of
the purchaser shall have the right to enter and inspect the work in
progress ; to take test samples of the material being used for the manu-
facture of culverts, whether from material in stock or in the process
of marvufacture ; and the Jnanufacturer is to afford the representative of
the purchaser all reasonable facilities for making such inspections or
securing samples. The culvert pipes furnished .shall be subject to tests
by a representative of the purchaser, and if the material and workman-
ship do not comply with the above specifications, they shall be rejected.

Conclusions

The Committee feel that they have not had time to exhaust the
subject and recommend that it be referred back to them for next year's
work, and that the present report be accepted as information.

Appendix D

(5) SEALING BAD CRACKS IN ROCK CUTS WITH
CEMENT GUN

C. W. Brown, Cliainitaii, Sub-Committee.

Ill 1914 the New York Ceiitr ,i Railroad used a cement gun in their
Spuyten Duyvil Cut on their main h'ne, alxmt 10 miles north of Grand
Central Terminal, New York City. This is proJjablj' the most extensive
work of this sort yet attempted. The cut was 500 feet long with sides
80 and 50 feet high respectively, the Third Rail System furnishing the
power for operating the air compressors. The first operation was to
remove the small loose stones and dirt from the crevices by air, before
using the cement, and it was thought advisable in some places to use anchor
bolts one inch in diameter in order to insure holding up some of the
larger rock, the mixture of one to three parts cement and sand was then
used. This work was done in 1914 and 1915, was inspected by a member
of this Committee in June, 1920, and found to continue satisfactorily.

An article describing the work done on this Cut appeared in the
Railway Age Gazette, April 21, 1916.

A cement gun was used, in 1915 to further prevent the spalling of
rock in the main drainage channel of the sanitary district of Chicago ;
the Engineering World of June, 1920, has an article describing this
work, with accompanj'ing photographs.

In 1914 the Lehigh & New England Railroad at Lansford, Pa., used
the cement gun in the roof of a tunnel, part of which was lined with
brick, the balance not lined. Some of the brick had fallen out ; others
had become loose; the rock in the unlined portion frequently fell to the
track, but after treatment with cement gun the condition was corrected.
There are several streams of water emptying on to the track from the
roof of this tunnel, which the manufacturers of the cement gUn claim
can be sealed up. This work will be attempted b}- the Lehigh and New
England Railroad this winter.

The Cement Gun is a patented machine for sale by the manufacturer,
without royalty or rental. The cement gun is run by compressed air,
and maj'' be purchased with or without air compressor. It can be used
with any compressor plant, including that furnished from a locomotive.

Conclusion

Your Committee feels that it can make no definite report other than
to state that this class of work can be done satisfactorily and possibly
more economically by this method than by any other.

711

Appendix E
(6) STANDING WATER IN BORROW PITS

W. C. Curd, Chairman, Sub-Committee.

On June 2nd, the following letter was sent out :

"To THE Members :

"The Board of Direction requests a report this year on 'The effect
of standing water in tjorrow pits upon the stability of embankments.'
The Roadway Committee, which has been assigned this subject, requests
your remarks on the statements and questions outlined below.

"In certain sections of the country where water stands in borrow pits
unstable track and embankments are found. Your Committee is of the
opinion that in such cases soil conditions are responsible for the insta-
bility and the standing water is an effect rather than a cause.

1. Will you cite specific locations where the cause of unstable
track or embankment has been definitely traced to absorption
or percolation of water from borrow pits?

2. Describe any experiments made by you to determine the cause
of unstable embankments adjacent to borrow pits and con-
ditions actually found.

"Drainage districts frequently place heavy assessments against rail-
ways for benefits assumed to accrue to track by direct borrow pit drainage
or indirect drainage through lowering of ground water plane.

3. Please cite specific locations where such direct or indirect
drainage of standing water in borrow pits has improved
track or embankments and state in what way?

"Instances are known where greater benefits have been derived by
reinforcing embankments with wider crowns and flatter sloped than by
borrow pits drainage.

4. Please cite any such cases within your knowledge or expe-
rience.

"With your reply please forward actual cross-sections or drawings
which may illustrate your remarks.

"The Committee is powerless to act on this subject without definite
data and your co-operation is urged to promptly notify it of the result
of any of your past investigations of the subject or of any special
investigation which you will put under way to assist it.

"Please address your reply as early as consistent direct to Chairman
of Sub-Committee, Mr. W. C. Curd, Consulting Engineer, 1313 Steger
Building, Chicago, Illinois."

A number of replies have been received, but they are a disappoint-
ment, being usually opinions without data to support them. From the
lack of interest displayed the Committee feels the importance of the
subject is not fully appreciated. The railroads are annually spending
large sums of money in attempts to cure unstable embankments, the
results of which are largely ineffective, due to improper methods.

712

Roadway. 713

Each year Drainage Districts are organized in territory adjoining
railroads and where borrow pits exist are assessed cxhorbitant amounts
for benefits assumed to accrue to embankments through drainage of the
pits.

The report of the Committee should be of vahie to the railroad
by showing the effect of standing water, how best to overcome it, and
whether or not drainage ditches will benefit track. If we should go on
record with a report based upon replies received to date, which are to
the effect that borrow pit drainage will relieve unstable track, we feel
that the Association Proceedings will be in evidence at the trial of every
Drainage District case and that the railroad companies will be further
burdened by higher assessments.

The Committee wishes to finally dispose of the subject, but it cannot
do so without assistance. In view of its importance, we feel it would
be unfortunate indeed if we had to recommend to the Association that
the subject be withdrawn from further consideration.

There are very lew railroads having no borrow pits, and it should
be a comparatively easy matter to secure data as to their effect upon
embankments under varying conditions. From many of the replies to our
circular letter, it would appear that the effect of water in borrow pits
is confused with that of water pockets.

The Committee does not wish to prescribe any specific form of
investigation that should be carried out but rather that you follow your
own ideas. What w^e are after is reliable data from which a conclusion
may be reached.

Conclusion

From the information at hand, the Sub-Committee finds it impossible
to return a report this year, and recommends that the subject be con-
tinued.

(A)

Appendix F

(7) DRAINAGE OF LARGE CUTS

R. B. Robinson, Chamnan, Sub- Committee.

In the location of a railroad, more careful study should be given
than has sometimes been given in the past to provide proper and adequate
drainage where it has seemed necessary to lay a grade line in what
would be a long low grade cut, and such a cut should be taken cmlj- when
every means within reason has been employed to avoid it.

If such cuts be necessary, they should be taken out to such width as
will permit of good, wide, deep, side ditches, and the slopes made
flat enough to avoid danger of the banks sloughing in, this, of course,
assuming that the material is of such nature as can be easily worked,
and what would in most cases be hauled out and used instead of wasted;
also if long, low grade cuts are necessary, surface ditches should be
provided wherever required, and these ditches should be kept far enough
back to avoid seepage or sloughing into the cuts.

Wherever it is not possible to accomplish drainage by open ditches,
there are various more or less desirable schemes which have, from time
to time, been used by various roads for draining cuts, such as installing
vitrified tiling, sometimes with lateral weepers, and sometimes without;
in other cases, trenches have been excavated and backfilled with large or
small rock, and with or without lateral weepers, and still more drastic
methods have had to be resorted to where water springs have been encoun-
tered and the water seeps upward and outward from subterranean veins,
these sometimes occurring directly beneath the track. In this connec-
tion, some very good ideas have been brought out in previous meetings
and reports of the American Railway Engineering Association, in which
attention is called to the fact that where necessary to put in longitudinal
tile subdrains, they .should be placed below the frost line and below any
saturated material, laid to a true bed, and filled over with cinders or other
suitable material.

Another idea, in which we thoroughly concur, is that all water
possible should be kept from reaching the roadbed; side ditches should
be provided in cuts in all or any class of material, in order to hold storm
water down avva_v from the actual material and convey the water away
as rapidly as possible; and, if then tile drains are still necessary, they
should still be placed at satisfactory depth, and the cut ditches should
still be kept open at all times; it being, of course, obvious tliat all ditches
or drains must he kept open, as otherwise they defeat their own purpose.

In hauling out cleanings from ditches or opening up new ditches,
the material, if wasted, should be so placed that it cannot be washed
back into the drain ditches or pipes in case of heavy storm.

714

Roadway. 715

As illustrating some of the points mentioned, we attach hereto
Exhibits Nos. 1 and V/z, being plans of two of the larger middle west
railroads, showing typical methods they employ in handling this drainage
question, applying especially to locations and conditions where good wide
deep side ditches seem to be impossible, and where resort has to be
made to trench drains and tiling.

Exhibits Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 5 show longitudinal tiling installed in
various wet and springy cuts on another large western railroad, the
expense of which has been heavy, but the results sought in almost every
case have been fully attained.

Exhibit No. 6 shows a general study being considered by a western
railroad for taking cai^e of some very wet locations, where it has not
appeared to be practicable to provide diversion channels or open drain
ditches.

Exhibit No. 7 shows some tunnel drainage in very wet location on a
western railroad, where, because of the topography, it was necessary to
not only provide drainage in the tunnel, but to lead the drainage from
the upper portal cut through the tunnel and release it through the lower
portal cut by means of tile pipe at the sides and cast iron pipe directly-
beneath the track.

Exhibit No. 8 illustrates an interesting condition encountered on a
western railroad at a tunnel about a mile and a quarter long, where the
cut slopes sloughed in and blocked the portal cut with material, which
was of the consistency of thick mortar; this trouble usually occurs in
the spring, coincident with melting snow and thawing ground which runs
off from about one thousand acres of mountain range land, draws in
through a gulch above the portal cut, and despite several surface ditches,
which were constructed in an efifort to diAcrt it; this water has reached
this cut slope in sufficient quantities to thoroughly saturate the clay,
which is of several varieties and mixed with soft soapy rock in a shaly
formation ; the upper formation is mostly a bright yellow clay, shading
off lower down to a very tough red clay, seams run through this for-
mation in all conceivable directions, and this gives t-he water an oppor-
tunity to thoroughly saturate the mass, and in this condition the clay
loses all cohesive properties.

All ordinary methods to prevent this slide trouble were tried ; several
lines of drain tile and French drains were constructed, only to become
filled and choked with silt in a short time ; rows of piling were driven
near the lower edge of the cut, framed together, and a system of
bracing extended to other rows of piling driven about half way up the
slide of the cut. This pile protection was put in where the first slide
occurred, but subsequent slides went through and around it and carried
some of it down to the track. Another slide occurred a short distance
east of this pile bracing after the material from the first slide had
been removed, and it was then necessary to devise some other methods
to conquer the slide trouble. It was finally decided to construct a system

716 Roadway.

of drainage tunnels, supplemented by a series of ditches filled with clay
and then burned.

A 12 inch drain tile had been originally installed along the foot of
the cut slope to drain the railroad tunnel, including a spring that had
developed during the first slide. This drain tile now serves to carry off
the additional water from the drainage., tunnels and trenches men-
tioned. Three trenches were dug parallel with the track, and six cross
trenches, approximately at right angles; the average depth of trench
"A" is about 5 feet, while "B" and "D" and the cross-trenches have
depths of over 20 feet, in the deeper parts of the cut. The bottoms of
these trenches are cut to a grade line, which leads toward the track.

After the trenches were excavated, they were refilled with kindling,
scrap ties, coal and clay, the layer of fuel being about 2^ feet thick,
with next a layer of clay about two feet thick, and alternately placed to
fill the trenches and tunnels ; chimneys to afford proper draft were
placed a short distance apart, these chimneys being of six inch tile.
Care had to be used in regulating the draft, so as to keep an even fire,
and thereby insure a thorough baking of the layers of clay and sides
of the trenches. As the fuel burned out and the clay subsided in the
trenches, more clay was put on top; and the surface thereby restored.
The object sought being to get trenches and cross-trenches filled with
semi-vitrified clay; also to thoroughly bake and stabilize the surround-
ing material. Through this mass of baked material, the water readily
finds its way to the tile drains along the track.

In addition to the above-named trenches, three drainage tunnels,
Nos. 1, 2 and 3, were driven back into the bank, a little below the grade
of the track; tunnel No. 1 was driven 102 feet; No. 2, 120 feet; and
No. 3, 142 feet. Then tunnels 2 and 3 were connected at the inner ends
by a tunnel running parallel with the track, the grades being about six-
tenths of one per cent. The tunnels were built rectangular in section,
four ft. wide by six and one-half feet high, so as to work in them with
wheelbarrows and shored and braced with timber, similar to mine work.

The inner ends of these tunnels were thirty-five feet and forty feet
underground, and tapped the springs of water in the bank beneath the
system of trenches descril)ed above; this method of drainage has proved
to be very efficient in this location, as no further slides have occurred
in about ten years' time.

It is thought that the foregoing fairly covers the ordinary range of
drainage trouble in long cuts.

Conclusions

(1) More consideration should be given by Locating Engineers to
probable drainage conditions in selecting a line contemplating long, low
grade cuts.

Roadway. 717

(2) If long low-grade cuts are practically unavoidable, construction
and maintenance engineers should see that, where practicable, good wide
deep side ditches are provided and maintained.

(3) When not possible or practicable to handle drainage with wide,
deep side ditches, sub-drainage should be provided by installing blind
rock drains or tiling, as it is impossible to maintain railroad track in
satisfactory condition unless water is kept drained away from, over,
in, around or beneath the track.

718

Roadway.

Roadway

719

720

Roadway

- 6' Drain Tile Bedded in 4'of Cinders.'
Remainder of Oihti asCxcavated to
be ''illed m\h Crushed Sock.
Rubble Under Track Ballast.

■ 6'DrainTile b«Jd«din4*ofcind«r3
Ainder of Oikh n txwvjted to

Exhibit 5

Exhibit 6

^ Ti l( Dtaim to bt plKtd about
W feet apart in EitremelyWrt
Country Only, and n^ be alternated
fram side la side under ordinary
conditionj

Ballast to be plaad level witti top of tiej in Dry Country Only.

In Wet or Stormy Country depress as sliown 1o pnwide
draina^ ,also to avoid interference with block si^al
operation caused bf short circuits due 1o wet ballast .

UHititudinal

Drains to be placed

below bottom of

ditch mWet'Cuts

Only

ELtVATIOIl StCIlOII

DtTAll or CMCH BW AT !KT PORTM.

[LWMION SECTION StCTlSoStlRACK

DETAIL or CATCH BASINS IH TUNNEL

--^^i^

.^..,y^,'^^'^-'"'''""

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XXI— ON ECONOMICS OF
RAILWAY OPERATION

L. S. RosK^ Chairniati ; G. D. Brooke^ ]'icc-Chaini\aii ;

J. B. Babcock, 3rd, R. B. Jones,

L. W. Baldwin, E. E. Ktmbau.,

J. M. Brown, H. A. Osgood,

A. G. Bough NER, R. J. Parker.

J. W. Burt, Dean Wm. G. Raymond,

Maurice Coburn, Mott Sawyer,

F. W. Green, J. E. Teal,

H. B. Grimshaw, C. C. Williams,

V. K. Hendricks, Loims Yaglr,

E. T. HowsoN, Committee.

To the American Raikvay Engineering Association :

The following subjects were assigned to the Committee on Economics
of Railway Operation for study and report :

1. Recommend methods for increasing efficiency of employees by
furnishing them with reports and comparisons planned to inform and
interest all concerned.

2. Report on methods for increasing the traffic capacit}' of a railwaj',
conferring with the Signal Section.

3. Report on methods for analyzing costs, for the solution of special
problems with which this Committee is concerned.

4. Report on the effect of speed of trains upon the cost of operation.

5. Report on the practicaljility and economy of through routing of
solid trains and its effect on the capacity of terminals.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago May 18th, attended
by: L. S. Rose, Chairman; W. G. Arn (representing L. W. Baldwin),
J. M. Brown, V. K. Hendricks, E. T. Howson, R. B. Jones, Dean W. G.
Raymond, H. A. Osgood and Louis Yager. August 20th, attended by :
L. S. Rose, Chairman; Mott Sawyer, E. T. Howson, Dean W. G: Ray-
mond, J. E. Teal, Louis Yager, J. F. Harnit (representing R. J. Parker),
J. W. Burt and J. B. Babcock. November 12th, attended by: L. S. Rose,
Chairman; G. D. Brooke, E. E. Kimball, J. E. Teal, J. F. Harnit (repre-
senting R. J. Parker), A. G. Boughner, M. Coburn, Mott Sawyer, W. G.
Arn (representing L. W. Baldwin), J. M. Brown and C. C. Williams.
December 30th, attended by : L. S. Rose, Chairman ; J. E. Teal, C. C.
Williams, Dean W. G. Raymond, J. M. Burt, M. Coburn, W. G. Arn
(representing L. W. Baldwin) and E. E. Kimball.

Subject No. 1 was assigned to a Sub-Committee composed of J. M.
Brown, Chairman ; H. B. Grimshaw and E. T. Howson.

Subject No. 2 was assigned to a Sub-Committee composed of Louis
Yager, Chairman ; L. W. Baldwin, V. K. Hendricks and E. E. Kimball.

723

724 Economics of Railway Operation.

On account of the illness of Mr. Yager, Mr. G. D. Brooke, Vice-Chair-
man, has taken up the work of the Chairman of this Sub-Committee.

Subject No. 3 was assigned to a Sub-Committee composed of H. A.
Osgood, Chairman ; Maurice Coburn and R. B. Jones.

Subject No. 4 was assigned to a Sub-Committee composed of Dean
Wm. G. Raymond, Chairman ; J. M. Burt, J. K. Teal, James B. Babcock,
3rd, A. G. Bouglincr, C. C. WilHams and Mott Sawyer. Work of this
Sub-Committee is further sub-divided into three divisions : "The effect
of speed upon maintenance of track," assigned to Messrs. Williams and
Burt; "Effect of speed upon transportation costs," assigned to Messrs.
Teal and Sawyer; "Effect of speed on maintenance cost," assigned to
Messrs. Boughner and Babcock. The plan of this subject is to combine
into a single formula, if possible, the investigations of the three groups
of this Sub-Committee.

Subject No. 5 assigned to Sub-Committee composed of Messrs. R. J.
Parker, F. W. Green and J. C. Wroton.

Each of the Sub-Committees have done considerable work on the
subjects assigned to them.

Attached to this report as appendices thereto will be found reports
of the Sub-Committees.

The reports of the Sub-Committees are progress and intended to
bring out discussions on the subjects presented for the benefit of the
Committee and Association, in order that the Sub-Committees can com-
plete their work next year. With the foundation contained in these
reports, it is hoped that the Committee can complete the work assigned,
if it is not found that this work is of a character which is never com-
pleted.

Sub-Committee No. 4 has made a study on the subject of "Allocation
of Maintenance of Way Expenses to Passenger and Freight Service."
On account of the lateness of this report and the necessity for further
review, the Committee does not feel warranted in presenting a report at
this time, and desires to advise the Association that tlie subject is receiv-
ing further attention.

Conclusions

There, arc no conclusions to recommend for insertion in the Manual.

Recommendations for Future Work
Committee recommends reassignment of Subjects 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Respectfully submitted.
The Committee on Economics of Railway Operation.

L. S. Rose, Chairman.

Appendix A

(1) METHODS FOR INCREASING EFFICIENCY OF EM-
PLOYEES BY FURNISHING THEM WITH REPORTS
AND COMPARISONS TO INFORM AND INTEREST
ALL CONCERNED

J. M. Brown, Chairman; E. T. Howson,

H. B. Grimshaw, Sub-Committee.

The Sub-Committee has determined that the term "employee" in this
subject refers to those employed in minor positions on the railroad
who do not see regularly the comparative reports sent out from time to
time of various statistics.

The methods suggested are that comparisons of the effective work
of individuals or groups of individuals or employees be tabulated and
published; these comparisons to be of subjects in which an employee is
engaged. The purpose of these comparisons is to stimulate friendly
rivalry which may be developed in practically every line of railroad work.

These comparisons should be discussed with the employee, in groups
of his fellow-workmen, for the purpose of securing their criticism and
advice, recognizing their knowledge and insuring their interest. Men are
interested in their own line of work ; in fact, they are inclined to think
all other lines are subordinate to theirs. This idea should not be dis-
couraged.

While the final result to be se'cured is the cost, the units for compari-
son should be those in which the employee thinks ; for instance, if a sec-
tion foreman is asked about the number of ties he can put in, he will
reply, so many per hour or per day ; or a locomotive fireman will keep
tally on the number of scoops of coal he uses on a run for his compari-
sons.

The data collected should be published at least once per month, in
some instances oftener. During the season when the subject under dis-
cussion is being actively engaged in, such as insertion of ties, reports
should be made every week. The reports should also be kept up to date,
and if the data are not furnished by the employee promptly, inquiry should
be made to ascertain the reason for the dcla^-. If this is not done, the
employee will think it has been forgotten, interest will die out, and soon
there will be no records.

Methods for keeping the records should be published to prevent mis-
understandings, and to insure uniformity.

Some data are published best by presenting a tabulated statement of
facts, others by graphic charts.

The range of territory covering the performances should not be too
great, for people are more interested in the work of their neighbors than
of those a thousand miles away, and the comparison of the work will

725

726 Economics of Railway Operation.

probably be on a more equitable basis. However, the comparative terri-
tory is a matter of selection. In some instances, the subjects may cover
a wide ranpje of territory.

Examples

The following subjects arc submitted, and, for the purpose of com-
parison, the details are outlined with each subject:

Maintenance of Way

Applying Tics
This to consist of :

Unloading and distribution of new ties.

Removal of old ties.

Insertion of new ties.

Collection and disposal of old ties.

Comparison to be made upon num1)er of tics applied in track per
man per hour.

Applying Ballast
The following details to cover the work :

Stripping track.

Unloading ballast.

Raising track and tamping ballast.

Lining and surfacing track.

Trimming ballast to standard cross-section.

Cleaning up surplus ballast.

Comparisons to be made on a basis of hours of labor per linear
foot, properly equated if there is a material variation in the average raise.

Laying Rail
The following details to cover the work:

Unloading and distributing rail and other track ma-
terial.

Adzing ties.

Laying new rail, including full spiking and bolting.

Tightening bolts twice.

Picking up and loading rail and other track material
released.

Comparison to be on a basis of hours of labor per mile of track laid.

Construction of Pile Trestle Bridges
The following details will cover the work :

Unloading all new material.

Driving piles.

Framing and applying all new material including ties.

Removal and disposition of all old material.

Comparisons will be made on a basis of hours of labor per linear foot
of bridge. Bridges of approximatcl}' the same height should be compared.
In time an equation factor can be developed for varying heights. Time
consumed in traveling is to be eliminated in the comparisons.

Economics of Jlailway Operation. 727

Pa ill ling

BuiLiiiNGS — Details covering same to he:

Transporting tools and material to and from paint car

Erecting ladders, scaffolding, etc.

Scraping all loose paint.

Applying putty to weather cracks and defects of like

nature.
Mixing and applying new paint.

Comparisons to be based on hours of labor per square of 100 feet.

Painting

Steel Bridges — Details covering same to be :

Transporting tools and material from paint car.
Erecting ladders, scaft'olding, etc.
Cleaning and scraping metal.
Mixing and applying new paint.
Cleaning up after work is done.

Basis of comparison to be hours of lalxir on bridges of equal length.
Coaling Stations
Operation of Chute
Details covering same :

Unloading cars.

Breaking coal.

Hoisting.

Cleaning up all spilled coal.
Basis of comparison to be tons housed per hour of labor.
Weight of coal to be determined from shipping bills.

Pumping Water
Operation of JVater Station

The man-hour compai^ison cannot be introduced, but a comparison
of the amounts of oil and fuel consumed can be made, and the whole ex-
pense reduced to a horsepower basis.

Details for comparison :

Cost of unloading fuel and supplies.

Cost of operating pumps and engines.

Amount of fuel consumed.

Amount of lubrication used.

Gallons of water (in thousands) pumped.

: Basis of comparison will be cost of 1,000 gallons of water pumped
per horsepower per hour.

728

Economics of Railway Operation.

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Economics of Railway Op e r a t ion ,

729

Record of Drawbar Failures Between Terminals

atid Comparison of Ranking of Engineers per Failure per Car Mile

Period — One Month

Territory — One Operating Division

Comparison to be made upon Drawbar Failure per car miles accumu-
lated on the Division for one month.

Rank

Engineer's Name

Draw Bar

Failures

Number
of Cars
Hauled

Total Car

Miles

Per Engineer

Car Miles
Per Draw
Bar Failure

Totals...

Record of Cars Set Out on Account of Hot Boxes Between Terminals

and
Comparison of Ranking of Conductors per Car Set Out

Period— One Month
Territory — One Operating Division

Rank

Conductor's Name

Car Set

Out
Account
of Hot

Box

Number
of Cars
Hauled

Car Miles

Per
Conductor

Car Miles

Per Hot Box

Set Out

Totals....

730

Economics of Railway Operation ,

Comparisons of Cost of Handling L.C.L. Freight and Number Pounds
Handled per Man per Hour

Illuslralwn for April. 1920—1919, and March, 1920

Station

Month and
Year

Total Ton3
Handled

Total Cost

Cost Per
Tons
Cent.s

Total Hours
Worked

Average
No. Lbs.
Handled
Per Man
Per Hour

"A"
••B"
"C"
"D"
"E"
•■F"
"G"

April, 1920
April, 1919
March, 1920

18,748
18,163
22,296

5,772
9,380
10,487

2,062
2,100
2,911

7,061
6,192
7,151

5.262
4,650
5,273

14,471
11,987
16,308

19,721
16,948
23,201

16,850.88
13,056.07
20,126.28

3,944.25
5,745.19
7.297.13

828.98
641.32
974.34

4,551.19
3,959.40
4,336.26

3,204.09
2,562.96
3,079.76

9,563.51
7,738.30
10,863.13

17,120.05
10,661.27
19.384.19

94.95
71.88
90.27

68.33
61.24
69.58

40.20
30.53
33.47

64.45
63.94
60.63

60.89
55.11
58.40

66.08
64 50
66.61

86.86
62.91
83.54

32.020
27,020
38,125

6,099
9,684
10,830

1,866
1,458
2,252

9,713
8,921
9.630

6,766
5.655
6.511

19,653
17,317
23,059

34,713
24,119
38,456

1.109
1.426
1,170

1,893
1,937
1,936

2,210
2,882
2,661

1,454
1,388
1,455

1,555
1,645
1.620

1,472
1,383
1,416

1.136
1,405
1,207

Comparison of Errors in Checking and Loading per Ton of L.C.L.

Freight Handled at Various Stations

Month of October, 1920

Tons Han-
Tons Errors died per
Stations Handled Made Error Made

A 5,514 49 113

B 3,333 46 73

C 1,491 18 83

D 3,861 20 193

E 2,984 25 119

F 2,478 3 826

G 1,649 7 235

H 949 9 105

I 7,419 22 383

J 651 7 93

Note. — Tonnage shown indicates total L.C.L. tonnage handled, both
inbound and outbound and transferred. Errors compared are simply those
made in loading and checking. Errors for other causes are not included.

Economics of Railway Operation

731

Comparison of Car Loadings at Various Stations
October, 1920

Total Weight Normal Ca- Per Cent, of

Stations No. Cars of Load pacity of Cars Normal Cap.

Wheat

A 7 592,380 540 109.7%

B 5 352,080 320 110.0

C 7 572,000 520 110.0

D 5 414,000 380 109.0

E 61 4,844,070 4,873 99.0

F 17 1,398,741 1,290 108.4

G 13 1,128,760 1,060 106.5

H 17 1,317,825 1,260 104.6

I 6 527,040 480 109.8

J 66 5,366,144 5.869 91.0

Flour

A 13 822,938 840 98.0

B 30 2,026,450 2,130 95.1

C 47 3,527,969 3,770 93.7

D 7 441,604 480 92.0

E 13 948,404 1,080 87.8

F 52 3,195,560 3,680 86.8

October, 1920 188 12,543,972 13,620 92.1

September, 1920 ...209 14,518,621 14,970 97.0

October, 1919 412 26,803,775 30,980 86.5

Hay

A 49 1,942,540 3,620 53.6

B 6 216,700 420 51.6

C 20 542,185 1,360 39.9

D 19 545,450 1,390 39.3

E 72 1,790,900 5,220 34.3

F 55 1,111,315 3,330 33.3

G 5 115,130 360 32.0

H 34 765,723 2,440 31.3

October, 1920 304 8,047,458 21,240 37.8

September, 1920. ...542 13,530,346 39,590 34.2

October, 1919 106 2,543,720 7,850 32.4

Cotton

A 7 206,055 440 46.8

B 11 261,225 740 35.3

C 6 128,975 380 33.3

D 21 457,685 1,320 34.7

E 6 76,325 440 17.3

October, 1920 78 1,450,039 4,580 31.7

September, 1920.... 40 613,735 2,640 23.2

October, 1919 77 1,534,061 5,720 26.9

Note. — Allowable capacity is 10 per cent, above normal capacity.

732

Economics of Railway Operation

Examples of Published Information

Roll of Agents Whosk Accounts Current Were Correct for

Month of , Division

Station of Agency Name of Agent

Number of
Agencies

Correct

Incorrect

Percentages

Divisions

Correct

Incorrect

1920

1919

1920

1919

83
37
78
82
46

58
25
50
49
25

25
12
28
33
21

69.9
67.6
64.1
58.6
54.4

70.6
63.2
71.5
54.9
52.1

30.1
32.4
35.9
41.4
45.6

29.4

36.8

28.5

45.1

47.9

Entire Line

326

207

119

63.2

63.4

36.8

36.0

Office of General Manager
Comparison of Average Miles per Car per Day

1917 1918 1919

January 28.57 20.1 27.2

February 27.59 25.9 25.6

March 29.30 27.1 26.4

April 27.37 27.6 25.1

May 27.92 31.2 26.2

June 29.27 31.5 24.5

July 30.02 32.5 25.9

August 29.43 31.0 30.3

September 27.66 29.3 31.5

October 26.38 30.9 32.2

November 28.27 30.2 27.4

December 23.28 28.3 27.8

. Average Freight Cars on Line Daily

1917 37,871

1918 35,927

1919 33,447

Make more miles by —

Prompt loading and release.

Prompt movement to loads and empties.

Prompt repairs to bad order cars.

Prompt furnishing of material for bad order repairs.

Prompt transfer of bad order loads.

Prompt action to forestall accumulation and congestion.

Prompt and regular attention to all angles of car efficiency.

Appendix B

METHODS FOR INCREASING THE TRAFFIC CAPACITY OF

A RAILWAY

G. D. Brooke and Louis Yager, Chairvicii; E. E. Kimball,
L. W. Baldwin, \'. K. Hendricks,

Sub-Committee.

Two studies have been presented, the object of the first being to out-
Hne steps which will establish whatever weak points there may be in the
organization of a railroad and the ways for improving operation so as to
obtain increased capacity with the existing facilities or with slight modifi-
cations of them.

The second is a discussion of the physical elements which affect the
traffic capacity. That is, it begins with the assumption that new facilities
are required and a study is to be made to determine what these facilities
shall consist of. This study was undertaken late in the year and is in-
complete due to lack of time to secure the data necessary to develop it
to the point of determining where new facilities are required or to forcast
what the benefits of the new improvements will be. It is proposed as a
part of next year's work to collect such data from actual operations on
existing railroads and to use it in the continuation of this division of the
subject.

Study of Railroad Operation with the View of Increasing Its Capacity
with Its Existing Facilities

In considering the means of increasing the traffic capacity of a rail-
road, the logical first step is an examination to ascertain

(A) If the facilities as they exist are being utilized to the

maximum capacity ;

(B) What changes, if any, in methods of operation will produce

increases of capacity ;

quickly made which will produce increases of capacit}'.

For this examination the engine district — embracing two terminals
and the one hundred miles more or less of line between them — is the most
suitable unit. If the problem should have to deal with more than one such^
district each will have to be examined of itself and then with the results
so obtained they must be studied together, each in its relation to the ad-
joining districts and to the line as a whole, and thus by progressive study
the examination completed for the entire railroad.

The facilities of an engine district consist roughly of the main tracks,
passing tracks and other sidings, j'ards, telegraph offices, signals, water
stations, engine houses, ash pits, coal chutes, etc., the locomotives assigned
to the district, the locomotive repair shops, and the special equipment,
most important of which is the steam derrick outfit.

733

734 Economics of Railway Operation.

It will be seen that the examination must deal largely with the operat-
ing organization of the railroad. It must determine if there is intelligent
supervision, if there is proper effort on the part of the men in the ranks,
if there is co-ordination of the several departments, if a proper esprit
de corps pervades the organization; in short, if the performance of the
machine in the hands of the organization is of a high standard of ef-
ficiency.

The examination should be started by a preliminary study of the
operating conditions on the district. This will to a large degree determine
the scope of the more thorough and detailed study which should follow.
These studies can best be made by examinations of the movement, loco-
motive performance and other operating records, the comparison of the
current performances with those of former periods, and by consultation
with the operating officers having the district in charge.

The preliminary study will probably disclose one of two operating
situations :

(1) A heavy traffic being moved with comparatively free road and
terminal movements, the volume of business handled approximately equal-
ing or exceeding that of prior periods of good performance.

(2) The road movement free and the terminals — one or both — con-
gested, or both road and terminals congested, the volume of business
moved being less than during former periods of good performance.

The first case is one requiring very careful study and mature con-
sideration before steps are taken looking to increasing the capacity by
changes in' the methods of operating the district. When a heavy traffic
is being moved it is logical that the numbers of cars in yards will be
high, that there will be many trains on the road and therefore some
interference to train movement, that the locomotive terminals will have
large number of locomotives to handle, that all the facilities will have
heavy loads imposed upon them. Nevertheless, to obtain the maximum
capacity the road and terminal movements should as a rule be free and
unrestricted, and the crowding, the over-feeding of any part of the ma-
chine should be reduced to a minimum. It is true that crowding of facili-
ties will follow spcedil}^ if there are interruptions to traffic and they will
doubtless be frequent. If of short duration the resulting accumulations
will be overcome by the reserve power of the organization; if of long
duration other means of relief should be resorted to, such as the diversion
of traffic to other routes and the restriction of loading by embargoes, but
the remedy, whatever it may be, must be applied promptly and vigorously
so as to avoid congestion and its attendant losses of efficiency and ca-
pacity. The length of time necessary and the difficulties experienced in
overcoming these accumulations of freight will give some indications of
the possibilities of increasing the movement of traffic over the district.

It will undoubtedly be found that the officers are well informed as
to the limitations of the district and can point out those facilities which
are being utilized most nearly to their capacity and which first show
signs of overloading, and perchance they will have available -the results

Economics of Railway Operation. 735

of experiments which have been made with the view of increasing the
traffic capacity so that the expediency of possible changes of operating
methods can be definitely determined without the necessity of experi-
mentation, which is in itself very objectionable on a railroad working
approximately to its capacity.

It will be found that the performance of the men is generally good ;
that trains start promptly and move into and out of sidings with pre-
cision; that there are very few accidents caused by non-observance of
rules or by carelessness of trainmen; that the condition of tracks, loco-
motives and cars are good ; that the locomotives attain a high average
mileage, and the detentions for cleaning fires, washing boilers, making
running repairs, etc., are reasonably low. All trains will be found to be
handling the prescribed tonnage rating and the local work being done by
the local freights and pick-ups, thus reserving the through trains for long
haul freight. The schedules for calling extra freight trains have been
so arranged that the movements of these trains will best fit in with the
schedules of the passenger trains and scheduled freight trains. In short,
the examination will disclose an efficiently operated district in charge of
officers who know the limitations of the facilities and who are in a posi-
tion to and do take steps to restrict the business should occasion demand
it so that the facilities will not be overloaded.

The subsequent study should be confined to those facilities and
features of operation which, as has been developed in conference with
the officers, are the first to give trouble under increases of traffic. A
brief discussion of two or three assumed cases will indicate the methods
to be followed.

Assume, first, that the ashpit at one terminal becomes overloaded
and power is delayed there :

Careful observations of the operations of the pit and tracks leading
to and from it should be made covering periods of sufficient length to
thoroughl}' familiarize the observer with them. This may develop that
some slight rearrangement of tracks or other facilities will be beneficial ;
as, for example, the building of an additional cross-over or the re-location
of a water column. It may bring out that some part of the organization
needs strengthening. If the capacity of the pit itself is the limiting
feature, consideration shauld be given to affording relief by installing
steel ties in an adjoining track for a length of eighty to one hundred feet
and the cleaning there of the fires of yard engines and other small power
during the heavy periods of the day. Means may be found also of
changing the runs of certain locomotives so that they can be taken care
of at some other terminal where the facilities are less crowded, thus
reducing the load on the terminal under examination.

Assume, second, that one of the yards is unable to keep up with the
switching under increased business :

Observations of the work of all parts of the yard should be made
by capable men. If these should develop any lost motion, interference of
the work of the yard crews by other yard crews or by road crews, in-

786 Economics of Railway Operation.

efficient use of yard power, etc., by careful planning, and possibly by some
minor improvements which can be quickly made, some of these difficulties
can be overcome. Consideration should be given to the question of sys-
tematized classification of the freight at other yards through which it
moves so as to reduce the w"ork of this yard. If practicable a part of
the trains should be so made up as to pass this yard without switching.
Some feasible change in the yard power may be found advisable.

Assume, third, that the road movement gives trouble :

A study of the train .sheets will indicate where to look for the cause.
It may be found that a small number of additional block offices will be
beneficial ; that the scheduling of drag freight trains out of the terminals
so as to reduce interference with schedule trains is practicable ; that a
very slight reduction in the tonnage rating of drag freight trains will
eliminate stalling of the trains when the rail is bad, will speed up the
movement and enable better use of the power to be made, and in this
way the capacity of the railroad increased.

The second situation, that of congested engine district, presents an
entirely different problem. It can be stated without fear of contradiction
that an engine district that is continually congested for long periods can
not be handling traffic to its maximum capacity. Congestion carries with
it heavy delays to trains getting out of and into yard.s, slow movement
on the road, holding trains out of yards, too many relief crews to prevent
hours of service law violations, excessive interference to switching in
yards and an increased quantity of switching, crowded ashpits and
engine houses, tired, indifferent men, carelessness, accidents, petty and
serious, with damage to engines, cars and tracks, all resulting in inefficient
use of power, of facilities, of men, in a general slowing up of the move-
ment and in a reduced capacitj' of the railroad.

When such conditions exist it is necessary, in order to bring about
any lasting improvements, to determine the seat and the cause of the
congestion before remedial action can be taken. Congestion in one or
both of the terminals at the extremeties of an engine district does not
necessarily affect the road conditions to anj' serious extent. For while
it may be found necessary to set trains off at sidings on line of road and
to hold other trains out of the yards for varying periods, thus causing in-
efficient use of power and crews, the result will be a tendency to increase
the terminal difficulties, and if proper precautions are taken to safeguard
the road movement it will continue to be free and unrestricted. Con-
gested road movement on the other hand means a general slowing up
of trains and a continued inefficient use of the available power and
crews, so that even if the terminals are adequate to handle the traffic with
free road movement they will become crowded with movable cars, switch-
ing will be made difficult, and unless handled very skilfully congestion
of the terminals themselves will follow as a result of the road congestion.

If it is found that the road movement is as a rule free while one
or both terminals are congested, then it is necessary to look only to the
terminals for the cause of the trouble. If both road and terminals are

Economics of Railway Operation. 787

congested the difficulty may lie entirely with the road conditions, but the
chances are that the congestion in the terminals, brought on perhaps by
the inadequate road movement, has been aggravated by unfavorable con-
ditions within the terminals themselves.

The detailed studies then should embrace both road and terminal facili-
ties, organizations and operating methods or such portions of them as the
preliminary investigation may determine is necessary. They should be
made by consulting the train sheets and the various daily and periodic
reports of operating performance and by making comparisons with the
performance during previous periods, bj' suitable observations of actual
work and by free discussion of the problems and conditions with the
officers in charge of the operations.

There is given below a synoptical outline of some of the elements
which affect the capacity of a railroad, and following it a brief discussion
of a number of them. The subject is covered only in a very elemental
way, but its purpose is simply to indicate the method of procedure, for it is
evident that each case will present a problem in itself and that each will
require modifications of the general treatment.

Road Capacity Affected by

Method of train operation. .. Spacing system.

Dispatching trains.

Scheduling extra trains out of terminals.
Running speed.
Tonnage rating.

Handling local work by locals or pick-
ups.
Helper stations.

Derailments and accidents .. .Defective track.

Defective equipment.
Carelessness.
High speed.

Performance of power General condition.

Running repairs.
Preparation.
Fuel, water.

Yard Capacity Affected by

Work to be performed Quantity of switching.

Overcrowding.
Yard design.

Performance of power General condition.

Running repairs.
Preparation.
Fuel, water.

Derailments and accidents .. .Defective track.

Defective equipment.
Carelessness.

Engine Terminal Capacity Affected by

Ashpit, turntable, coal tipple and ready

track operation.
Running repairs.

788 Economics of Railway Operation.

Spacing System. — The spacing of trains may be by train order and
rules, manual block signals, "automatic block signals or otherwise. If the
spacing is by train order and rules, give consideration to establishing the
manual block system. The cost will probably be light and the advantages
in reduced liabity to accident great. Determine if the system in use is
functioning properly and if additional telegraph offices or block offices
or signals are required to shorten particularly long blocks. Consider the
possibility of modifications of rules looking to expediting train movements
without sacrifice of safety, as for example the fullest practicable use of
the "19" train order.

Dispatching Trains. — A first-class train di.spatcher will work won-
ders with a busy railroad, while one who is not capable, whether from in-
experience or other cause, is entirely out of place where there is con-
gestion. Determine if the dispatching force is competent and adequate;
if the dispatchers are found up to the mark and still trains are being
delayed for orders, give consideration to subdividing the district, adding
an additional set of dispatchers. The dispatchers must keep a constant
pressure on the train movement. They must not be on the defensive.

Scheduling Extra Freights Out of Terminals. — It will be found
that the chief dispatcher calls the extra freights so as to avoid passenger
trains and scheduled freight trains in getting out of the terminals. Take
advantage to the fullest extent of the idea he is using. Call into con-
ferences the Superintendent, trainmaster, chief dispatcher and traveling
engineer and prepare a schedule for each terminal of the leaving times
of all extra trains for the twenty-four-hour period. Provide for the
heaviest practicable movement with the understanding that trains sched-
uled for departure at certain hours can be annulled if not required. Place
this schedule in the hands of the roundhouse foreman, yard foreman, and
chief caller, as well as in the hands of division officers; there will soon be
evidence of preparation to meet the schedule, power will be selected in ad-
vance, the yard crews will speed up to get the train ready, the trainmen
will watch their standing on the crew board and be prepared to promptly
respond when called. Regularity and certainty will prevail and the train
will leave terminal on schedule — a good start for a good run.

Running Speed. — Do the slow freights drag uphill at snail's pace,
with slipping drivers, stalling if the steam pressure drops a few pounds
below the maximum? When over the hill do they roll away, passing the
bottom of the sag at passenger train speed — "as fast as a wheel will turn
over?" Both are objectionable. The first tends to uncertainty of move-
ment, delays, inefficiency ; the second increases wear and tear on track
and equipment and tends to accidents — and freight train accidents at high
speed are usually serious. Moderate freight train speeds tend to reliability
and safety. They sacrifice little in time saving and quicker movement as
compared with excessive speeds on descending grades.

Tonnage Rating. — Increased traffic means more ton miles produced.
Look well then to the tonnage rating of the locomotives. Proper tonnage

Economics of Railway Operation. 739

rating does not mean overloading the locomotive. It does mean maximum
loading for the efficient speed on the ruling grade. It means all trains
of the same class uniformly loaded in the direction of heavy traffic. It
means full trains from terminal to terminal. It means uniform per-
formance. If the tonnage ratings are found to be low, do not hesitate to
increase them, but do this gradually. Add one car per train and run this
way for a week, then add a second car. Keep this up until the proper
rating is reached and the psychological tendency to oppose increased train
loads will probably be avoided. If on the other hand it is established
that the rating is too high, it should be reduced. Difficulty in starting
trains, slow movements into and out of side tracks, very low speed on the
ruling grades, with trains stalling when the rail is bad and other un-
favorable conditions exist, spell uncertainty, delays and inefficiency. Rate
the locomotives to their capacity, but so as to provide a reliable, depend-
able movement of trains.

Handling Local Work by Locals and Pick-Ups. — To make the
maximum ton mileage a train must move through from one terminal to
the other with full tonnage. When this is done with a minimum of delay
efficient operation is obtained. If the through tonnage freights are to
make good runs thej^ must be relieved of local work, setting off and pick-
ing up at stations, so that they will have nothing before them but to make
the other end of the road. This is one of the surest ways of increasing
the ton miles per hour of crew time and the ability to handle traffic. If
the local work is light it can all be handled by the local freight, but this
local must not be overloaded. It will necessarily meet with delays at
stations unloading freight and switching, and in order to get over the
road in a reasonable working day its tonnage will have to be light so
that it can make quick moves from station to station and in avoiding other
trains. Excessive hours on the road day after day will wear out any
crew and the service will suffier as a consequence. Therefore, when the
carload business is heavy pick-ups must be run as necessary to keep the
freight well moved up and the road free of cars.

Helper Stations. — If there are grades requiring helper engines as-
certain if the through trains are meeting with delays waiting for helpers.
In scheduling the slow freights out of the terminals favor the helper sta-
tions as far as practicable. Consider possible changes in the helper runs
and the loading of through trains to the end of increasing the efficiency
of the helper and road power.

Defective Track.— Poor track is responsible for a large percentage
of derailments. There are two remedies : The first, repair and build up
the track. This can be done in a short time if the defective conditions
are confined to a few short stretches of line, but if they are general much
more time will be required. The second, reduce the speed of trains to the
safe limit. This remedy fortunately can be applied immediately with
certain results. Better reduced speed of trains than frequent interrup-
tions to traffic and expensive derallmnts.

740 Economics of Railway Operation. ^

Defective Equipment. — If the accident reports show an excessive
number of derailments caused by defective equipment, an analysis may
indicate that the inspection at a certain terminal is poor or that a particu-
lar type of car is causing the trouble. More careful inspection of all
cars at terminals and quick inspections by the trainmen when standing
at water stations, in sidings and in pulling into and out of side tracks
will do much towards preventing these derailments.

Carelessness. — Accidents resulting from non-observance of rules and
carelessness are an indication of demoralization. Switches run through,
switches thrown under moving locomotives or cars, short flagging, im-
proper train handling, result in derailments, collisions, destruction of cars,
damage to locomotives, delays and serious interruptions to traffic. Such
a situation requires strict but careful discipline, thorough and relentless
investigation of all accidents and detected breaches of rules and the free
use of efficiency tests. Proper methods will slowly but surely overcome
the spirit of carelessness and as conditions improve there will appear
among the men a spirit of pride in being a part of an alert, effective or-
ganization. >

High Speed. — Excessive speed will cause derailments even if the track
and equipment are in good condition ; in combination with defective track
and equipment it is a fruitful source of accidents. Derailments of trains
running at high speed usually result in serious wrecks, with heavy damage
to property and serious delays to traffic. The remedy is to reduce the
speed of the trains; to place restrictions where required, holding the
speed to well within the limits of safety.

General Condition. — On a congested railroad there is almost sure
to be found a shortage of good serviceable power. There may be an
abundance of locomotives ; in fact, there are frequently too many, but so
often the average condition is low and the number of locomotives actually
available for service falls short of the requirements. A freight locomo-
tive after receiving general repairs should be good for approximately
twelve months' service. For the power condition to be good then 50 per
cent, or more of tlie locomotives should be good for more than six months'
service and a very small number should be awaiting shop. If too many
of the locomotives are good for only one, two or three months' service
the number of failures will be large, the running repair force will fall
behind in their work and the power conditions will drop further and
further behind instead of improving. The remedy for such a condition is
to assign to the district more shop space or to increase the output of tliat
assigned by double shifting in the machine shop, the boiler shop or that
part or parts of the shops which is limiting the output. To afford prompt
relief consider having a number of locomotives repaired by other railroads
or by contract shops.

Running Repairs. — If there is any one thing that is disheartening
to a train dispatcher it is to have on a busy railroad two or three locomo-
tives that are performing poorly — failing. If the failures are not com-

Economics of Railway Operation. 741

plete and the locomotives are able to limp into the terminals with their
trains, their movements will be slow and unreliable and the delays to
these and other trains will be serious; if the engines give up their trains
after exasperating delays other locomotives will have to be dispatched
light to move in the trains. All of this makes for inefficiency and reduced
capacity of the railroad. Running repairs are those required to place the
locomotive in condition for a successful trip over the district. If properly
made there will be few failures. Insist on the running repairs being well
done. Do not dispatch a locomotive until all required repairs are com-
pleted. If neglected, the failures will be many. Watch closely the num-
ber of engines held for running repairs; if too high, ascertain the trouble
and apply the remedy. If necessary increase the force assigned to run-
ning repairs, as a last resort reducing the force on general repairs in
order to do this. By all means see that this work is kept close up, for it
means the maximum number of serviceable locomotives and good per-
formance on the road.

Preparation. — Locomotive failures may occur from broken or worn-
out parts — defects in the locomotive itself — or from conditions resulting
from improper preparation, such as obstructed flues, foul boiler, dirty fire,
etc., those conditions other than repairs which are remedied in preparing
the locomotive for the next trip. If it is developed that the failures are
being caused by improper preparation, look to the ashpit and roundhouse
forces to remedy this. It maj' be well to temporarily place a special in-
spector to thoroughly inspect and approve the condition of all engines
before they are turned over to the road crew.

Fuel and Water. — Determine if the fuel is of good quality and
adapted to the locomotives. Also that the locomotives are suitably drafted
to burn the fuel. If the fuel is poor a great opportiuiity for increasing the
capacity will be presented provided a suitable quality of fuel is available.
If the water is generally bad the problem is serious, but some relief may
be had by the use of boiler compounds and other such expedients. If
only one or two water stations cause the trouble avoid the use of water
from them as far as practical)le. Consider relief through hauling water
of good quality.

Quantity of Switching. — Freight trains can be put through a termi-
nal with regularity in from ten to thirty minutes if there is no switching
to be done. If they have to be broken up and classified, consolidating with
other trains, several hours will be required. If the ability to move freight
through a given yard is the limit of the capacity of the district and the
switching is heavy, every effort should be made to reduce the switching
in this yard. Consideration should be given to doing certain of the
switching at other yards in order to reduce the work at this one. This
may consist of building at other yards of solid trains to pass through this
yard without classification, of routing some of the freight around the
yard if practicable and of reducing the work in this yard by well-planned
use of the tracks and by systematizing the switching.

742 Economics of Railway Operation.

Overcrowding. — The work of any yard will be hadly hampered if it
is continually overcrowded. Effective switching requires open tracks into
which to throw the cars. With crowding comes the frequent blocking of
running tracks, the interference with switch engines by other switch
engines and by road engines, increased liability to collisions and accidents,
forced departures from the usual plan of switching and operation, all
tending to inefficiency and reduced capacitj'. The remedy is to divert some
of the freight so that it will not be handled in this yard or to reduce the
traffic temporarily by erribargoes until normal operating conditions are
restored.

Yard Dksign. — While any extensive changes in a yard under heavy
traffic would not come within the scope of this particular study, careful
consideration should be given to the possibilities of increasing the capacity
by minor changes in design. For example : Jt may be found advisable to
raise the summit of a hump a foot or two so as to give the cars a quicker
run-off; to lengthen a few tracks so as to avoid road trains doubling over;
to make changes in the arrangement of switches at some point so as to
avoid interference and reduce switch engine movements, or to put in a
stand pipe and prevent loss of time on account of switch engines running
for water. In general, the effect of the performance of power, derail-
ments and accidents on yard operation is similar to that on road operation
and the discussions of the causes and conditions affecting them given above
can be applied with suitable modifications to adapt them to yard work.

Ashpit, Turntable, Coal Tipple, and Ready Track Operation. —
Determine if the facilities and appliances are maintained in such condition
as to- give efficient operation; if coal and cinder cars are promptly switched
to and from the coal tipple and cinder tracks as required ; if the necessary
tools, torches, etc., are provided. Careful observation should be made to
determine if anj' change in routing of locomotives to and from the ashpit
and engine house will reduce the interference and promote freedom of
movement. The ashpit forces and other forces handling the locomotive
should be studied carefully to ascertain if there is any lost motion on
account of lack of force, improper arrangement of force or weaknesses
in the organization. Men of strong character are required to supervise
the work around an overloaded engine terminal and any expenditure
made in improving the organization will pay large returns in increasing
the capacity of the railroad.

Running Repairs. — It may develop that the locomotives are pass-
ing promptly over the ashpit but arc being delayed getting into the
engine house on account of the inability of the engine house organization
to promptly handle the running repairs. Such a condition may be found
to be caused by inadequate engine house force and equipment, by failure
of other terminals to properly make running repairs to the locomotives,
by neglect of the locomotives on the road by engine crews to such an
extent that defects arising on line of road result in much heavier damage
to the locomotives than should occur, or to a shortage of power, causing

Economics of Railway Operation. 743

the locomotives to be run out without proper running repairs and this
leading to failures on line of road, causing much damage to the equip-
ment and consequently requiring a great deal more time and expense for
repairs than would have been the case if the locomotives had been in
proper condition when dispatched. When such conditions are found they
should be remedied promptly by methods which will doubtless suggest
themselves as the most practical. If the force can be added to so as to
increase the capacity of the roundhouse for making running repairs this
should be done. Steps should be taken to insure proper handling of the
locomotives when on line of road and by all means proper running repairs
should be made before the locomotives are dispatched. By selecting those
locomotives requiring the lightest repairs and concentrating on them, they
can be dispatched promptly, while those requiring heavy repairs can be
held so that the work can be properly done. If all locomotives are placed
in first-class condition as to running repair work before dispatched the
trains will move with precision and reliability, the locomotives will make
quicker trips between terminals and produce more train miles. The same
number of trains can be handled with a less number of locomotives. By
following this method those locomotives requiring heavier running repairs
can gradually be put in good condition one by one luitil all of the power
of the district is brought up to a high standard, the running repair work
per locomotive will be reduced and the efficiency of the power and with it
the traffic capacity of the district increased.

NOTES ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE TRAFFIC
CAPACITY OF SINGLE AND MULTIPLE TRACK

RAILWAYS
Introduction

The traffic capacity of any railroad depends upon three factors, or-
ganization, equipment and track facihties. In setting about to improve
the traffic capacity of any road it will generally be necessary to set apart
sections of the line to be studied and ascertain whether it is a question
of organization or facilities which requires investigation. The two are
very closely interlinked, for it is part of the organization to see that the
most which can be obtained from the facilities is obtained. The organiza-
tion, however, can only be looked to to devise methods of operation which
will secure the best results with the facilities at hand and beyond this
point new facilities will be required. The difficult part about this problem
is to determine when such a point has been reached and then how to go
about to secure those facilities which will give the greatest improvement
for the least investment.

The problem is also peculiar for the reason that the results which
might be expected from theoretical considerations of the factors involved
are greatlj' in excess of the results which have been obtained in actual
operation. On this account it has been difficult to obtain the best facilities
when needed, largely because of the fact that the true conditions could
not be set forth. The purpose of this discussion is to obtain a conception
of the physical elements which determine the traffic capacity of a line and
to show how operating results may be analyzed so as to form the basis
for comparing the costs of providing new facilities with the financial
benefits to be gained therefrom. Such analyses will be of value in
demonstrating the feasibility of proposed undertakings for increasing the
traffic capacity of a given line.

Traffic Capacity

In the first place "traffic capacity" is a term which conveys the idea
of tonnage capacity, that is, the maximum tonnage which can be moved
regularly over a given arrangement of tracks in a given time. In these
notes the discussion is confined to that portion of a road between terminals
and no account is taken of the limitations imposed by insufficient yard
capacity'. On this basis the traffic capacitj' will depend upon the train
weight and the number of trains which can be operated over the line in
the given time. The train weight will depend upon the size of locomotives
employed. The number of trains will depend upon how fast the locomo-
tives will haul them and upon the track arrangement. It will be shown
that the track capacity of any section of road between terminals depends
wholly upon the number and arrangement of sidings or passing tracks in
the case of single track lines and upon the minimum allowable headway
between trains in the case of multiple track roads. Also, track capacity
can be measured in terms of train hours.

744

Economics of Railway Operation. 745

Track Capacity of a Single Track Line

For the purpose of illustration, assume a single track section 100
miles long with sidings or passing tracks 10 miles apart. This line will
be made up of ten single track sections between sidings (see Fig. 1).
When these sections are all occupied at the same time it can be assumed
for the moment that the road is being operated at full capacity. On this
basis there will be ten trains on the line at the same time and if this con-
dition lasts for twenty- four hours then the daily capacity of the line can
be expressed by the product of the number of trains constantly on the
line and the number of hours, that is, in this case 10X24 = 240 train
hours.

One way to have every single track section occupied at the same time
is to dispatch trains so that each train meets another going in the opposite
direction at every siding. This means that trains have to be started
simultaneously from opposite terminals at intervals equal to twice the
distance between sidings, in this case 20 miles apart. That is, if each
train makes 10 m.p.h., they will have to be started from the terminals at
intervals of every two hours. At 10 m.p.h. each train will be on the
road 10 hours and since the trains are two hours apart it will be possible
to dispatch 12 trains from each terminal in 24 hours, that is, 24 trains;
each train taking 10 hours makes 240 train hours.

If the trains make 12J4 m.p.h. and are spaced 20 miles apart they
would be started from the terminals at intervals of 1.6 hours (see Fig. 2).
That is, each train will be on the road 8 hours and 15 trains can be
dispatched from each terminal in 24 hours, or a total of 30 trains each
taking 8 hours makes 240 train hours, as previously found.

Track Capacity of a Double Track Line

If the illustration is carried a step or two farther the track capacity
of a double track line can be shown. Suppose there are two lines each
100 miles long, one line having ten single track sections between terminals
and the other fifty single track sections between terminals. The capacity
of the latter line will be, according to the above rules, five times the ca-
pacity of the former. In the case of the line with 10 sections there will
be the equivalent of 10 sidings against 50 sidings for the 50-section line.
If the sidings are all a mile long in both cases, then the amount of side
track in the two cases is proportional to the relative capacities. When a
point has been reached where the section between sidings is the same
length as the sidings then the next step is double track. Assume this is
the condition for the 50-section line assumed above, and to make it
double track will require 50 miles of additional side track. By the same
reasoning the capacity of the double track would be twice the capacity of
the 50-section line and 10 times the capacity of the 10-section line. That
is, the relative capacities of the two lines is proportional to the relative
amounts of passing tracks. Or the capacity of a line, which has a track
mileage in sidings equivalent to one-fourth of the main line, could be

(A)

746 Economics of Rai'lway Operation.

increased four times if the line were double-tracked. Likewise, the ca-
pacity of a line which has one-fifth of the main line mileage in sidings
could be increased five times if it were double-tracked, etc.

This is not strictly true unless a limit is placed on the headway be-
tween trains on double track lines. In the case of a single track line the
minimum headway between trains in the same direction is twice the
distance between sidings, which in the limiting case is two train lengths.
On a double track line, trains in the same direction may be operated
theoretically on any headway, but in order for the above rule to be true,
trains in the same direction must be operated one train length apart. If
a value of one mile is assumed for this distance then the daily capacity
of a multiple track line expressed in train hours is equal to 12 times the
number of tracks times the miles between terminals.

Actual Versus Theoreticeil Track Capacity

The above illustrations give a conception of track capacity which is
perhaps new and show how the theoretical track capacity of a perfectly
laid out line can be determined. It is important to emphasize the point
that the theoretical track capacity of a line is fixed by the arrangement
of tracks and can be given a value in train hours. The actual track
capacity may not be as definitely fixed, but it is manifestly less than the
theoretical and possibly can be assigned some value expressed in train
hours which will represent the actual use that can be economically ob-
tained from the tracks.

Because of the many elements which enter into actual railway opera-
tions the only safe way of determining the actual track capacity is by a
study of actual operations. It is unsafe to arrive at a figure for actual
track capacity working it out from theoretical cases, but for the purpose
of illustration a few theoretical examples have been selected to show how
the introduction of simple operating conditions will modify the results.

In the first place, on a single track road where the sidings are de-
signed for passing only a single train at a time, meets cannot be arranged
so that neither train is delayed. One or the other or both trains will be
delayed at each meeting point. Fig. 3 shows the condition where only
one train is delaj'ed at each meeting point and Fig. 4 where both trains
are delayed at each meeting point. The trains are assumed to average
12J/2 m.p.h. while running or the same as shown in Fig. 2, but the eflFect of
delays in both cases is to reduce the number of trains which might have
been run from 30 to 24 per day and the total train hours on the road
from 240 to 235.2, the difference in train hours being accounted for by the
lost time at terminals (0.2 Hour per train).

If the sidings are designed for passing two or more trains at a time
it will be possible to operate trains in fleets, that is, two or more trains
in a section at the same time, as shown in Fig. 5. In this case, the delays
to trains at meeting points will be at least equivalent to the headway be-
tween trains in a fleet, that is, part of the advantage obtained by operating

Economics of Railwa\' Operation. 747

in this manner is lost by reason of the fact that the delays are more than
they would be if single train operation were employed. As shown in Fig. 5
the number of trains has been increased from a theoretical of 30 to a
theoretical of 40 and the train hours from 240 to 464. However, the
sidings are twice as long as they would have to be if they were arranged
to pass only single trains, and if the same amount of side track were
rearranged and single sidings installed at midway points then it would be
possible to operate theoretically 60 trains, but these trains would be
delayed twice as often, so that with the same delay at each point as shown
in Fig. 4 the time on the road would be increased to 11.8 hours against
11.6 hours for fleet operation and the actual number of trains which
:ould be operated reduced from 60 to 40. On this basis the theoretical
track capacity can be shown to be unchanged by fleet operation, although
advantages may be claimed for it in practice. It is not important at this
time to touch upon these points, but reference should be made to the
following table which shows the effect of frequent stops upon the average
running speed of freight trains. Where there are a large number of
trains operated as single trains the meets become very frequent and the
reduction in average running speed becomes serious. In such cases fleet
operation secures practical advantages, although in case of bad meets
delays are less where intermediate sidings are installed.

Table 1 — Showing Reduction in Average Speed of Freight Trains
Caused by Frequent Starts and Stops

Max. Miles Between Stops

Speed ''

M.P.H. 1 2 3 4 5 10 20

10 8.5 9.2 9.4 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

15 10.7 12.5 13.2 13.6 13.9 14.4 14.7

20 11.6 14.7 16.1 16.9 17.5 18.7 19.3

25 11.8 16.0 18.2 19.5 20.4 22.5 23.7

30 11.8 16.6 19.5 21.3 22.7 25.8 27.7

35, 11.8 16.7 20.2 22.5 24.3 28.7 31.5

40 11.8 16.7 20.4 23.2 25.4 31.1 35.0

It has been assumed for the purpose of the previous discussion that
the sidings are all equally spaced and the speed of trains is constant. If
the sidings are not equally spaced but the speed of trains can be taken as
constant then the number of trains which can be operated over the line
will be governed by the time it will take for a train to make the run
over the longest section in both directions. That is, if the middle siding
in Fig. 1 were omitted, the middle section would be 20 miles instead of
10 miles long, and it would take two hours for a train to run over this
section in one direction and two hours for an opposing train to run back,
so that the minimum interval between trains in the same direction would
be four hours instead of two. In other words, the capacity of the whole
line would be reduced to half.

748 Economics of Railway Operation.

In actual practice steps would be taken to correct such a condition
if it were found that greater track capacity was needed. If the siding
could not be installed in its proper place on account of rough country or
on account of long tunnels, then by lengthening the sidings adjacent to
the long section so that fleet operation can be used over this particular
section a very considerable improvement in operation over the entire line
could be obtained.

If the speed of trains cannot be taken as constant then the sidings
should be spaced so that they are equidistant as regards time rather than
distance. These are some of the elements that should be investigated in
setting about to improve the traffic capacity of a particular section. This
phase of the subject has been so well treated in the Proceedings of the
American Railway Engineering Association that it is not necessary to
dwell longer upon these points here.

Effect of Operating Two Classes of Trains

There is another important element which enters into nearly every
railroad operation — namely, the condition of operating more than one
class of trains over the same tracks, that is, the condition where superior
trains overtake as well as meet inferior trains. The problem is difficult
to handle in the way that the previous examples have been discussed, but
an attempt has been made to construct a number of typical train diagrams
to show how the performance of the inferior trains is affected by the
number, speed and passing points of superior trains on a single track line.

Table 2 — Data Dekivkd from Figs. 1-11

Figure Numbers 1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

No. of Trains

Freight 24 30

Passenger

TOTAL 24 30

Speed of Trains

Freight 10 XZVz

Passenger

Time Running

Freight .240 240

Passenger

TOTAL, 240 240

Road Delays

Freight

Passenger

TOTAL

Terminal Delays

Freight -

Passenger ...

TOTAL

Total Train Hours

Freight 240 240

Passenger

TOTAL 240 240

24
24

40
40

121/2

10
15

10
20

10
25

10
15

10
20

10
25

192
192

192
i92

320
320

220

131/3
2331/3

220

230

200

208

200

131^
213 Va

200

210

200

208

43.2

144

43.2

144

4.8

lis

••

240
240

464
464

248

131/3
261%

244

2.'5t

220

228

224

13%
237%

224

234

220

8
228

Economics of Railway Operation. 749

A study of these diagrams emphasizes one or more reasons why the
railroads must have many more facilities than they can ordinarily make
use of. These diagrams by no means tell the complete story, for in
actual operation the speed of trains is irregular, stops have to be made
for coal and water and time is required to issue and transmit train orders,
etc. On a double or multiple track system these conditions are more or
less minimized, but it is felt that the problem is the same whether the
road is single or multiple track and some other method must be devised
to get closer to the facts.

On this account it is proposed to take actual train-dispatcher sheets
for a considerable period and construct from the data shown thereon
train-hour diagrams which will show the characteristics of actual opera-
tion over this period. If the same data for another period is taken when
the conditions are diflferent the effect of the changes in conditions will be
reflected in the shapes of the train-hour diagrams.

Train-Hour Diagrams

The construction of these train-hour diagrams is best described by
referring to the model Fig. 12. Suppose the train hours, that is, the total
time from the time crews were called to the time they were relieved,
were taken from ten or a dozen actual train sheets and tabulated. If
each train is represented by a cardboard strip and the cardboard strips
are cut in lengths to represent the elapsed time and stacked in a box
according to length, the stack would resemble Fig. 12. The horizontal
edge of the box could be scaled to read in hours and the height in number
of trains, or the data could be plotted as shown in Fig. 13. Such diagrams
can be made to show graphically many features about actual train opera-
tions which are not evident from a study of the data itself. In the first
place the area of the diagram represents train hours and in the particular
case represented in Fig. 13, 35 per cent, of trains (39 trains) had crews
assigned for more than 10 hours and 70 per cent. (79 trains) had crews
assigned more than 8 hours. Only a few trains were on the train sheet
less than 6 hours and likewise only a few trains were on the train sheet
more than 14 hours.

The train-hour diagrams representing the theoretical performance
shown in Figs. 1 and 2 will be rectangles for the reason that it is assumed
that all trains cover the distance in the same time. . In an actual case if
every train were operated as well as the best then the train-hour diagram
would be rectangular also, but on account of delays which happen to
some trains and not to others the operation is not perfect but largely a
matter of chance. In fact, the dotted line shown in Fig. 13 is the
"probability curve" calculated to pass through the points a and b. It is
not intended to deal with the advanced mathematics of the problem now,
but this feature may be used to some extent later in forecasting what
results can be looked for.

It has been possible to develop the theory thus far from general
data furnished the Eight-Hour Commission and limited applications have
been made of it with more or less encouraging results. There has been

750 Economics of Railway Operation.

no data available, however, where the method could be used to determine
the actual track capacity of a given line. If data could be obtained from
a section of line that has been operating single track and recently changed
over to double track, such operating data would be a criterion for
establishing the single track capacity of the line as well as serving as a
basis for analyzing the benefits to be obtained by double tracking. Like-
wise if data can be obtained for comparing the results obtained with
heavy locomotives against light locomotives it could be analyzed by means
of these diagrams and a theory built up which would have many applica-
tions to operating problems.

For instance, assume that a road had been operating for a considera-
ble period around a certain point, which indicated that it was up to or
nearly up to capacity. A train-hour diagram of this period would show
certain characteristics of operation, let it be represented by Fig. 13. The
train hours obtained would be the measure of the track capacity. If it
were required to increase the traffic capacity of the line, that is, haul more
tonnage over it in a given time, there would be five ways to proceed :

(a) Increase the tonnage per train by the purchase of larger locomo-

tives, allowing the speed to remain the same.

(b) Increase the speed of the trains by the purchase of larger locomo-

tives, allowing the tonnage per train to remain the same.

(d) Some combination of the above.

(e) Add more track.

It would be expected that each one of these methods if adopted
would show train-hour diagrams of different shapes, that is, if it were
decided to purchase larger locomotives and haul heavier trains the same
tonnage would be hauled over the road in fewer trains and the height
of the diagram would be correspondingly less, but the base would be
essentially the same. The reduction in the total number of train hours
thus obtained would be a measure of the increased tonnage which could
be hauled over the line by the use of heavier locomotives. In other words,
for the train hours saved other trains could be operated, but eventually
it would be found that the same number of trains would give the same
congestion and, if necessary to haul a still greater number of trains,
train movements would have to be speeded up. By this means the base
of the diagram can be shortened and the height correspondingly increased.

Likewise by the introduction of signals or other devices which may
be available delays may be minimized and the train hours thus saved
represent a margin which can be employed for the operation of additional
trains.

By a combination of some or all of the above methods the improve-
ment in traffic capacity ought to be equivalent to the sum of the indi-
vidual gains, but in all cases we would expect that the same total train
hours would represent about the actual limit of trains which can be hauled
over the line without adding more track.

__^_ Economics of Railway Operation. 751

If more track is added or the line double-tracked, trains will move
freer and at the same time the train hours which can be operated will be
increased, making it possible to move many more trains on the line before
a limit to its capacity is reached.

At some time or other most roads will have to consider some one or
all of these methods for increasing the traffic capacity of their lines.
Funds may not be spent for large power if it can be shown that greater
benefit can be obtained in some other way, but before a quantitative
analysis of these different schemes can be undertaken it will be necessary
to have actual examples to serve as guides.

Crew Expense Diagrams

A simple application which has been made of this method of as-
sembling operating data is in connection with a study of The Effect of
Punitive Overtime for Engine and Train Employees Upon Crew Expense.
This leads up to a discussion of Crew Expense Diagrams, which are
described below :

Prior to Januarj^ 1, 1917, "100 miles or less 10 hours or less consti-
tuted a day's pay" for freight train employees. In March, 1917, and
dating back to January 1, 1917, the wage agreements were changed to
read 100 miles or less, 8 hours or less constituted a day's pay, with pro-
rata overtime. In 1920 and dating back to December 1, 1919, the trainmen
and enginemen were awarded in addition to a basic eight-hour day "time
and a half for overtime."

If it is assumed that Fig. 15 represents the train-hour diagram for a
100-mile section it can also represent the hours the crews are on duty.
On the old 10-hour basis, the pay for a 100-mile run represented 10 hours'
pay. That is, the crews were paid for 10 hours' work regardless of the
actual time it took to make the run unless the time exceeded 10 hours. If
the time exceeded 10 hours the pay for the run was by the hour at one-
tenth the daily rate.

In Fig. 16 the area FCG represents the hours overtime, which would
be paid for at one-tenth the daily rate, that is, hour for hour. The
"hours on duty" is therefore represented by the area ABCE and the
"hours paid for" on the old 10-hour basis is represented by the area
AHFCE.

On the eight-hour basis of pay the area ICK would represent the
hours overtime, which would be paid for at one-eighth the daily rate,
which is 25 per cent higher than the rate paid for overtime on the old
10-hour basis, hence if this area is increased 25 per cent it will represent
the equivalent hours' overtime paid for on the old 10-hour basis.

The area LMG, representing the overtime hours paid for, is 25 per
cent larger than the area ICK and the total hours paid for on the eight-
hour basis straight time for overtime is represented by the area AHLME.

On the eight-hour basis with time and a half for overtime it will be
necessary to increase the area LMG 50 per cent to represent the hours paid
for in overtime. This is shown as area LNG. The total hours paid

762 Economics of Railway Operation.

for on the present basis of time and a half for overtime is represented by
the area AHLNE.

These illustrations serve to show to the eye certain relationships
which are more or less difficult to explain in words and figures. It is
quite possible by an extension of the method to show graphically other
relationships which have to do with the economic operation of railways
so tha'- the eye will grasp them.

Economics of Railway Operation

753

TLjpical Train Charts
Showing Simple Cases of Perfect Operation
Trains of One Class

100

Averaqe Speedof Trains 10 Miles Per Hour DelaijS at Meeting Points Neqiected

\7/

\2/

Nr/

>sl5/

\19/

L/NJ

\( 5C JC >C

X\iy\i6/\i8XV

oXiXX

100

E2466 10 12 2469I0

Hours

Im<;. 1.
Averaqe Speed of Trains 12^ Miles Per Hour Delays at Meeting Points Neqiected

\] /N

'XV/

^\^/

\ll/N

y\!/

\2l/N

■^^y^

Xvj

P\V

\8/S

10/\1

?/\14,

^\y

\y^

?0/\2

/X^

\7^

10 12 2

Hours

Fig. 2.

10 12

Average Speed of Trains 12^ Miles Per Hour Time Included for Delaqs toOne Tram at Meeting Points

(

lOU

\ /

X /

Vi/

X^/

V9 /

/ \,

/ \

/ X

/ \

\ /

>v y

\ >

>w J

/ \

/ \^

/ \

/ X

/ \^

X X

\ y

X J

\ ^

X /

\ /

\ X

\ /

\ ^

\ y

/ \

X /

\ /

\ y

\ J

X J

/K,

12
Hours

Fig. 3.

10 12

754

Economics of Railway Ope ration.

Typical Train Charts

Showing Simple Cases of Perfect Operation

Trains of One Class

Average Speed of Trains l?^ Miles Per Hour Time included for Delays to BothTrains at Meelinq Points

I 60

\ 3/

\p/

\s/

\l3/

\l5/

SJ7/

\2l/

\23/

x\'

Z. AJ

3/\l

J/\^^/\^

X^°X^P\^X

10 12

Hours

Fic. 4.

10 12

Fleet Operation
Two Trains Per Fleet Average Speed of Trains 12| Miles Per Hour

Hours
Fig. 5.

ulOU
1 80
1 60

[ 40
( 20

/NX3^

'(%

•6^

\i'/^

<^^

■*»<

s'^T^

^°/

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^^?

7 I

;

3 1

0 1

3 f

J 1

0 12

Economic? of Railwa\- Operation.

755

Typical Train Charts
Showing Simple Cases of Perfect Operation
Trains of Two Classes

Onig One Passenger Train on Road at aTime. Delagsto Freight Trains for Meets
with Passenger Trains Shown Other Delaqs Neqiected. Based on Single Sidings.

100

Average Speed PassenqerTrains 1 jTimes Speed of Freight Trains
Average Speed Freight Trains Neglecting Delays 10 Miles Per Hour

V /

\3 /

^ \

\ji y

\J3/

\15/

\Z]/

'^Z.

\ \

8/\?a/\22/\

100

"40

468 10 12 2 468

Hours
Fig. 0.

Average Speed Passenger Trains 2Times Speed of Freight Trains
Average Speed Freight Trains Neglecting Delaqs 10 Miles Per Hour

\9X

\13X

\n/

\9X

X-

V/'

.\S

oX\

^nI

4 6 8 10 12, 2 4 6 8

Hours

Fig. 7.

Average Speed Passenger Trains 2? Times Speed of Freight Trains
AveraqeSpeed Freight Trains Neglecting Delays 10 Miles Per Hour

\5/

\17/

X /

x /

2X\

2/ '

D 12

Hours
Fig. 8.

756

Economics of Railway Operation.

100

■20

100

Typical Train Charts

Showinq Simple Cases of Perfect Operation

Tra i ns of Two CI a sses

Two Passenger Trains on Road at a Time. Delays to Freight Trains for Meets
with Passenger Trains Shown. Other Delays Neglected. Based on Single Sidings.

Average Speed Passenger Trains l^Tlmes Speed of Freight Trains
Average Speed Freight Trains Neglecting Delaqs 10 Miles Per Hour

\5 /

\ii/'

\13

\15/

\17 /

\19/

. s

, \

\
/

Nv/

\^/

Y/'

^v/\

\^y ^^/\y\t

468 JO 12 2468

.Hours

Fig. 9.

Average Speed Passenger Trains 2Times Speed of Freight Trains
Average Speed Freight Trains Neqlectinq Delays 10 Miles Per Hour

\3/

^/,

N^A

x^x

\ ^

6/*X

\ \

y /y\y\

\ X

jX '

iXX

100

12
Hours

Fig. 10.

Average Speed Passenger Trains 2|Times Speed of Freight Trains
Average Speed Freight Trains Neglecting Delays lOMiles Per Hour

X A

■^

\JA

. /

y\i

y 1

10 12

Hours
Fig. 11.

Economics of Railway Operation

757

Fig. 12 — Model of Crew Hour or Train Hour Diagram.

758

Economics of Railway Op e ration

120

100

o 60
«»)

E
5 40

Tgpical Train Hour Diaqram

\ [Two Weeks Test Period 1

8 10

Hours
Fig. 13.

Hours
Fig. 14.

Economics of Rai Iway Operation

759

sufOjJ > o jHfwnf^

Fig. 15. Fig. 16.

Typical Train Hour and Crew Expense Diagram.

Appendix C
EFFECT OF SPEED OF TRAINS ON COST OF OPERATION

Wm. G. Raymond, J. B. Babcock, 3rd,

A. G. BOUGHNER, MOTT SawYER,

J. M. Burt, J. E. Teal,

C. C. Williams, Sub-Committee.

This Sub-Committee was divided into three groups, as follows: (1)
Williams and Burt — effect of speed on maintenance of track; (2) Teal-
and Sawyer — effect of speed on transportation cost; (3) Boughner and
Babcock — effect of speed on maintenance of equipment cost.

EFFECT OF SPEED ON TRACK MAINTENANCE

Williams and Burt.

The object of this Sub-Committee is to obtain a quantitative estimate
of the effect of speed on track maintenance.

Two distinct points of view must be recognized in any discussion of
the effect of speed on track maintenance. First, the necessity of higher
standards of maintenance under higher speeds, especially where the higher
speeds represent passenger traffic, and second, the greater expenditure
resulting from actual damage done by trains due to the increased speed.
The former involves the question of how much better maintenance will
be required for increased speeds of operation and how much the additional
cost of the higher standard will amount to ; the second inquiry is, what
will be the additional cost to maintain a given standard of track condition
under an increased speed.

Standard of Maintenance for High Speed Operation

On railroads having the ordinary proportions of freight and passenger
traffic, it is probable that increasing the speed of operation of freight
trains would not affect the standard of maintenance, for the successful
operation of the passenger trains determines the class of maintenance
required. Moreover, a study of maintenance costs indicates that the chief
factor is the density of traffic rather than speed of operation in determin-
ing the cost of maintenance per mile.

However, the fact that superior maintenance is required for success-
ful operation of passenger trains is evident from a comparison of main-
tenance costs on railroads that are primarily freight roads with those
that are primarily passenger roads. Such a comparison between two
groups of railroads in the Eastern District is given below, in Table I.
The data were taken from I. C. C. reports and represent the average in
each case for the three years, 1915-16-17. In the columns headed "ad-
justed," the data are reduced to the conditions of a density' of traffic of
100,000 car miles per mile of line, assuming the proportions of the ac-
counts which vary with the density of traffic to be as follows : Superin-
tendence, 75 per cent. ; ties, 25 per cent. ; rails, 100 per cent. ; O. T. M., 75
per cent. ; ballast, 50 per cent. ; track laying and surfacing, 75 per cent.
These proportions seem to be roughly correct from a study of these ?ic-
counts on various railroads.

760

Economic s of Railway Operation

761

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762 Economics of Railway Operation.

No classification of standards of maintenance has been adopted by the
Association or other authoritative body and consequently no specific state-
ment can be made as to the standard of maintenance required for any
given operating conditions.

Attention should be called to the fact that the freight roads listed in
Table 4 handle almost exclusively low grade freight and are not com-
parable with respect to their freight handling requirements with other
roads which handle a mixed traffic where fast freight and livestock con-
stitute a considerable part of the traffic.

Damage Done to Track Due to Increased Speed

Manifestl}', the effect of speed in increasing the damage done to
track will be dependent upon the character of equipment and rolling
stock and upon the character and condition of the track. Passenger loco-
motives counterbalanced and maintained for high speeds cannot properly
be compared with freight locomotives counterbalanced and maintained
for lower speeds, nor can passenger coaches with a higher standard of
maintenance of wheels, more perfectly centered wheels, better springs, etc.,
be properly compared with freight cars having their usual rough and
eccentric wheels, flat spots, and unavoidably inferior spring adjustment.
Moreover, the greater traction forces set up in the track under freight
trains, amounting perhaps to three or four times those under passenger
trains, render a direct comparison impossible. It is, therefore, necessary
to consider the effect of increased speed in freight trains and in passenger
trains separately.

Two modes of procedure in the investigation arc possible: (1) by
noting the results of experience in maintenance costs at high speed points
and at low speed points, as at the bottom and at the top of grades, on
high and low speed tracks, regions of restricted speed, etc., ascertaining
the relative tie and rail renewals, low joints, amount of track labor re-
quired, etc., and (2) by analyzing track maintenance into its component
parts and determining the effect of speed by tests or by inference on each
of these elements and thereby on the total of track maintenance.

With regard to the direct observation of the effect of speed on main-
tenance costs, there is very little definite and reliable evidence in existing
records, although the impressions of discerning trackmen should not be
disregarded, even though they are vague. The opinion appears to obtain
quite generally that speed in itself increases track maintenance costs, but
no one has attempted to formulate a quantitative statement of this effect.

The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad pays careful attention to
the speed of operation and limits the maximum speed of various classes
of traffic, attempting to secure good speed operation by uniformity of
speed rather than permitting high speeds at times and low speeds at other
times. While the "Company has no definite data or observations that
indicate quantitatively what the effect of speed is," their observations do
indicate "that a freight engine counterbalanced for 30 miles per hour
does a great deal of damage if permitted to run at 40 to 50 miles per

Economics of Railway Oper a t i o n .

763

hour, and certain tj-pes of engines cause greater damage than other types."
Observations on the New York Central where there was a partial
segregation of traffic led to the belief that the cost of track maintenance
varies with the speed and "at a given speed freight traffic is harder on
track than passenger traffic."

Observations of Joint Deformation and Tie Cutting at High and at
Low^ Speed Points

Observations were made on the conditions of joints and of ties at
high and at low speed points near Lawrence, Kansas, on the Santa Fe
and on the Union Pacific tracks with a view to determining the amount
of permanent deformation of the joints and the cutting of the ties imder
the rails.

On the Santa Fe, the traffic is almost entirely passenger trains, con-
sisting of eight passenger and two freight trains each way per day. Track
and roadbed conditions are essentially the same at all three points of
observation, viz., tangent single track, low embankment, rock ballast about
18 inches deep, 7 by 9 inch ties with 7>4 by 9 inch Wolhaupter tie plates,
on all ties, Weber joints, 90-lb. rail laid in 1916. The grade was essentially
the same at all three points.

Location A was about 300 yards east of the station at Lawrence and
sustains speeds of about 15 to 20 m.p.h. under passenger trains.

Location B was about one-half mile east of the station, where the
prevailing passenger train speed is about 25 to 30 m.p.h.

Location C was about V/i miles east of the station, where the pas-
senger train speed is about 40 to 50 m.p.h.

The data of Table 2 show permanent deformation of the rail at the
joint and at 6 and at 12 inches on either side, referred to the general rail
level.

Table 2

Speed
mph

Average Deformation in

Inches at

Location

12 Inches

6 Inches

Joint

6 Inches

12 Inches

15-20
25-.30
40-50
10-20
40-50

0.011
0.011
0.001
0.016
0.019

0.023
0.023
0 005
0.024
0.014

0.063
0.066
0.053
0 0.59
0.041

0 014
0 031
0 010
0.016
0.011

0.007

0 010

0.010

0.013
0.008

Similar observations were made on the Union Pacific track, which
is subjected to heavy traffic, carrying the trains of both the Union Pacific
and the Rock Island railroads. The line is tangent double track' and the
conditions of roadway and track are essentially the same at the two points
of observation, viz., stone ballast about 12 inches deep, 7 by 9 ties
with 5 by 7 Wolhaupter tie plates on each tie, 90-lb. A.R.A. rail laid
in 1913, and continuous joints. In both locations the track is on a low
embankment. The traffic consists of 13 passenger trains and 17 freight
trains each way per day.

764

Economics o f R ailway Operation,

Location D was about 400 yards west of the station, where the speeds
are about 20 to 25 m.p.h. for passenger trains and about 10 m.p.h. for
freights.

Location E was about 2J4 miles west of the station, where the prevail-
ing speeds are about 40 to 50 m.p.h. for passenger and perhaps 20 m.p.h.
for freights.

The permanent deformation of the rail at the joint referred to the
general rail level is shown in Table 2.

At locations A, B and C on the Santa Fe the ties were date marked
to a considerable extent and the following observations were made as to
the average depth of cutting of the tie under the tie plates. The ties
were yellow pine 7 by 9 inches in section with lYz by 9 inch Wolhaupter
tie plates.

Table 3

Location

Speed
mph

Years of Service
of Ties

Average Cutting
Inches

15-20
40-50

11
11

12
12

0.24

0.19

0.23

These rather meager observations seem to indicate that on tangent
track the effect of higher speeds in deforming rail ends or in cutting ties
is not pronounced. If anything, the greater damage seemed to be done
under the lower speeds, resulting probably from the greater traction
effects in the track due to accelerating on leaving the station and braking
on approaching the station. The above results would also seem to indicate
that traction is a more potent factor in tie and rail deterioration on well-
maintained track than is speed. Calipering the rail heads under high and
low speed conditions did not indicate any greater wear at one point than
at the other. These observations being at variance with the impressions
generally held by trackmen, further investigation should be made before
any conclusions can be drawn.

However, on the Santa Fe, with Weber joints there seemed to be a
somewhat greater tendency to mashed or flattened rail heads at the joints
under high speeds than under low. No difference in this respect could be
observed on the Union Pacific tracks. On the latter, however, where the
traffic is in one direction only on each track, a characteristic bending down
of the receiving rail at the joint was noticed, and this condition seemed
to be more pronounced under the high speeds than under the low, although
a quantitative estimate of the difference could not be obtained.

Analysis of the Effect of Speed on Maintenance

In order to estimate the effect of speed of trains on maintenance of
track, it is necessary to separate the items of maintenance expenses into
their elements and then deduce how and to what extent each element is

Economics of Railway Operation. 765

aflfected. The following analysis is intended more as a mode of attack
than as a final conclusion, and it will be more reliable when more definite
data become available. Moreover, the discussion is based on general
averages, whereas to be of most value, the specific data for the railroad
in question should be used.

Obviously the only accounts of track maintenance which may be
affected by increased speed are : Superintendence, Ties, Rails, Other Track
Material, Ballast, Track Laying and Surfacing, and Bridges, Trestles and
Culverts. These items will have to be investigated for the following con-
ditions :

(A) Passenger Traffic

a. On tangent track.

b. On curved track.

(B) Freight Traffic

a. On tangent track.

b. On curved track.

The elements of track maintenance mentioned above may be analyzed
as follows with reference to their being affected by speed :

(A) Tie Renewals

a. Proportion due to mechanical wear.

b. Proportion due to spike killing.

c. Proportion due to decaJ^

(B) Rail Renewals

a. Proportion due to failures — head, web, base and broken.

b. Proportion due to normal wear.

c. Proportion due to rusting, etc.

a. Proportion due to breakage.

b. Proportion due to normal wear.

c. Proportion due to rusting.

(D) Ballast Renewal

a. Proportion due to pounding into roadbed, abrasion, etc.

b. Proportion due to opening of gravel pits, overhead cost

of machinery at pits, ballast on temporary tracks, etc.

(E) Track Laying and Surfacing

a. Proportion due to applying ties.

b. Proportion due to applying rails.

c. Proportion due to applying O.T.M.

d. Proportion due to applying ballast.

e. Proportion chargeable to train service.

f . Proportion chargeable to change of tracks.

(F) Superintendence

a. Found to vary approximately as Track Laying and
Surfacing.

(G) Bridges, Trestles and Culverts

a. Proportion due to renewal and repair of floor and other

parts that may be affected by speed conditions.

b. Proportion due to painting, repairs to substructure, etc.,

which is independent of traffic conditions.

Only the proportions of the above accounts chargeable to main line
would be affected by speed of trains as sidings and yard tracks would not
be involved in any way.

766 Economics of Railway Operation.

Indices of the Effect of Speed on Maintenance

Certain observations have been made by various persons on the be-
havior of track under traffic as influenced by the speed of the passing
trains which may be used as indices or measures of the effect of speed
on the damage done to track, and consequently upon maintenance costs.

(a) Stresses in Rail. — The Special Committee on Stresses in Track
(Proc, A.R.E.A., Vol. 19), after an extended .investigation found that
on the average, stresses in rail increase at the rate of three- fourths of one
per cent, for each m.p.h. increase in speed above 5 m.p.h.

Tests made by Dean Turneaure of the University of Wisconsin
(Trans., Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 41) and by the Committee on Iron and Steel
Structures (Proc, A.R.E.A., Vol. 12, Part 3) indicate that the dynamic
stresses in bridges increase about two-thirds per cent, per m.p.h. and are
about the same for passenger and freight equipment up to about 20 m.p.h.,
but for .speeds of 50 m.p.h. the dynamic effect of freight equipment is about
20 to 30 per cent, greater than for passenger equipment. The Committee
on Stresses in Track drew no conclusion as to the relative effects of speed
in freight and passenger trains, but called attention to the increased stress
resulting from a poorly adjusted locomotive equalizer. A study of the
data submitted by the Committee indicates that the rate of increase in
stress with speed under Mikado locomotives was about a fourth greater
than under Pacific and Atlantic types.

(b) Pressures on Tie Plates. — A series of tests made by the Penn-
sylvania Railroad (Proc, A.R.E.A., Vol. 19, Special Monograph, p. 174 ff.)
indicate that pressures on tie plates increase with speed about as follows :

1. On tangent track, maximum pressures increased 0.1 to 0.3 per cent,
per m.p.h. increase in speed; average pressures increased about 0.1 per
cent, per m.p.h. increase in speed.

2. On 2-deg. curve elevated 4 in. with measuring apparatus on the
outer rail, maximum pressures and average pressures increased about as
on tangent track.

3. On 6-deg. curve elevated 6 in. with the apparatus on the inner
rail, the pressures decreased about 0.75 per cent, per each m.p.h. increase
in speed, and principles of statics would indicate a corresponding increase
of pressure under the outer rail.

These tests showed that equipment with rought or eccentric wheels
may increase the pressure on tie plates at a rate of 20 per cent, or more
above that induced by rolling stock with smooth wheels.

Note. — An engine pulling under steam was found to give somewhat
higher pressures than when coasting at the same speed, although these
results were questioned by the experimenters as the excess pressures were
not greater than the range of experimental variation, only one such test
having been made.

The pressures on tie plates on frozen roadbed averaged about 15 to
20 per cent, higher than on roadbed free from frost, although the per-
centages of variation with speed were unchanged.

Economics of Railway Operation. 767

(c) Lateral Thrust on Rails. — Tests made by G. W. Fowler (Rail-
way Age Gazette, June 11, 1915) show that the lateral thrust on tangent
track increases about 20 per cent, for an increase in speed from 30 to 60
m.p.h. or about two-thirds per cent, per m.p.h.

Other tests by Mr. Fowler (Railway Age Gazette, August 20, 1915)
indicate that lateral thrust on rail on an 8 deg. 7 min. curve at 50 m.p.h.
was about 2j^ times that at 20 m.p.h. This result corresponds to the
results of a theoretical analysis of the thrust, assuming that the thrust
varies with the speed and the degree of curve.

(d) Deflection of Track. — Tests made by the Civil Engineering De-
partment of the University of Kansas (Railway Age Gazette, July 16,
1915) and by the Department of Mechanics at the University of Nebraska
(unpublished) indicate no greater deflection of track under high speed
than under low speed for a given weight of wheel load.

(e) Theoretical Effect of Rate of Applying Load. — In laboratory
experiments, it is a well-established fact that deformation of materials
is less when the load is applied rapidly than when applied slowly (Text-
book of Testing Materials, A. Martens, p. 242 fif.). That the opposite
result is obtained under trains is due probably to impact effects caused
by irregularities in track, imperfections in rolling stock, and to oscillations
of rolling stock.

(f) Effect of Traction Forces. — Freight trains accelerate about 0.1
to 0.2 m.p.h. per second and decelerate at about the same rate, and pas-
senger trains at two to three times this rate. For a freight train of 2,000
tons this would bring a traction force into the track of about 25,000 lbs.,
which would be about equaled by a passenger train of 700 tons. If
speeds should be increased the rates of acceleration would probably be
correspondingly increased. However, if the increased speed should be
accompanied by a decreased train load, the traction forces in the track
would remain unchanged, in so far as they are induced by acceleration.
In general, traction forces under freight trains are much larger than
under passenger trains.

Beyond the point of attaining normal speed, traction forces would
vary essentially with the train resistance, which is about 75 per cent,
greater at 50 m.p.h. than at 20 for freight trains and about 40 per cent,
greater for passenger trains, the rate of increase being approximately
twice as great for freight trains as for passenger. (Bulletins 43 and 110,
Univ. of 111. Eng. Exp. Sta.)

(g) Curve Resistance. — Experiments by the Department of Railway
Engineering at the University of Illinois (Bulletin 92, Eng. Exp. Sta.)
indicate that curve resistance increases about 3.5 per cent, per m.p.h. on
5-deg. and 10-deg. curves, due largely, doubtless, to increased flange
pressure and grinding of flanges on the rail.

768 Economics of Railway Operation.

A. Tie Renewals. — The average of estimates given in the Proceed-
ings of A.R.E.A., Vol. 9, p. 675, indicate the following weights to the
causes of tie renewals:

Decay 86 per cent.

Rail cutting 7.5 per cent.

Spike killing 6.5 per cent.

Records kept on the Southern Pacific Lines for nine years indicate
(Proc, A.R.E.A., Vol. 3, p. 104) that for well-ballasted track about 85
per cent, of ties removed due to "rottenness." Other data indicate that
70, 15 and 15, respectively, would be better figures to use for curved
track. Assuming the former figures for tangent track and the latter for
curved track, the effect of speed might be expected to manifest itself in
the 14 or 30 per cent, of tie renewals resulting from destruction due to
traffic. The pressures on tie plates and traction forces, i. e., the product
of these two factors, may be taken as a measure of the variation in tie
cutting, and the lateral thrust as a measure of spike pulling and conse-
quently of spike killing.

Curves of 2 deg. and under may be considered as tangent track. The
increase in the cost of ties on main line then would be for 50 m.p.h.
over 20 m.p.h. for

Passenger Traffic

On tangent track, (7.5 X 0.015 + 6.5 X 0.007) X 30 = 3.4 per cent.
On curved track, 15 X 0.15 X 30 + 15 X 2.5 = 44.3 per cent.

Freight Traffic

On tangent track, 3.4 X 1.2=: 4.1 per cent.
On, curved track, 44.3 X 1.2^53.2 per cent.

(20 per cent, increase under freight assigned, because of greater tie
pressures and greater traction effects.)

B. Rail Renewals. — Data collected by the Committee on Rail (Proc,
A.R.E.A., Vol. 16) indicate that about 3 per cent, of rail renewals result
from failures and the remainder from normal wear and rusting out, the
latter being a small portion of the total, doubtless. Rail failures were
classified as follows (Vol. 16, p. 219) for O. H. rails:

Head 47 per cent.

Web - 9 per cent.

Base 9 per cent.

Broken 35 per cent.

The first three groups are the result largely of defective fabrication
and the last class to defects and to stresses set up by loads. Failures due
to defects occur almost regardless of the loads and would not be ap-
preciably affected by the speed of trains. The 35 per cent, of failures
may be assumed to vary as the stresses in the rails and the 65 per cent,
as the pressures on the tie plates. In the absence of more definite in-
formation, the normal wear on tangent is assumed to vary with the
pressure on tie plates.

On curves, assuming that the superelevation is properly adjusted, the
wear on rails may be taken to vary as the pressure on the tie plates. If

Economics of Railway Operation. 769

2 per cent, of deterioration be assumed as due to rusting, this will leave
95 per cent, of renewals due to normal wear. For an increase of speed
from 20 to 50 m.p.h. the effect on rail renewals would be, for
Passenger Traffic

On tangent track, 0.03 (35 X 0.007 + 65 X 0.002 + 95 X 0.001) X

30 = 3.14 per cent.
On curved track. 3.14 + 95 X 0.0075 X 30 = 24.5 per cent.

Freight Traffic

On tangent track, 0.03 (35 X 0.009 + 65 X 0.003 + 95 X 0.001) X

30 ^ 3.2 per cent.
On curved track, 3.2 + 95 X 0.0075 X 30 = 24.6 per cent.

C. Other Track Material. — The renewal of angle bars, bolts, frogs,
crossings, guard rails, switch rails, tie plates, spikes, etc., may be assumed
to vary similarly to rail renewal on tangent track. These constitute
about half of the thirty-six items of the account and, as these are the main
items, it is probably approximately correct to assume that they constitute
about three-fourths of the entire amount. A study of Interstate
Commerce Commission reports indicates that about three-fourths of the
account varies with the density of the traffic, which roughly checks the
assumption. The increase in lateral thrust being about five to seven
times as great on curves as on tangent with a given increase in speed, and
the pressures on tie plates two or three times as great, the deterioration
of O. T. M. due to speed is assumed at five times as great on curves as
on tangent track. The account would then be affected as follows for an
increase of 30 m.p.h. for

Passenger Traffic

On tangent track, 0.75 X 3.14 = 2.3 per cent.
On curved track, 2.3 X 5^ 11.5 per cent.

Freight Traffic

On tangent track, 0.75 X 3.2 = 2.4 per cent.
On curved track, 2.4 X 5 =: 12.0 per cent.

D. Ballast renewal results largely from the forcing of the ballast
into the roadbed, pulverization under ties during surfacing and wear by
traffic. A comparatively large portion of the ballast account consists of
overhead charges on gravel pits, haulage equipment, rock crushers, etc.,
and this portion of the account is independent of small variations in the
amount of ballast used.

Where the depth is of sufficient amount to distribute the train load,
the pressure on the sub-grade does not exceed the normal supporting ca-
pacity of the soil usually, hence, forcing the ballast into the sub-grade
results more from pumping the sub-grade up into the ballast than from
a slight variation in pressure that might result from an increase in
speed. This latter effect is due primarily to the amount and number of
depressions of the track. Inasmuch as the observations on track de-
pression mentioned above did not show any greater depression of track
under high than under low speed for a given weight of wheel load, the

770 Economics of Railway Operation.

forcing of the ballast into the sub-grade would probably not be affected
greatly by speed. In the absence of better information, it is assumed that
one-half of the ballast account is affected by a variation in speed due to
pulverization under traffic and during surfacing. This 50 per cent, will
be assumed to increase at the same rate as the pressures on the tie plates.
For an increase in speed from 20 to 50 m.p.h. the ballast account would
be increased for

Passenger Traffic

On tangent track, 0.50 X 30 X 0.2 = 3.0 per cent.
On curved track, 0.50 X 30 X 0.75 = 11.3 per cent.

Freight Traffic

On tangent track, 3.0 X 1.2 = 3.6 per cent.
On curved track, 11.3 X 1.2=13.5 per cent.

E. Track Laying and Surfacing. — In the report of the Committee
on Economics of Railway Labor (Proc, A.R.E.A., Vol. 18, p. 420) a dis-
tribution of track labor on two test sections of different railroads is
given, which, when grouped under the above maintenance accounts, gives
the following proportions approximately :

Tie renewals 18 per cent, of total

Rail renewals 16 per cent, of total

O. T. M 9 per cent, of total

Ballast 12 per cent, of total

Lining and surfacing 45 per cent, of total

100 per cent.

Assuming the first four items to vary in the same proportion as the
primary accounts, and the last to vary as all of these primary accounts
(i. e., as the product of the factors), the increase for operation at 50
m.p.h. over 20 m.p.h. would be, for

Passenger Traffic

On tangent track. 18 X 0.034 -f 16 X 0.31 + 9 X 0.023 + 12 X 0.03

+ 45 X 0.11 = 6.7 per cent.
On curved track, 18 X 0.44 + 16 X 0.24 + 9 X 0.11 + 12 X 11 +

45 X 0.98 = 58.0 per cent.

Freight Traffic

On tangent track, 18 X 0.041 + 16 X 0.032 -f 9 X 0.024 + 12 X

0.036 + 45 X 0.14 = 8.8 per cent.
On curved track, 18 X 0.53 + 16 X 0.24 + 9 X 0.12 + 12 X 0.135 +

45 X 1.08 = 64.2 per cent.

F. Superintendence. — A study of I. C. C. reports indicates that the
Superintendence account varies about in the same proportion as the Track
Laying and Surfacing account, as might be expected reasonably.

G. Bridges, Trestles and Culverts. — This account includes both
sub-structure and super-structure. The major portion of the main-
tenance expense is chargeable to painting, repairing washouts, riprapping,
cleaning channels, protection work, etc., which would be independent of
traffic conditions. Renewals and repairs of floor and other members that
might be affected by speed of traffic constitute a small portion of the

Economics of Railway Operation.

771

total, and, in the absence of specific information, may be estimated at one-
tenth of the total account. This tenth may be taken to vary about as
impact in bridges varies, or about two-thirds per cent, per m.p.h. increase
in speed. The effect of speed under freight traffic may be taken as 20
per cent, greater than under passenger. No information is available for
making a distinction between bridges on tangent and those on curved track.

Summary. — The probable explanation of the increase in stress in rail,
etc., under increased speeds is that the unevenness of the track interferes
with the natural period of oscillation of the rolling stock and also to the
fact that it causes a deflection of the rolling stock, both vertically and
horizontally, from moving in a straight line.

According to the principles of theoretical mechanics, the force
exerted by a moving body when deflected or brought to rest varies as the
first power of the velocity, that is, inversely as the time in which the
change occurs. Therefore, the force exerted by the track in deflecting the
mass of the locomotive or car w-ould vary as the first power of the velocity
of the train. The tests on behavior of track under traffic also indicate
that the variation is a direct one.

The equations for M. of W. & S. expenses may be written, therefore,
in the following form :

Ties Cost = A (1 + KtV)

Rails Cost = B (1 + K,. V)

O. T. M Cost = C (l + KmV)

Ballast Cost = D ( 1 + K„ V)

Track Laying and Surfacing Cost = E (1 + Ki V)

Superintendence Cost ^ F ( 1 + K, V)

Bridges, Trestles and Culverts Cost = G (1 + Kt V)

The perimeters A, B, C, etc., are the costs of the various items at
any given speed of operation ; the co-efficients Kt, Kr, etc., are the factors
indicating the increase in the account per m.p.h. of increase in speed.
Expressing these co-efficients from results obtained above, the values of
Kt, Kr, etc., may be tabulated as follows :

Table 4

For Passenger Trains

For Freight Trains

Co-efBcient

Tangent Track

Curved Track

Tangent Track

Curved Track

0 0011

0.015

0.0014

0.018

0 0010

0 0082

0 0031

0.0082

Kn.

0 00080

0.0038

0.00080

0.0040

0 0010

0 0038

0.0012

0.0045

' K,

0.0022

0.019

0.0027

0.021

0.0022

0.019

0 0029

0.021

0.00067

0 00067

0 0009

0.0009

772

Economics of Railway Operation,

These co-efficients are predicated on observations made on well-con-
structed and well-maintained track and would be larger for inferior track.

'As an illustration of the use of the above analysis, an estimate may
be made of the increase in maintenance expenses due to an increase in
the average speed of freight trains from 20 to 25 m.p.h. over a road
consisting of 75 per cent, tangent and 25 per cent, curves. If the road
is one carrying both passenger and freight traffic, the former will establish
the standard of maintenance necessary, hence, the question of higher
standard of maintenance will not be involved. The increase in main line
expense for these accounts attributable to freight traffic would be as fol-
lows:

100 (0.0014 X 0.75 + 0.018 X 0.25) X 5 = 2.8%
100 (0.0031 X 0.75 + 0.0082 X 0.25) X 5 = 2.2%
100 (0.00080 X 0.75 + 0.0040 X 0.25) X 5 = 0.8%
100 (0.0012 X 0.75 -{- 0.0045 X 0.25) X 5 = 1.0%
100 (0.0029 X 0.75 + 0.021 X 0.25) X 5 = 3.7%

100 (0.0029 X 0.75 -\- 0.021 X 0.25) X 5 = 3.7%
100 X 0.0009 X 5 = 0.5%

Tie expense.

Rail.

O. T. M.

Ballast.

Track Laying and Sur-
facing.

Superintendence.

Bridges, Trestles and
Culverts.

On a certain railroad, an appropriate division of M. of W. & S.
expenses gives 88 per cent, chargeable to main line and 85 per cent, alloca-
ble to freight traffic. On the above basis, the effect of increasing the
speed of freight trains from 20 to 25 m.p.h. on this line would be as
shown in Table 5.

Table 5

Account

Total

Main Line Exp. Chg. to Frt.

Increase

at 20 m.p.h.

at 25 m.p.h.

Dollars

Pet.

$ 26,867
101,447
118,986
181,653
93,140
72,811
305,478

900,388

S 20,100
76,000
88,200

135,000
69,600
54,500

238,400

$ 20,900
76,700
92,100
140,000
71,000
55,400
247,000

703,100

800
700
3900
5000
1400
900
8600

21300

3 0

Bridges, Trestles and Culverts

Ties

0.7
3 3

Rails

0. T. M

Ballast

Track Laying and Surfacing

2.7
1.5
1.2
2.8

Totals

681,800

In this instance, the total increase in M. of W. & S. expense due to
an increase in speed of freight trains from 20 to 25 m.p.h. would be about
2.4 per cent., or approximately 0.5 per cent, per m.p.h. increase in speed.

THE EFFECT OF SPEED OF TRAINS ON THE COST OF

OPERATION

Teal and Sawyer.

The assignment of sections 2 and 3 of Sub-Committee was to de-
termine the effect of speed of freight trains Oh the cost of transportation,
accounts 371 to 420, inclusive, and maintenance of equipment, accounts
301 to 337, inclusive.

As there was not time or facilities available to analyze all accounts
involved it was decided to confine the limits of this study to the effect of
speed of freight trains on the cost of engine and train crew wages, ac-
counts 392 and 401, locomotive fuel, account 394, and locomotive repairs,
interest and depreciation, accounts 308, 309, 310. These are the largest
individual accounts and represent approximately 50 per cent, of the total
transportation and maintenance of equipment expenses.

In treating with locomotive repairs there has been no attempt to de-
termine the effect of speed on wear and tear of the machine ; the effect
of speed on locomotive repairs is reflected in this study in the variable
number of locomotive miles required to handle a given volume of traffic
at different speeds. Interest and depreciation is determined by the time
element. Engine and train crew wages and locomotive fuel were adjusted
to actual conditions as nearly as possible.

After conferring with members of the Sub-Committee it was decided
to take two freight divisions of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad as a basis
for conducting the study. The west and east end of the Cumberland Divi-
sion was arbitrarily chosen in order to determine the relative effect the
mountain grades would have with reference to the speeds of trains as
compared with the comparatively light grades. The physical characteris-
tics of these two freight divisions are briefly described in order to present
the problem more clearly to those who are not familiar with the local
operating conditions on this division of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad.

The relation of this division to joining divisions is important. Trunk
line business from the Southwest, including such points as Cincinnati and
St. Louis, moves east through Grafton and Keyser, on the west end of the
division, which is added to the business from Pittsburgh and Chicago
from Northwest, all of which moves east from Cumberland and Patterson
Creek to Tidewater. The condensed profile and track chart following
will be helpful in bringing out some of the features adversely affecting
the operation of these two freight divisions. (See Exhibit 1.)

The distance between Grafton and Keyser, the west end freight divi-
sion, is 79.1 miles, of which 2.1 miles are in the yard at Grafton and
1.4 miles in the yard at Keyser. Freight train mileage is calculated on
basis of 78 miles between terminals. Between East Grafton and West
Keyser (75.6 miles) there are 37.6 miles of three track and 38 miles of
two track. The yard capacity at Grafton is 1,240 cars. Piedmont 756 cars
and Keyser 2,378 cars. There is also a small yard at Rinard, where ton-

773

774 Economics of Railway Operation.

nage trains are filled out. The west end is a mountain freight division ;
eastbound the total rise is approximately 2,200 feet and the total fall 2,400
feet. Curvature amounts to 10,036 degrees or an average of 133 degrees
per mile, which is equivalent to a continuous curve of about 2 degrees
and 30 minutes.

Reference to the track chart and profile will show the relative location
of the two and three track system as compared with the mountain grades.

The distance, rated grades eastbound, engine ratines and car adjust-
ment, are as follows :

Rating for Adjust-
Rated Mallet ment
Distance Grade Locomotive per Car

Grafton to Hardman 10 miles 0.5% 5,000 4

Hardman to Rinard Tower 29 miles 2.4% 1,250 4

Rinard Tower to Deer Park.... 14 miles 0.4% 5,500 4

Doer Park to Altamont 4 miles 1.2% 2,750 4

Altamont to Keyser 21 miles Desc. 5,500 4

The distance, rated grades westbound, engine ratings and car adjust-
ment, are as follows :

Rating for Adjust-

Rated Mallet ment

Distance Grade Locomotive per Car

Keyser to Altamont 21 miles 2.4%^ 1,200 4

Altamont to Rinard Tower 18 miles 1.1% 2,850 4

Rinard Tower to Tunnelton. . . . 20 miles 2.4% 1,200 4

Tunnelton to Grafton 19 miles Desc. 2,850 4

The present standard operation for handling tonnage trains east from
Grafton requires three Mallet lococomotives for the 2.4 per cent, grades.
Three engine trains are usually rated at 3,750 tons under favorable weather
conditions ; however, this may be decreased according to prevailing tem-
perature.

The east end freight run between Keyser and Brunswick is 112 miles
in length via the Patterson Creek and Magnolia freight line cut-offs, of
which 22 miles are four track, 59 miles are three track and 31 miles are
two track. All eastbound traffic is handled via the Cherry Run low
grade line, between Cherry Run and West Cumbo, while all westbound
traffic is handled over the old line between the same points, which is
approximately two miles shorter.

The capacities of yards are as follows : Keyser 2,378, Cumberland
West 1,212, Cumberland East 3,412, Cherry Run 407, Cumbo 662, Martins-
burg 867, Brunswick. West 3,573, and Brunswick East 2,533 cars.

Freight train mileage is figured 112 miles eastbound and 110 miles
westbound.

Eastbound the total rise is approximately 464 feet and the total fall
1012 feet. Curvature eastbound amounts to 6,810 degrees, or an average
of 60 degrees 48 minutes per mile, which is equivalent to a continuous
curve of 1 degree and 9 minutes.

Economics of Railway Operation. 775

The distance, rated grades eastbound, engine ratings and car adjust-
ment, are as follows :

Rating for Adjust-
Rated Mikado ment
Distance Grade Locomotive per Car

Keyser to Rawlings 10 miles Desc. 7,000 15

Rawlings to Knoblev Tunnel. ... 6 miles 0.3% 6,000 15

Knobley Tunnel to Cherrv Run. 56 miles 0.2% 7,000 15

Cherry Run to Opequon 18 miles 0.3% 5,000 15

Opeqoun to Hobbs 8 miles 0.8% 2,500 15

Hobbs to Brunswick 14 miles 0.2% 5,000 15

The eastbound tonnage trains are rated for a 0.2 per cent, grade.
This requires helper engines for all full-rated trains on the hills between
Rawlings and Knobley, Cherry Run and West Cumbo, and Opequon and
Hobbs.

Westbound distance, rated grades, engine ratings and car adjustment
are as indicated below :

Rating for Adjiist-
Rated Mikado ment
Distance Grade Locomotive per Car

Brunswick to West Cumbo 30 miles 0.9% 2,200 7

West Cumbo to Patterson Creek 60 miles 0.6% 2,600 7

Patterson Creek to Keyser 20 miles 0.8%j 2,600 7

It will be noted that the ruling grade is 0.6 per cent, and helper en-
gines are required for full-rated trains between Brunswick and the top
of the hill on the main line just west of Cumbo and between Patterson
Creek and Keyser.

Locomotives used in the operation of these two freight divisions are
as follows :

West End. — Mallet type, class 2-8-8-0, compound superheated and
provided with stokers and power reverse gear. The weight on driverf
is 462,500 pounds, total weight of engine and tender 331^ tons, and the
cylinder tractive power 104,000 pounds.

East End. — Mikado type, class 2-8-2, simple superheated stoker.
Weight on drivers 222,000 pounds, total weight engine and tender 232 tons,
and cylinder tractive power 58,800 pounds.

Locomotive rating charts were prepared for Mallet and Mikado types,
as shown by Exhibits 2 and 3. These charts show the theoretical speeds
and rating for various grades up to 3.0 per cent, and were calculated by
using the adopted formula, published in the American Railway Engineer-
ing Association Manual.

Both freight divisions were then divided in accordance with the vari-
ous rated grades and by the use of these charts the average speeds be-
tween stations were calculated for train ratings, stepped down from 5,000
tons to 250 tons on the west end and from 7,000 tons to LOOO tons on the
east end, at intervals of 250 tons each. By applying the average speed
for the different train ratings between stations for each rate of grade
the total moving time was readilv calculated.

776 Economics of Railway Operation.

In considering the speed of freight trains on the mountain grades,
west end, and at limiting points on the east end, it was necessary to
conform with the time card speed restrictions. In this connection the
21-mile descending grade east from Altamont has two safety switches
electrically interlocked in order to reduce the hazard of freight trains
running away to a minimum.

The total crew time, including initial and terminal time, was next
calculated and adjusted in accordance with the ratio of moving time to
total crew time, which was obtained by taking the average performance
from a number of selected days when the volume of traffic was hea\'y,
indicating the conditions that confront the management in operating
these two freight divisions under normal conditions.

Exhibit 4 shows the results of calculations for the west end eastbound
movement. Under normal conditions this division is required to handle
an average of 1,200 loads east from Grafton daily. The preponderance of
traffic is coal from the Fairmont coal fields. The gross weight per car
averages about 75 tons, including 4 tons adjustment, which will make a
total of 7,020,000 gross adjusted ton miles handled daily. The maximum
daily movement on this division in 1919 was 1,216 loads; however, this
record was exceeded on August 20, 1920, when 1,449 loads were moved
east from Grafton.

The westbound movement shown by Exhibit 5 practically balances
the eastbound movement and as a greater number of cars moved are
empty, the average gross weight per car is approximately 30 tons, including
4 tons per car adjustment. The daily average movement of 1,200 cars
represents 2,808,000 adjusted gross ton miles.

The following units were used in arriving at cost figures shown in
columns 10 to 16 inclusive.

1. Wages. — Standard 8-hour day, with time and half for overtime,
the hourly rate for train crew is as follows :

Mallet Locomotives . Rate per Hour

Engineer $1.13

Fireman 85

Conductor 80^

Three Brakemen .• 64

Total straight time $4.70

Total overtime $7.05

2. Fuel. — $4.00 per ton, which is equivalent to approximately $12
per locomotive hour moving. time. This figure conforms closely with the
performance in September, 1920, with a charge of 86 cents per Mallet
locomotive mile.

3. Repairs. — 75 cents per locomotive mile. This figure was obtained
by experience from present practice.

Economics of Railway Operation. 777

4. Interest and Depreciation. — $1.40 per locomotive hour crew time.
This is calculated at 10 per cent, on capital value adjusted to average
performance with present practice.

Exhibit 6 shows the results of calculations for the east end eastbound
movement. For this study an average daily movement of 2,350 cars was
taken. The gross weight per car averages approximately 78 tons, including
IS tons adjustment. This movement represents the average traffic taken
from selected days" and is an indication of the business this tlivision is
required to handle under normal conditions. The westbound movement
of 2,100 cars daily, gross weight 33 tons per car, including 7 tons adjust-
ment, represents the average balance of traffic. (See Exhibit 7.)

The daily gross adjusted ton miles eastbound is 20,529,000, westbound
7,623,000. The following units were used in arriving at the cost figures
shown in columns 10 to 16, inclusive:

1. Wages. — Standard 8-honr day, with time and half for overtime,
as follows :

Mikado Locomotives Rate per Hour

Engineer $ .98

Fireman 75

Conductor 80K

Two brakemen 64

Total straight time $3.81

Total overtime $5.72

2. Fuel. — $4.00 per ton, which is equivalent to approximately $10
per locomotive hour moving time. This conforms closely with the
September, 1920, performance of 66 cents for Mikado locomotive mile,
present practice.

3. Repairs. — 45 cents per locomotive mile. This figure was obtained
from experience from present practice.

4. Interest and Depreciation.— 75 cents per locomotive hour crew
time. This is calculated at 10 per cent, on capital and adjusted to average
performance present practice.

Freight car equipment costs that varj' with time are not considered
in this study. Such items as per diem and interest and depreciation
would be affected.

Particular attention is called to the following columns on Exhibits
4, 5, 6 and 7 :

1 — Gross adjusted train load.

2 — Number of trains per day.

8 — Average miles per hour moving time.

13 — Cost per 100 gross ton miles, engine and train crew wages.
14 — Cost per 100 gross ton miles, locomotive fuel.
15 — Cost per 100 gross ton miles, repairs, interest and depreciation.
16 — Cost per 100 gross ton miles, total 13, 14 and 15.

A reduction in average miles per hour moving time and a reduction
in unit cost per 100 gross ton miles will be noticed at each point where
helper mileage was redticed, which is indicated on Exhibits by heavy black
lines.

(A)

778

Economics of Railway Op e r a t i o n .

Columns 13 and 14, showing the cost per 100 gross ton miles for
engine and train crew wages and locomotive fuel, are both direct trans-
portation charges.

Comparing costs per 100 gross ton miles, column 16, with the total
crew time, column 9, indicates that the most economical speeds are those
that will consume 8 hours or more crew time, including terminal time.
.\s the total crew time decreases under 8 hours the unit costs rapidly
increase.

Exhibits 8 and 9, following, are curves showing the number of freight
trains required to handle the normal business on the Cumberland Division
for various speeds between terminals, moving time.

The curves are comparatively flat for slow speeds ; however, they
rapidly ascend as the speed increases, indicating that the number of trains
required to handle normal traffic on the railroad would be excessive and
not practical in operation. The frequent running of light trains at fast
speed would soon create a congested condition in case of accident.

The balance of traffic should be taken into consideration in any method
of operating the Cumberland Division in order to reduce light running of
power to a minimum.

An examination of column 16 shows the most economical train load
and average speed between stations in handling the business as follows
(see Exhibits 4, 5, 6 and 7 for detail) :

Item

Minimum Cost

To Balance Traffic

Train
Loads
Tons

Average
Speed

Moving
Time

No.
Trains
Daily

Cost Per
100 GTM

Cents

Note

Train
Loads
Tons

Average
Speed

Moving
Time

No.
Trains
Daily

Cost Per

100 GTM

Cents

WEST END
Eastbound .
Westbound .

2500
5000

13.2
12.9

36.0
7.2

17.44
16.36

3750
1500

13.1
16.6

24.0
24.0

17.82
21.48

EAST END
Eastbound .
Westbound .

5500
5000 .

16.0
14.4

33.3
13.8

3.33

8.67

6000
2250

15.2
21.5

30.6
30.8

3.55
9.39

Note. — Does not include cost of moving light engines to balance power.

Exhibits 10 and 11, following, are curves, showing the tendency of
freight train costs per 100 gross ton miles for various gross adjusted
train loads on the Cumberland Division. The cost includes wages of en-
gine and train crews, locomotive fuel, locomotive repairs and interest and
depreciation.

The curves are comparatively flat for the larger train loads; they
ascend very rapidly as the train load is decreased, permitting the average
speed between terminals, moving time, to approach safe maximum for the
division.

Economics of Railway Operation.

779

An examination of column 16, Exhibits 4, 5, 6 and 7, shows the most
economical train load to be as follows :

Minimum Cost

To Balance Traffic

Item

Train Loads
Tons

Cost Per

100 G. T. M.

Cents

Note

Train Loads
Tons

Cost Per

100 G. T. M.

Cents

WEST END

Eastbound

2500
5000

17.44
16.36

3750
1500

17.82
21 48

EAST END

Eastbound ,

Westbound '.

5500
5000

3.33
8.67

6000
2250

3.65
9.36

Note. — Does not include cost of moving light engines to balance power.

The actual points were plotted on the diagram and the curves drawn
to represent an average.

Exhibits 12 and 13, following, are curves showing the tendency of
freight train costs per 100 gross ton miles for various speeds between
terminals, moving time, on the Cumberl'and Division.

The cost includes wages of engine and train crews, locomotive fuel,
locomotive repairs and interest and depreciation.

The curves indicate a minimum cost at the lower speeds and rapidly
ascend at the average speed, moving time, approaches a maximum safe
speed for operating freight trains on the division.

Speeds in excess of 20 miles per hour on the West End and 35 miles
per hour on the East End are not considered practical for freight train
operation on the Cumberland Division.

An examination of column 16, Exhibits 4, 5, 6 and 7, shows the most
economical speed between terminals, moving time, to be as follows :

Minimum Cost

To Balance Traffic

Item

Average

Speed

Moving Time

Cost Per

100 G. T. M.

Cents

Note

Average

Speed

Moving Time

Cost Per

100 G. T. M.

Cents

WEST END

Eastbound

Westbound

13.2
12.9

17.44
16.36

13 1
16 6

17.82
21.48

EAST END

Eastbound

Westbound

16.0
14.4

3.33
8.67

15.2
21.5

3.55
9 39

Note. — Does not include ccst of moving light engines to balance power.

The actual points were plotted on the diagram and the curves drawn
to represent an average.

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Economics of Railway Ooeration

781

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782

Economics of Railwa y Operation

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Economics of Railway Operation.

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Economics of Railway Operation.

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Economics of Railway Operation

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786

Economics of R ailway Operation

The Boiltimorc fit Ohio 5ye>tem
V\fe=>t Enc^ CMmbclwncTl Division

Curve S>howina Number oF
. Freit^hf Trains 13co]viire(^To Hoincile

1200 Cars C(?i5t(an(^ VVc5tbonno!
For Vcirion6 ^pce(?le> 5ctwccn

Terminoils C Moving) Ti"mc)

K 15

Averoiac 5pcc<^ 5c+vvccr\ "ferminals-M P H

Economics of Railway Operation.

787

The RtCTltimorc ft. Ohio Sye+ism

£(3%t End Cumberlwriol Division

Ci/irve Shov/inn Number of

. — Freit^h'^ Troiine KequireislTb HiTinolIe

2550 Coirs Eoi5+boMnol and 2100 Car't> Wce-tbonn*^ j

For Vfeiriont' 5pcc(7l6 fbs't'wccn

Icrmmwle) (T^ovino^ Ti'mc)

A^ens^c^e '5pe6<7l between "fepminCTl«.-M PH

788

Economics of Rai 1 way One rati on.

Gross Aolin5'^<?l Tnsiin LoctijI- \000 Ton^

'C^"^boUnJ"

The ftCTl+imore & Ohio ^yetcm
W«5i* End Cnmbcrl(?ino( Division-
Curves 5howina RelCT+'On

f'e'hwcen Co5+ of Hoinollmoi Frciaht
Trwin per- [00 Gross Ton' Miles
CTnol Qro^sAoljns+ec?l Trwin Lofflot

Cos'i' includes VVaqes of Train Crews, Fue
■ Rcpoifrs , IrrhsresT etnol Deppecr«Tibn.

_Aver<?io]e Detily Traih'z
E(7i<&+bonn(?!-IZ00 C(7ir5
Wgs+bonnol-^ioo Coire

Gross AoJjus'hBol Trgiin Logiol-iooo'Tbn'b

Economics of Railway Operation,

789

Q''o^^ AdJM^-hsol Trwin Loc^p('-iooo Ton-i

790

Economics of Railway Operation.

18 n ic IS 14

Wwtbounol

The &oi!+imorc &. Ohio ^yeiicm
We«i1" Enoi CunnbeHoinol OiVi^ion.
"^ Cur)^s> 5howincj Freiejht" Ittct'. .
Cosf For 100 Qros^Ton Miles For-
VoirioM". "ppeeols 56tv/Bcr\
Tcrmineife ( Moving Ti'me).

C( ^•i" inclnoles VVcJicjes of Troitn Crew*), Fuel,
[Repairs, In+ercst oind Dcprecioiri"or\.

IZ 1^ 14- 15 16

Econ omics of Rail

way Operat ion.

791

Averoic^e 5pec<j( f^efweenTerminoil^-M.P.H
/est bovi^hd

Average $peegl ftchvccn TcrminCTle. - M . R H

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XII— ON RULES AND
ORGANIZATION

\V. C. Barrett, Chairman: H. H. Edgerton, Vice-Chainnan;

F. D. Anthony, F. D. Lakin,

E. H. Barnhart, E. L. Martin,

H. L. Browne, Ios. Mullen,

J. B. Carothers, W. H. Rupp,

S. E. Coombs, F'; T. Simons,

R. H. Gaines^ H. E. Stansbury,

R. H. Hallsted, R. E. Warden,

H. H. Harsh, . -A. A. Woods,

B. Herman, Commiitcc.

To the American Railivay Engineering Association :

The iollowing subjects were assigned the Committee on Rules and
Organization for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Prepare a "Manual of Instructions for the Guidance of Engineer-
ing Field Parties."

3. Prepare a "Manual of Rules for the Guidance of Employees of
the Maintenance of Way Department."

4. Make final report, if practicable, on the "Science of Organization."

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held as fulhjws: Buffalo, Tunc 8;
.St. Louis, July 14; Chicago, October 7.

Sub-Committees (1), (2) and (3), joint, St. Louis, Tul> 13 and 14.

Sub-Committee (3), Cincinnati, August 24.

Sub-Committee (4). Work done bj' correspondence.

The work was divided among four Sub-Committees, their numbers
corresponding to the numbers of the subjects assigned by the Board of
Direction, as follows:

Sub-Committee (1)

J. B. Carothers, Chairman; F. D. Anthony, Vice-Chairnian ;

S. E. Coombs, H. E. Stansburj'.

P. T. Simons,

.Suh-Committee (2)

H. H. Edgerton, Chairman; F. D. Lakin, \'ice-C!iairman ;

H. L. Browne, R. H. Hallsted,

H. H. Harsh, P. T. Simons.

Sub-Committee (3)

E. H. Barnhart, Chairman ; Jos. Mullen, Vice-Chiirman ;

E. L. Martin, A. .A.. Woods,

B. Herman, W. C. Barrett. ^

R. E. Warden,

793

794 Rules and Organization.

Sub-Committee (4)

S. E. Coombs, Chairman; R. H. Gaines, Vice-Chairman ;

B. Herman, VV. H. Rupp.

F. U. Anthony,

(1) Revision of Manual

The Committee's recommendation is given under ;he heading of
Conclusions.

Our reason for this recommendation is that the two Manuals as sub-
mitted constitute a careful revision of everything now appearing in the
Association Manual under the heading: "Rules and Organization."

(2) Manual of Instructions for the Guidance of Engineering Field

Parties

The Committee submits its report in Appendix A. Its recommenda-
tion is given under the heading of Conclusions.

The Committee desires to direct the attention of the members of the
Association to the Monograph on this subject prepared by its Vice-Chair-
man, Mr. H. H. Edgerton, which has been printed in Bulletin 229. This
Monograph we believe to be a classic on the subject and v>ell worthy the
careful reading of every engineer, and especially the younger men.

The Manual presented in Appendix A is a resume of Mr. Edgerton's
Monograph with condensations and revisions, so as to make the instruc-
tions brief and concise enough for a Manual.

(3) Manual of Rules for the Guidance of Employees of the Main-

tenance of Way Department

The Committee submits its report in Appendix B. Its recommenda-
tion is given under the heading of Conclusions.

The Committee spent much time and study on the preparation of this
report. It is a compilation of all of the information secured by the
Committee in former years, of the subject-matter now in the Manual,
and of the rules and practices of manj' of the railroads represented in
this Association.

The Committee has endeavored to make the Manual general rather
than special, and to so frame the rules that any road could use the Man-
ual as a foundation for a Book of Kulcs and insert special rules as
desired.

The "General Notice" covers rules fouiid in the Standard Code un-
der the same heading.

Under "General Rules" the Committee has placed rules applicable to
all employees, so as to avoid, as far as possible, repetitions under each
class.

Under "Operating Rules" the Committee has placed those rules taken
from the Standard Code and a few special rules which it is thought
necessary- and desirable for Maintenance of Way employees to know.

Rules and Organization. 795

Under "Rules for the Government of Employees Working on ur about
the Track" the Committee has placed what are usually called "Safety
Rules."

The Committee has included in the Manual, "Rules for the Opera-
tion of Motor, Hand, Velocipede and Push Cars."

Under "Divisional Maintenance Officers" the Committee has en-
deavored to cover the positions common to most railroads and the usual
duties of each. Individual roads may not have all the positions men-
tioned, or may have others not mentioned, or may not use the same titles
for the positions. The titles used by the Committee are typical and
should be so considered in any discussion of the Manual.

Under "Conduct of Work" the Committee submits "Rules for the
Conduct of Track Work," or work to be performed by the forces under
the Supervisors of Track only. It was the judgment of the Committee
that neither it nor the Association in convention assembled had sufficient
time this year to properly consider more than this amount of material.

The Committee requests that it be permitted to submit "Rules for the
Conduct of Bridge and Building, Signal, and Telegraph and Telephone
Work" next year.

The Committee asks that the Association consider 'he "Manual of
Rules for the Guidance of Employees of the Maintenance of Way Depart-
ment" as a live document to be added to or changed in some details each
year, as new methods or practices are developed, or present methods or
practices become obsolete and better ones replace them.

(4) Science of Organization

The Committee submits its report in Appendix C. Its recommenda-
tion is given under the heading of Conclusions.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) The Committee recommends the adoption of the "Manual of
Instructions for the Guidance of Engineering Field Parties" and the
"Manual of Rules for the Guidance of Employees of the Maintenance of
Way Department" and that these be substituted for all of the matter now
appearing in the Association Manual under "Rules and Organization."

(2) The Committee recommends that the "Manual of Instructions
for the Guidance of Engineering Field Parties," as submitted in Appen-
dix "A," be approved for pubhcation in the Manual.

(3) The Committee recommends that the "Manual of Rules for the
Guidance of Employees of the Maintenance of Way Department," as sub-
mitted in Appendix "B," be approved for publication in the Manual.

(4) The Committee recommends that the report on "The Science of
Organization," as submitted in Appendix "C," be approved for publication
in the Manual.

796 Rules and Organization.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that the following work be assigned for
next year :

(1) Prepare rules for Conduct of Bridges and Buildings, Signal,
and Telegraph and Telephone Work, to be added to the "Manual of Rules
lor the Guidance of Employees of the Maintenance of Way Department."

(2) Make study of use of mechanical appliances and tools, with
organization of labor involved, in Maintenance of Way work.

Respectfully submitted.
The Committee on Rules and Organization,
W. C. Bakrrtt, Chairman.

Appendix A

MANUAL OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF
ENGINEERING FIELD PARTIES

H. H. Edgf.rton, Chairman, Sub-Committee (2)

SECTION I

Size of Field Party

The size of tlie field party will depend upon the work to be handled.
In all cases sufficient intelligent help should be employed to assure ac-
curacy of results.
Minimum party :

Instrumentman.
2 Chainmen.
The party should be increased to meet the requirements of the work
to be done.

SECTION II

Before Going Into the Field

The Chief of Party is responsible to his superiors for results and to
his men in the field for their welfare. The Chief of Party should there-
fore familiarize himself as much as possible with the conditions to be
met before starting out.

Transportation

The following items should be investigated or anticipated by the
Chief of Party before starting on any expedition.

Which of the modes of travel will likely be used?

Steam railway,

Electric railway,

Automobile,

Motor car.

Horse and wagon train,

Pack train,

Boats,

Dog sleds, etc.

If one mode of travel is not used continuously, what source of supply
can he depend on for other means of conveyance when the change comes,
as, for instance, boats when the river is reached and automobiles are
abandoned.

Availability of gasoline and oils for motor vehicles, if used.

Availability of forage for animals, if used.

' 797

798 Rules and Organization.

Difficulties liable to be encountered with the mode of travel selected —
difficulties with automobiles, dog teams or canoes.

Personnel of Field Party

The selection of tlie various members should rest with the Chief of
I 'arty.

The physical condition of the men selected for the work should be
investigated. He should satisfy himself whether or not each indivicKial
will be able to stand the climate, the altitude, the swamps, etc.

Where local people are available for non-technical positions, ihoy
should be employed as members of the party to the greatest number
possible, to gain the licncfit of their information on local conditions.

Personal Supplies

The Chief of Party should instruct the men as to the amount and
kind of clothing as a minimum, dependent upon the length of time they
expect to be on the expedition, and the kind of climate and the extremes
of temperature to be encountered, and the ability to secure such sup-
plies en route. Also the maximum limit permissible in weight or bulk due
to the transportation facilities.

Camp Equipment

With the advice and instruction of his superior the Chief of Party
should decide upon the kind of equipment that will be necessary, depend-
ing upon methods to be used in housing and taking care of the men.

If in hotels, the spacing and capacity.

If in farm houses, the spacing of groups or settlements and the
capacity.

If in camp cars, the number and kind required, and sufficient water
supply to accompany.

If in tents, the strength and design necessary to combat storms, wild
animals or insects. Also whether stoves, wooden floors, flies, etc., are
needed in certain seasons. And in certain countries it will be necessary
to consider fever protection, mosquito head nets and gloves, mosquito
proof tents, snow shoes, snow glasses, portable boats, ropes for rafting
and climbing, hammocks for sleeping, ant protection, etc.

Supplies

Under the instructions and advice of the Chief Engineer, the Chief
of Party will be informed and prepare for the following:

The kind and amount of supplies required for some period of time
considering the size of the party to be handled.

The mode of securing replenishment of supplies, so as to have only
the actual quantity required on hand, and thus reduce transportation diffi-
culties when moving camp.

First aid outfits and instructions for their use.

Additional medical supplies and instructions for their use ; the quan-
tity and assortment to depend upon the likelihood of the requirements
and degree of civilization and density of population.

Rules and Organization. 799

The source of provisions for food.

The methods to be employed for preserving foods of certain kinds
or the necessity of eliminating certain foods on account of inability to
preserve them, and the substitutes that can be used therefor.

Camp Locations

Something should be known of conditions likely to be met in camp
locations and preparations made beforehand to meet them, having in
mind the following:

Sanitary facilities required, dependent upon the duration of the stay
at any one place, and the effect of stream pollution on the surrounding
territory.

The methods of providing for such facilities.

The methods to be used in taking down, moving and setting up camp
so as to lose the least amount of time.

The design of the camp to meet the local requirements.

Communication

Methods of securing mail and other sources of communication that
can be arranged.

SECTION III
After Arriving in the Field

After the party arrives in the field, the Chief of Party should not
be overburdened with details of the survey, but should have ample time
to look forward and anticipate requirements to overcome the conditions
that will be met, and he should detail the methods of handling the work
covering the following items :

Organization

Duties of the various members.

The duties under different circumstances for the different periods
of the day should be outlined, as far as practicable, such as:

What each member shall do when starting the day,

When completing the day.

When breaking camp.

When setting up camp, and

While in camp.

The assembling of the entire party or each sub-division at the close
of the day's work, so all may return to camp together, and thereby avoid
being lost in the woods or meeting with an accident, and none to assist
them to camp.

Supplies and Equipment

The Chief of Party is expected to instruct in regard ^.o the following:
That care is used in handling all supplies and equipment.
That wastefulness is avoided.

800 Rules and Organization.

That extreme care is used in handling and transporting instruments.

Designate methods to be used when instruments and other equipment
are left in the field over night.

That the personal equipment and clothing of the men bear individual
markings or distinctive colors sufficient to keep one man's possessions
from being mixed with others.

Treatment of Property Belonging to Others

The Chief of Party is responsible for ;

The amount of care to be exercised when going through cultivated
fields.

The general rules as to whether timber should be cut and when to
triangulate around it.

The location at which hubs are to be set for permanency and the
kind of stakes to be used through grain fields to avoid damage to farm
machinery, or the removal of such stakes after the party has passed.

The cutting of stakes from timber, or material at hand, as the party
passes along, so as to avoid using property upon which others may set
a value.

Conduct of Party

Everything should be done to create a good feeling among residents,
as you may want favors and may have to return; if not yourself, others
on similar expeditions.

Violate no local customs, and lake care not to run counter to any
local prejudices, but conciliate the good feeling of the community.

When stopping at farm houses, you must realize the people are in-
convenienced in order to accommodate you. Leave things as you find
them.

Records

The method of keeping field notes should be uniform throughout the
entire survey. Such details must be outlined in order to secure results.

The field notes should be kept in such a manner that they may be
platted without loss of time and may be readily interpreted by others who
may have to use them in the future. All notes .should be indexed and
titled, and the lines named, lettered, or numbered, and the whole carefully
kept for future use.

Maps should be of the size and scale prescribed by the Chief Engineer.
Signs and symbols should conform with the Manual of the A.R.E.A.
Property lines should be tied in on the notes and the maps.
Abandoned lines should be crossed out and marked abandoned.
Maps and notes should have sufficient information to place them :
Name of the railroad.
Branch or division.
Town and state.
Object.

Date survey began ; datt' finished.
Scale.
North point.

Rules and Organization. 801

The name of the Engineer in charge and the person making the notes.

The start and ending of each day's work should be noted on the page
of the book where the notes begin and end for that day's work.

Transit field notes should show :

Station.

Point.

Deflection.

Angle to right.

Angle to left.

Calculated course.

Magnetic course.

All in columns as stated from left id right.

Each page should have acros.s the tt)p the name of the line and the
kind of survey. Notes should run up the page.

Topography notes :

Each page should have across the top the name of the line and the
kind of survey.

Datum.

Interval.

Scale, should be plainly set out at the l)eginning and the end of each
line.

Reference Points and Bench Marks

The Engineer will be judged by what he leaves behind him, and how
he left it. These things which he leaves behind him are his notes, his
maps and his reference points. It should be the purpose to use such
judgment that the reference points are as permanent as possible.

When the line is finally established, bench marks should be placed on
permanent locations, and a large number of alinement points should be
referenced in a permanent manner. Iron posts or stone monuments
buried along property lines and their location tied to other known corners
are probably the best. Also prominent features on country residences arc
good, gables, chimnej-s, etc. They should be lined in by the three-point
problem, three angles, three points, and the bearing calculated, if possible.
The magnetic bearing should also be given.

Appendix B

MANUAL OF RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF EMPLOYEES
OF THE MAINTENANCE OF WAY DEPARTMENT

E. H. Barn HART, Chainiian, Sub-Committee (3)
GENERAL NOTICE

To enter or remain in the service is an assurance of willingness to
obey the rules.

Obedience to the rules is essential to the safety of passengers and
employees, and to the protection of property.

The service demands the faithful, intelligent and courteous discharge
of dutj^

To obtain promotion capacity must be shown for greater responsi-
bility.

Employees, in accepting employment, assume its risks.

GENERAL RULES

1. Employees whose duties arc prescribed by these rules must pro-
vide themselves with a copy.

2. Employees must be conversant with and obey the rules and in-
structions. If in doubt as to their meaning, they must apply to the
proper authority for an explanation. Supervisory employees must know
that the rules and instructions are understood and complied with by those
under them.

3. Employees must pass the required examinations.

4. Any violation of the rules or instructions must be reported.

5. The use of intoxicants by employees while on duty is prohibited.
Their use, or the frequenting of places where they are sold, is sufficient
cause for dismissal.

6. In case of danger to the Company's property, employees must
unite to protect it.

. 7. Safety is of the first importance in the discharge of duty. In all
cases of doubt or uncertainty, the safe course must be taken.

8. Employees must do all in their power to prevent accidents, even
though in so doing they may necessarily perform the duties of others.

9. No employee is allowed to contract any bill or other obligation
on account of the Company or to use the Company's credit, unless au-
thorized by the proper officer.

10. Assignment of wages by employees is prohibited and will be
sufficient cause for dismissal. Employees failing or refusing to pay their
just debts, or against whom bills are frequently presented to the Company
for payment, or whose wages have been garnishced, will,,tndess satis-
factory reason be given, be dismissed from the service.

802

Rules and Organization. 803

11. Employees must devote themselves exclusively to the service, and
must not connect themselves with any other trade or business without
permission from the proper officer.

12. Employees must not absent themselves from duty without per-
mission. They must not exchange duties with others, or engage substi-
tutes without proper authority.

13. The auticles furnished by the Company for the use of employees
must, on their leaving the service, be returned to the proper officer.

14. Employees subject to emergency call must keep their immediate
superior and the train dispatcher informed as to their whereabouts at all
times.

15. Each employee whose duties are in any way affected by it, must
have a copy of the current time table and be familiar with the rules and
regulations therein. He must have it with him when on duty and know
the time of trains at whatever point he may be working.

Employees must carefully observe signals displayed by all trains, and
assure themselves before obstructing the track that all trains and sec-
tions due have passed.

Employees are especially cautioned that extra and special trains may
be run at any time and trains may run at any time upon any track in
either direction, without notice to them. They must be governed accord-
ingly and exercise proper care to avoid accident.

16. Employees are forbidden to ask or receive fees or contributions
from subordinates, co-employees, or the public.

17. Emploj'ees will be subject to record discipline, suspension, or
dismissal for cause.

18. Employees must know that the machinery, tools and appliances
which they are expected to use and are about to use, are in suitable and
proper condition for use.

19. Emploj-ees will be regarded as in line of promotion, or advance-
ment, depending upon the faithful discharge of duty and capacity for in-
creased responsibility.

20. A complete service and discipline record of all supervising em-
ployees should be kept in the office of

21. Employees must observe trains closely, and if anything dan-
gerous is noted, nnist call attention of the trainmen to the fact by signal
or wire.

22. When work, or other cause, renders the track or bridges unsafe
for passage of train*^, protection to trains must be provided in accordance
with instructions.

When the track is safe for trains to pass, Init at reduced speed, pro-
tection must be provided by displaying the proper signals from each end
of the section of track on which the speed is restricted. Resume signals
should be displayed to indicate where the normal speed may be resumed.
On multiple tracks each track involved must be protected in the same
manner as if it were single track.

804 Rules and Organization.

The Superintendent must be notified at once by wire of the speed
to be observed over the track protected by "Slow" signals. Where the
obstruction of a track is continued during the night, proper night signals
must be displayed.

23. In case of impassable or obstructed track, flagging is the first
duty and repairs must wait, if necessary, until signals have been displayed.

24. No work that will interfere with the safe passage of trains at
full speed must be undertaken during fogs or blinding storms, except in
emergency.

25. Disregard of stop or caution signals, excessive speed of trains,
or failure to answer signals properly must be reported, with a full state-
ment of facts.

26. Employment of minors will not be permitted, except as allowed
by law, and then only after written consent and release on the proper
form has been obtained from parents or guardians.

21. When a train is approaching or passing, employees must not

unlock a main track switch nor stand within feet of such a

switch.

Immediately upon closing and locking a main track switch, the em-
ployee doing so will observe if the points fit properly, and must call the
attention of those with him in words equivalent to the statement : "I
have closed and locked the switch." This statement must be acknowl-
edged in words by one of the employees to whom it is addressed.

28. Motor, hand, velocipede and push cars must be used for Com-
pany business only, and must be operated in accordance with the special
rules governing their use.

29. In case of injury, however slight, to himself or to any one under
his supervision, or in case of injury to others which has not been reported
by other employees, the Foreman must immediately make a report by
wire to his Supervisor, followed by a written report on the prescribed
form.

30. The Company should be informed promptly regarding contem-
plated public improvements or enacted ordinances which would in any
way affect its interests. Supervisors, Foremen and other employees must
make prompt report and forward at once to their immediate superiors
any printed public notices or other matter, with all the information
available.

31. Employees must not use the telegraph unnecessarily. All mes-
sages should be as brief as is consistent with a clear understanding of
their meaning.

2)2. Employees must not permit, except by proper authority, experi-
mental trials of appliances or devices, nor give out information of the
results of any such trial.

33. Employees shall conform to the prescribed standards, plans and
specifications in the execution of work under their supervision.

Rules and Organization. 806

OPERATING RULES

(Any rule preceded by a number in parentheses is a Standard-Code
rule of the American Railway Association of that number.)

Standard Time

34. (1) Standard time obtained from observatory,

will be transmitted to all points from designated offices at M.

daily.

35. (2) Watches that have been examined and certified to by a

designated inspector must be used by conductors, enginemen and

The certificate in prescribed form must be renewed and

filed W'ith the everj^

(Form of Certificate)

Certificate of Watch Inspector

This is to certify that on , 19. . . .

the watch of ■

emploj-ed as

on the R

was examined by me. It is correct and reliable, and, with proper care
should run within a variation of thirty seconds per week.

Name of Maker

Grade •

Number of Movement :

Open or Hunting Case

Metal o f Case

Signed

Inspector.
Address

36. (3) Watches of conductors, engineman and

must be compared before commencing each day's work, with a clock
designated bj^ time-table as a standard clock. The time when watches
are compared must be registered on a prescribed form.

37. If access to a standard clock is not possible comparison will be
made with a responsible employee who has compared with a standard
clock.

38. (7) Employees whose duties may require them to give signals,
must provide themselves with the proper appliances, keep them in good
order, and ready for immediate use.

39. (8) Flags of the prescribed color must be used by day, and
lights of the prescribed color by night.

40. (9) Day signals must be displayed from sunrise to sunset, but
when day signals cannot be plainly seen, night signals must be used in
addition. Night signals must be displayed from sunset to sunrise.

806

Rules and- Organization.

41. (10) Color-Signals.

Color

Indication

(a)

Red.

Stop.

(b)

Proceed with caution and for other
uses prescribed by the rules.

(c)

Proceed, and for other uses pre-
scribed by the rules.

(d)

Green and White.

Flag Stop. See Rule 58 (28).

(e)

Blue.

Sec Rule 56 (26).

(f)

Purple.

Stop (night indication for dwarf
signals.

42. (11) A train finding a fusee burning on or near its track must
stop and extinguish the fusee, and then proceed with caution prepared
to stop short of train or obstruction.

43. Maintenance of Way employees must not disturb burning fusees
on or near the track placed there by trainmen.

44. (12) Hand, Flag and Lamp Signals.

Manner of Using

Indication

(a)

Swung across the track.

Stop.

(b)

Held horizontally at arm's

length, wlicn tlic train is
moving.

Reduce speed.

(c)

Raised and lowered vertically.

Proceed.

(d)

Swung vertically in . a circle at
half-arm's length across the
track when the train is
standing.

Back.

Swung vertically in a circle at
arm's length across the track,
Avhen the train is running.

Train has parted.

(f)

Swung horizontally above the
head when the train is stand-
ing.

Apply air brakes.

(g)

Held at arm's length above the
head when the train is stand-
ing.

Release air brakes.

45. (13) Any object waved violently by anyone on ur near
track is a signal to stop.

tht

Rules and Organization

807

46. (14) Engine and Motor Whistle Signals.

Note. — The signals prescribed are illustrated by "o" for short sounds ;
" — " for longer sounds. The sound of the whistle should be distinct, with
intensity and duration proportionate to the distance signal is to be
conveyed.

Sound

Indication

(a)

Apply brakes. Stop.

(b)

— —

Release brakes. Proceed.

(C)

(one long) o o o

Flagman protect rear of train.

(d)

Flagman may return from west or
south, as prescribed bv Rule 64
(99).

(e)

Flagman may return from east or
north, as prescribed bv Rule 64
(99).

(f)

When running, train parted, to be
repeated until answered by the sig-
nal, as prescribed bv Rule 44 (12),
(e).

Answer to Rule 44 (12), (e).

(g)

o o

(h)

o o o

Answer to any signal not otherwise
provided for.

(i)

o o o 0

When train is standing, back. An-
swer to Rule 44 (12), (d).
Call for signals.

(k)

— o o

To call the attention cf yard engines,
extra trains or trains of the same
or inferior class or inferior right
to signals displayed for a follow-
ing section. If not answered by
a train, the train displaying signals
must stop and ascertain the cause.

(1)

— — o o

Approaching public crossings at
grade.

(m)

Approaching stations, junctions, rail-
road crossings at grade and

(n)

Approaching meeting points.

(o)

o —

Inspect train line for leak.

(P)

Succession of short sounds.

Alarm for persons or live stock on
the track.

47. (15) The explosion of two torpedoes is a signal to reduce speed
and lookout for a train ahead or obstruction. The explosion of one
torpedo will indicate the same as two, but the use of two is required.

48. (17) The headUght will be displayed to the front of every
train by night, but must be concealed w^hen a train turns out to meet an-
other and has stopped clear of main track, or is standing to meet trains
at the end of double track or at junctions. When an engine is running
backward a white light must be displayed by night on the rear of the
tender.

808 Rules and Organization.

49. (18) Yard engines will display the headlight to the front and
rear by night. When not provided with a headlight at the rear, a white
light must be displayed. Yard engines will not display markers.

50. (19) The following signals will be displayed, one on each side
of the rear of every train, as markers, to indicate the rear of the train :
By day, green (or yellow) flags, or marker lamps (not lighted). By
night, green (or yellow) lights to the front and side and red lights to
the rear; except when the train is clear of the main track, when green
(or yellow) lights must be displayed to the front, side and rear.

51. (20) All sections except the last will display two green flags,
and, in addition, two green lights by night, in the places provided for
that purpose on the front of the engine.

52. (21) Extra trains will display two white flags and, in addi-
tion, two white lights by night, in the places provided for that purpose
on the front of the engine.

53. (22) When two or more engines are coupled, each engine shall
display the signals as prescribed in Rules 51 (20), 52 (21).

54. (23) One flag or light displayed where in Rules 50 (19), 51
(20) and 52 (21) two arc prescribed will indicate the same as two; but
the proper display of all train signals is required.

55. (24) When cars are pushed by an engine, except when shifting
or making up trains in yards, a white light must be displayed on the
front of the leading car by night.

56. (26) A blue signal, displayed at one or both ends of an engine,
car or train, indicates that workmen are under or about it; when thus
protected, it must not be coupled to or moved. Workmen will display
the blue signals and the same workmen are alone authorized to remove
them. Other cars must not be placed on the same track so as to inter-
cept the view of the blue signals, without first notifying the workmen.

Use of Signals

.V. {27) A signal imperfectly displayed, or the absence of a signal
at a place where a signal is usually shown, must be regarded as the most
restrictive indication that can be given by that signal, and the fact re-
ported to the Conductors and enginemen using a switch

where the switch light is imperfectly displayed or absent, must also, if
practicable, correct or replace the light.

58. (28) A green and white signal will be used to stop a train
only at the flag stations indicated on its schedule. When it is necessary
to stop a train at a point that is not a flag station on its schedule, a red
signal must be used.

59. (29) When a signal, except a fixed signal, is given to stop a
train, it must, unless otherwise provided, be acknowledged as prescribed
l)y Rule 46 (14) (h).

60. (30) The engine-bell must be rung when an engine is about to
move and while approaching and passing public crossings at grade.

61. (31) The whistle mu<;t be sounded at all places when required
by rule or by law.

Rules and Organization. 809

62. (33) Watchmen stationed at highway crossings must use stop

signals when necessary to stop trains. They will use

signals to stop highway traffic.

63. (35) The following signals will be used by flagmen:

Day Signals — A red flag, torpedoes, and fusees.
Night Signals — A red light, a white light, torpedoes, and
fusees.

64. (99) When a train stops under circumstances in which it may
be overtaken by another train, the flagmen must go back immediately
with flagmen's signals a sufficient distance to insure full protection,
placing two torpedoes, and when necessary, in addition, displaying lighted
fusees.

When signal 46 (14), (d) or 46 (14), (e) has been given to the
flagman and safety to the train will permit, he may return. When the
conditions require he will leave the torpedoes and a lighted iusee.

The front of the train must be protected in the same way, when neces-
sary, by the

When a train is moving under circumstances in which it may be
overtaken by another train, the flagman must take such action as may
be necessary to insure full protection. By night, or by day when the
view is obscured, lighted fusees must be thrown off at proper intervals.

When day signals cannot be plainly seen, owing to weather or othei
conditions, night signals must also be used.

Conductors and enginemen are responsible for the protection of
their trains.

65. Motor, hand, velocipede and push cars, when in use, must be
protected as prescribed by rule 64 (99).

RULES FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF EMPLOYEES WORK-
ING ON OR ABOUT THE TRACK

66. It is the duty of every employee working on or al)out the track,
to exercise care to avoid injury to himself and others.

67. On the approach of -a train, employees who are v/orking on or
about the track, must move to a place of safety, standing clear of all
running tracks. They must not work or stand on the tracks, except
when necessary for the proper performance of their duties.

68. Watchmen, Patrolmen, Trackwalkers and others on duty, which
makes it necessary for them to be on the track, where there are two
or more tracks, should, when practicable, travel against the current of
traffic, keeping sharp lookout in both directions for approaching trains.

69. Foremen or others in charge of employees, working on or about
the tracks, must instruct their men to be alert, watchful, and to keep
out of danger; and will take the necessary precautions to see that all
men working under their immediate supervision receive warnings of
approaching trains in time to reach a place of safety.

(A)

810 Rules and Organization.

70. Foremen, Watchmen and others in charge of gangs or squads
of workmen, should provide themselves with a whistle and should use
same in warning the men of approaching trains, or when it is necessary
for them to clear the tracks and move to a place of safety.

71. When large numbers of inexperienced men are working on the
track, it is desirable to divide them into small squads, and place each
squad in charge of an experienced man, and take such other additional
precautions as will provide for the safety of the men.

11. In handlmg rails, ties and other heavy materials, special care
must be used to avoid injury.

Ti. Emplojees working in a tunnel or near the end of same, when
a train approaches from either direction, must stand clear of all tracks,
and if in the tunnel should occupy the man holes. If there is insufficient
clearance or no man holes, arrangement must be made to work under
flag protection.

74. Employees are required to carry lights when passmg through
any tunnel where men cannot readily be seen. When an entire gang
is working close together, an adequate number of lights should be used,
but not less than two.

75. Motor, hand, velocipede or push cars must not be used when
approaching trains cannot readily be seen by reason of fog, storm or
snow, except under proper protection.

76. An)' employee, who while on duty, is careless about the safety
of himself or others or who disregards warnings, will be disciplined.

n. Foremen, Watchmen and others in charge of gangs or squads
of workmen, should consider it their personal duty to assist in keeping
the tracks, yards and foot paths along them free of any obstacle which
might be the cause of injury to others.

RULES FOR THE OPERATION OF MOTOR, HAND,
VELOCIPEDE AND PUSH CARS

78. Employees to whom cars are assigned are responsible for the
proper use and condition of cars in their charge. A report must be
made to their superior officer if the car is in need of repairs or is, in
their opinion, unsafe to operate.

79. No one except a responsible employee who has been properh'
qualified will be allowed to operate motor, hand or velocipede cars upon
tlic main track.

80. Before cars are used, an inspection must be made to be sure
that the running gear, brakes, etc., are in good operating condition; that
a sufficient supply of gasoline is in the tank of motor cars and that
the car is properly lubricated. After the car is started, the brakes must
be tested immediately to be sure that they are in working condition.

81. Motor, hand and velocipede cars are to be used only for
transporting workmen and tools. Heavy material must not be carried
on them, except in emergency. Push cars must be used to transport
such heavy materials as ties, rails, frogs, etc.

Rules and Organization. 811

82. Employees must not get on or off a moving car from the front
or side. The use of seats on the ends of hand or push cars is forbidden.

83. Tools must be placed on cars with care. Track jacks or other
tools must not be carried on the front of the car.

84. Employees operating motor, hand or velocipede cars must pro-
vide themselves with whistle or other device, which must be sounded
at all highway grade crossings and at all other points when necessary
to warn workmen or others of the approach of the car.

85. Employees operating cars on main tracks shall, when prac-
ticable, obtain information regarding trains, but such information will
not relieve them from the responsibility of protecting their cars. They
will see that their cars are clear of the main track for regular scheduled
trains and, when blocked bj' an operator or the dispatcher, will report
clear when out of the block or clear of the main track. No open tele-
graph office should be passed without stopping and ascertaining the
location of all trains.

86. Where practicable, cars should be run on outside main tracks
or on sidings in the direction of traffic. A sharp lookout should be
maintained in both directions, where possible.

87. When approaching road crossings at grade, the car must be
under complete control, and the employee in charge must know that
highway traveler-; will not be endangered, before going on the crossing.
If the crossing is protected by flagman, the operator must get signal from
him before proceeding. When required by rule or law, a proper warning
must be given approaching all highway crossings at grade.

88. Cars must not exceed a speed of 8 miles per hour when passing
through stations or yards, over switches or through interlocking, over
frogs, railroad, highway or farm crossings at grade. At all other points,
hand cars are restricted to 10 miles per hour and motor cars to 20 miles
per hour. Cars must be stopped, when practicable, during passage of
a train on an adjacent track.

89. Cars must be operated with care in passing trains receiving or
discharging passengers at .stations and must not be run between such
trains and the station.

90. Motor cars should not be run through the spring rail side of
frogs. Main track switches must not be opened to use siding for cars
except when loaded too heavy to lift over the rails. When necessary
to open the switch for a loaded car, the emploj-ee in charge of the car
shall personally unlock and lock the switch as provided m Rule 27.

91. Cars must not be attached to engine or trains nor run closer
than 500 feet behind moving trains.

92. The space between two or three hand cars when running should
not be less than 300 feet; that between two or three motor cars or a
hand car and a motor car should not be less than 600 feet. A car in
advance must not be stopped until the following car has been signaled.
The employee in charge of two or three cars so run, must ride on the
second car. When more than three cars are run, they must he divided

812 Rules and Organization.

into groups of three or less, the front car of each group being run not
less than 1,200 feet behind the last car of the preceding group, and each
group being run as specified above.

93. When motor, hand, velocipede or push cars are operated at
night or during fog, storm, snow or through tunnels, they must be
equipped with a white light in front and a red light to the rear.

94. Cars must be removed from the track or protected by flag when
not in use. When they cannot be removed from the track to clear an
approaching train, they must be protected as required by Rule 64 (99).

95. A copy of the current timetable must be carried on all hand
and motor cars and, in addition, the following signal equipment ;

— torpedoes
2 red flags

2 red lanterns
2 white lanterns

— fusees

96. Torpedoes exploded by motor, hand, velocipede or push cars
must be replaced.

97. Cars must not be overloaded. Brakes should be applied gradually,
and emergency stops should be made only when absolutely necessary.

98. Hand and push cars should not be run with motor cars, but if
necessary to do so, they must be coupled behind and never pushed
ahead. When hand or push cars are coupled, the speed of the motor car
must be reduced to the maximum speed provided for hand cars in Rule 88.

99. Employees in charge of motor cars must not permit occupants
to sit in insecure or careless positions, nor permit any smoking or
uncovered lights around motor cars when tanks are being filled or
gasoline handled. Motor cars must not be inspected with matches or
torches. All moving parts should be guarded.

100. Motor cars must not be shipped on trains unless absolutely
necessary. When necessary to ship them, the gasoline tanks must be
drained.

101. Only insulated cars should be used where there are track
circuits.

102. When cars are removed from the track they must be placed
not less than five feet from the near rail, and so located that they can-
not foul the track. They must not be set off or left standing within
the full legal width of highway or private road crossing at grade,
except in cases of emergency. When necessary, on account of emer-
gency, in clearing trains, cars may be set off at crossings but must be
protected by an employee and immediately removed when the emergency
is passed. They must be kept locked when not in sight of the men in
charge and, at night, and at other times, when not in use, should be kept
under cover.

Rules and Organization. 813

ORGANIZATION
DUTIES OF DIVISIONAL MAINTENANCE OFFICERS

103. On a division some one officer is usually in charge of the
Maintenance of Waj' Department and reporting to him are subordinate
officers who are directly responsible for the maintenance of :

Tracks and Roadway

Bridges and Buildings

Signals and Interlocking

Telegraph and Telephone (where owned)
The duties of these officers, as hereinafter outlined, arc typical and
of general application to the respective positions, regardless of the title
the individual occupying the position may have. The divisional officer
in charge of the Maintenance of Way Department is the Division Engi-
neer to whom report :

The Supervisor of Track

The Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings

The Supervisor of Signals

The Supervisor of Telegraph and Telephone
These subordinate divisional officers, each in his respective depart-
ment, have Foremen and others reporting t'o them. The Foreman, usually,
is the officer under whose immediate supervision the skilled and unskilled
labor perform their work.

DIVISION ENGINEERS

104. Division Engineers report to and receive instructions from
the

105. They are responsible on their respective divisions for such
Maintenance of Way matters as are assigned them. They will have
supervision over the persons employed in their department, see that they
understand and obey the rules and regulations in force, and that the
work is carried on in a proper, careful and economical manner; that the
records of time and material are correctly and properly kept, and that
the necessary and required reports, covering the time worked and the
material used, are promptly and properly made.

SUPERVISORS OF TRACK

106. Supervisors of Track report to and receive instructions from
the Division Engineer.

107. They are in charge, in their respective districts, of the main-
tenance of tracks, their appyirtcnances and of the employees engaged
thereon.

108. They shall have immediate supervision of work train service
for the maintenance of tracks, using such service only when properly
authorized by the Division Engineer.

814 Rules and Organization.

109. They must make the prescribed inspections of track, roadway,
station grounds, and driveways under their charge and when necessary
arrange for prompt repairs of any defects or improper conditions found.

110. They must know that the Foremen, track laborers and others
under their supervision fully understand and properly perform their
duties; keep account of, and report their time in the manner prescribed
and discipline them when necessary.

111. They must know that the Foremen are. supplied with tools and
material necessary for the efficient performance of their duties and that
these are properly used.

112. They shall keep themselves informed in regard to all work
performed upon tracks and roadway in their districts, by Contractors or
others, who may not be under their supervision ; see tliat the work is
done in such a way as not to endanger the safety of tracks or roadway
and report promptlj- to the proper officer, if the work is not being
done in accordance with the plans and specifications or according to
prescribed standards.

113. In case of damage to tracks or roadway, they shall promptly
assemble men and material, proceed to the place of accident, as quickly
as possible and make the necessary repairs. They shall investigate all
accidents to track and roadway and report promptly to the proper officer
on the prescribed form.

114. They must know that the vicinity of all bridges and trestles
is clear of combustible matter, and that the bridge seats, tops of the
piers and other readily accessible portions of bridges and trestles are
clear of cinders and dirt, and that the water barrels are kept full of
water.

115. The}- shall see that the waterways and the approaches and
outlets thereto are free from obstructions.

116. They shall not permit encroachment upon or occupancy of
any portion of the Company's buildings, right-of-way or station grounds,
except upon proper authority.

SECTION FOREMEN

117. Section Foremen report to and receive instructions from the
Supervisor of Track.

118. Unless otherwise directed. Section Foremen will have imme-
diate charge of, and be responsible for the safe condition of tracks,
roadway, and right-of-way on their sections, and for the economical
use of laboi and material in their maintenance. They must do no work
thereon that will interfere with the safe passage of trains, except
under proper protection.

119. Each Foreman must go over his section, or send a competent,
reliable man with suitable tools, at designated intervals, to make a
thorough inspection, and see that the track, culverts, highway crossings,
bridges, fences, etc., are in safe condition. If, in his judgment, the
track or any bridge or culvert is not safe, he must at once put out

Rules and Organization. 815

proper signals to warn approaching trains, notify the Supervisor of
Track, Division Engineer and the Superintendent of the condition and
do ever3thing in his power to make the necessary repairs.

120. Section Foremen will have full charge of all forces under
them, and shall employ the number of men the Supervisor of Track
directs. They must see that their men properly perform their duties,
and shall discipline those who arc incompetent or neglectful. They
must keep the records and make the required reports of the time of
their men, and of the receipt, distribution, and use of the material fur-
nished them.

121. In case of accident, Section Foremen must immediately pro-
ceed to the scene and render all assistance in their power, whether the
accident occurs on their own or a neighboring section.

In the absence of the Supervisor or other ranking oflicer, the Section
Foreman on whose section the accident occurs, will have charge of the
assembled track forces, and shall be responsible for the character of
the repairs made. He must not allow the track to be used until it is
known to be safe.

122. Section Foremen shall investigate all accidents resulting in
derailment or. in damage to the track, roadwaj', or structures on their
sections, and report on the prescribed form, giving the cause, as nearly
as they are able to ascertain it.

123. They must keep themselves informed in regard to work per-
formed on their sections by Contractors or others who do not come
under their charge, and see that nothing is done bj' them that will
interfere w^ith the safety of tracks or the safe passage of trains.

124. They shall make a personal inspection of their sections at
designated intervals, examining particularly main track switches and
frogs, looking for concealed defects or breaks.

125. They must give special attention to points where obstructions
are likely to occur, examine the slopes of cuts, and promptly remove
all earth, trees, rocks, or anything likely to fall or slide upon the track,
reporting such conditions to the Supervisor of Track.

126. Section Foremen shall maintain surface ditches in such a
manner that the surface water is carried beyond the cut.

127. Section Foremen must keep the ditches and waterways leading
to and from bridges and culverts clear within the limits of the right-of-
waj-. They must remove accumulated drift and obstructions from
trestles, culverts, and bridges after each storm, calling for assistance,
when needed.

128. During heavj- storms or high water, whether by day or night,
wherebj- tracks or structures are liable to be damaged. Foremen and
such of their forces as they deem necessary, must be on duty. At such
times, they must go over their sections to make sure that the track is
safe, taking stop signals with them.

129. They must see that Watchmen are properly detailed to patrol
the track, watch bridges, or perform other duties, whenever necessary,
for the safetv of track and structures.

816 Rules a.nd Organization.

130. They must keep a careful lookout for fires along the track,
and prevent, if possible, the destruction of buildings, fences, telegraph
poles, timber, or other material, and the spread of fires to adjoining
property. They must not permit fires to In- started unless they have
sufficient force to keep them under control.

Fires discovered on adjoining property must be promptly extin-
guished, if possible, and a report of the damage and origin, if it caii
be ascertained, made on the prescribed form.

131. They must keep the ground under and near buildings, bridges
and trestles cleared of vegetation and combustible matter. Where water
barrels are in use, they must keep them filled with water. They must
keep bridge seats, tops of piers, and other readily accessible portions
of bridges and trestles free from cinders, dirt and vegetation.

132. They must keep interlocking pipe lines and trunking free from
grass and weeds, and switches, frogs and movable parts of interlocking
plants free from snow, ice, and other obstructions. They must give
special attention to drainage through interlocking plants and where track
circuits are used.

133. When track work is to be done which may disturb interlocking
or signal apparatus, there shall be co-operation between the Section Fore-
man and the Signal Maintainer or Foreman.

134. They must give special attention to the maintenance of road
crossings, both as to safety and quality of track and as to the safe and
comfortable accommodation of the highway travel on the crossing and
approaches.

135. They must not permit any encroachment upon the Company's
property or occupancy of any portion of the Company's buildings or
grounds without proper authority.

EXTRA OR FLOATING GANG FOREMEN

136. Extra or Floating Gang Foremen, in charge of trackmen,
report to and receive instructions from the Supervisor of Track.

137. They will have full charge of all forces under them, perform
such duties and employ the number of men the Supervisor of Track
directs.

WATCHMEN

138. Track, Bridge* and Tunnel Watchmen report to and receive
instructions from the Section Foremen.

139. Track Watchmen must carefully examine the track and roadbed
and see that they are in safe condition and that all switches are properly
set and locked for the main track. They must examine buildings and
other property of the Company and protect them from theft and fire.
Should the track be obstructed, the Watchman must display stop signals
in either direction from which trains may approach, and immediately
notify the and the Section Foreman.

♦Refers to watchmen patrolling: bridge.s, not to structure watchmen.

Rules and Organization. 817

140. Bridge Watchmen must keep a supply of water or sand on
the bridges at all times and be prepared to extinguish fires. They shall
keep the coping of the abutments and piers clean, remove combustible
materials from near the bridges and frequently examine the bridge and
report any defects found. Should they observe any obstruction of a
dangerous character, they must display stop signals in either direction
from which trains may approach, and immediately notify the

141. Tunnel Watchmen must make frequent trips through the tun-
nels, observing the condition of the tracks, particularly the rails, and
also observe the walls of the tunnel, removing in winter all icicles which
may become dangerous to traffic. In case obstructions occur which
would endanger trains, they must at once display stop signals in either
direction from which trains may appioach and immediately notify
the

142. W^hen the time of Track, Bridge, or Tunnel Watchmen is not
fully occupied with watching, they will perform such other duties as
may be assigned them.

SUPERVISORS OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS

143. Supervisors of Bridges and Buildings report to and receive
instructions from the Division Engineer.

144. They are in charge, on their respective districts, of the main-
tenance of bridges and structures, and of the employees engaged thereon.

145. They shall have immediate supervision of work train service
for the maintenance of bridges and structures, using such service only
when properly authorized by the Division Engineer.

146. Supervisors of Bridges and Buildings must make the prescribed
inspections of the structures and anpliances under their charge, and
make the required reports.

147. They must know that the Foreman and others under their
supervision fully understand and properly perform their duties; keep
account of and report their time in the manner prescribed and discipline
them when necessary'.

148. They must know that the Foremen are supplied with tools and
material necessary for the efficient performance of their duties and
that these are properly used.

149. They <;hall keep themselves inlormed in regard to all work
performed, upon bridges and structures in their districts by Contractors,
or others, who may not be under their supervision ; see that the work is
done in such a day as not to endanger the safety of tracks, bridges or
structures, and report promptly to the proper officer, if the work is not
being done in accordance with the plans and specifications or according
to prescribed standards.

150. In case of damage to bridges or structures they shall promptly
assemble men and material, proceed to the place of accident, as quickly
as possible, and make necessary repairs. They shall investigate all

818 Rules and Org a n i z a t i o n

accidents to bridges and structures, and report promptly to the proper
officer on the prescribed form.

151. They shall know that water barrel or sand box rests on all
timber bridges and trestles are in repair and supplied with barrels and
buckets, and that station and other structures are equipped with the
necessary water barrels, buckets and other appliances for use in case
of fire.

GENERAL FOREMEN

152. General Foremen in the Bridge and Building Department re-
port to and receive instructions from the Supervisor of Bridges and
Buildings. All rules for the guidance of Supervisors of Bridges and
Buildings apply to General Foremen in that Department.

153. They will have charge, under the Supervisor of Bridges and
Buildings, of all bridges and structures in their respective districts; will
have general oversight of the work being performed on such bridges
and structures and will perform such other duties as may be assigned
them by the Supervisor.

BRIDGE AND BUILDING FOREMEN

154. Bridge and Building Foremen report to and receive instructions
from the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

155. They are responsible for the safe, proper, and economical per-
formance of the work assigned to them. They must do no work on
a bridge or structure which will interfere Avith the safety of trains,
except under proper protection.

156. The}^ will have full charge of all forces under them and shall
employ such forces as the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings directs.
They must see that these men properl}^ perform their duties, and shall
discipline those who are incompetent or neglectful. They must keep
the records and make the required reports of the time of their men, and
of the receipt, distribution, and use of material, furnished them.

157. They will have charge of, and are responsible for such tools
and material as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that these are properlj- used.

158. The completion of any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable materials.

MASON FOREMEN

159. Mason Foremen report to and receive instructions from the
Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

160. They are responsible for the safe, proper, and economical per-
formance of the work assigned to them. They must do no work on .i
bridge or structure which will interfere with the safety of trains, except
under proper protection.

161. They will have full charge of all forces under them and shall
employ such forces as the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings directs.

Rules and Organization. 819

They must see that these men properly perform their duties, and shall
discipline those who are incompetent or neglectful. They must keep the
records and make the required reports of the time of their men, and of
the receipt, distribution, and use of material furnished them.

162. They will have charge of, and are responsible for, such tools
and materials as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that the tools and material arc properly used.

163. The completion of ■ any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable materials.

PAINTER FOREMEN

164. Painter Foremen report to and receive instructions from the
Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

165. They are responsible for the safe, proper, and economical per-
formance of the work assigned to them. They must do no work on
bridges or structures which will interfere with the safety of trains,
except under proper protection.

166. They will have full charge of all forces under ihem and shall
employ such forces as the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings directs.
They must see that their men properly perform their duties and shall
discipline those who are incompetent or neglectful. They must keep
the records and make the required reports of the time of their men,
and of the receipt, distribution, and use of material, furnished them.

167. They will have charge of and are responsible for such tools
and materials as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that these are properly used.

168. Painter Foremen must examine the rigging and exercise care
in the erection of rigging and scaffolding, and must know that they are
safe before permitting them to be used.

169. The completion of any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable materials.

WATER STATION AND PLUMBER FOREMEN

170. Water Station and Plumber Foremen report to and receive
instructions from the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

171. They arc responsible for the safe, proper and economical per-
formance of work assigned to them. They must do no work which
will interfere with the safety of trains, except under proper protection.

172. They will have full charge of all forces under them and shall
employ such forces as the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings directs.
They must see that their men properly perform their duties, and shall
discipline those who are incompetent or neglectful. They must keep
the records and make the required reports of the time of their men,
and of the receipt, distribution, and use of material furnished them.

>^2C Rules atid Organization.

173. They will have charge of, and are responsible for such tools
and materials as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that these are properly used.

174. They will have charge of, and are responsible for the mainte-
nance of water stations, pipe lines, tanks, water columns, heating plants,
plumbing and piping and of the installation of boilers for such plants,
when so directed. They shall report any abuse or improper operation of
the machinery under their charge.

175. They shall know that duplicate parts of such plants in their
charge as are subject to exceptional wear or liability to breakage are
available at all times.

176. When assistance is necessary to make repairs to water supply
units, request must be made on the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

177. When necessary to take any water tank, water column or any
facility affecting the operation of other departments out of service,
either temporarily or permanently, the Foremen will notify the Super-
visor of Bridges and Buildings and must not, except in emergcncj', pro-
ceed with the work until authority is obtained. If an emergency exists,
he shall notify the Superintendent, Division Engineer and Supervisor
of Bridges and Buildings, by wire. When the facility is restored to
service, proper notice must be given.

178. The completion of any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable materials

BRIDGE INSPECTORS

179. Bridge Inspectors report to and receive instructions from the
Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

180. They will be governed by the instructions for the inspection
of bridges, as adopted by the A.R.E.A., and will conform to the instruc-
tions issued by the

181. They will perform such duties as may be assigned them by
the Supervisor of Bridges and Buildings.

SUPERVISOR OF SIGNALS

182. Supervisors of Signals report to and receive instructions from
the Division Engineer.

183. They are in charge, on their respective districts, of the main-
tenance of all automatic and mechanical signals and plants and of the
employees engaged thereon.

184. They must make frequent inspection of all signals and plants
under their charge and make the required reports.

185. They must know that Foremen, Maintainers and others under
their supervision, fully understand and properly perform their duties ;
keep account of and report their time in the manner prescribed and
discipline them when necessary.

Rules and O r sr a n i z a t i o n . 821

186. They must know that Foremen and Maintainers are supplied
with tools and material necessary for the efficient performance of their
duties and that these are properly used.

187. They shall keep themselves informed in regard to all work
performed upon automatic and mechanical signals, plants and appliances
in their districts, by Contractors or others, who may not be under their
supervision ; see that the work is done in such a way as not to endanger
the proper operation of such signals, plants or appliances, and report
promptly to the proper officer if the work is not done in accordance
with plans and specifications, or according to prescribed standards.

188. In case of damage to automatic or mechanical signals, plants
or appliances, they shall promptly assemble men and material, proceed to
the place of accident, as quickly as possible, and make the necessary
repairs. They shall investigate all accidents to automatic and mechanical
signals, plants and appliances, and report promptly on the prescribed
form.

189. They must investigate failures or improper working of inter-
locking and signal apparatus, see that repairs are made promptly and
make the prescribed reports.

190. They must know that signal apparatus is tested frequently in
order, if possible, to discover defects or irregularities which might lead
to failures.

191. They must not make or permit to be made any alterations or
additions to the interlocking or signal apparatus without proper authority.
-Such authorized changes or additions as are made must be reported to the
proper authority immediatelj^ upon their completion, so that the other
departments afi'ected may have such information.

SIGNAL FOREMEN

192. Signal Foremen report to and receive instructions from the
Supervisor of Signals.

193. They are responsible for the safe, proper and economical per-
formance of the work assigned to them.

194. They will have full charge of such forces as the Supervisor
of Signals directs. They must see that these men properly perform
their duties and shall discipline those who are incompetent or neglectful.
They must keep the records and make the required reports of the time
of their men, and of the receipt, distribution and use of material fur-
nished them.

195. The}' will have charge of, and arc responsible for such tools
and materials as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that these are properly used.

196. When any part of an interlocking plant is to be repaired, an
understanding must be reached with the signalman on duty, in order to
insure safe movement of trains and engines during repairs. The signal-
man on duty must be notified when the repairs are completed.

822 Rules and Organization.

197. Signal Foremen must notify the Supervisor of Signals, in
advance of any work requiring the removal from service of any part of
signal or interlocking apparatus, and such apparatus must not be taken
out of service until proper authority is obtained.

198. The completion of any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable material.

SIGNAL MAINTAINERS

199. Signal Maintainers report to and receive instructions from
the Supervisor of Signals.

200. They arc responsible for the safe condition and proper main-
tenance of the interlocking or signal apparatus in their territory and
for the economical use of material in their maintenance.

201. They will have full charge of such forces as the Supervisor of
^Signals directs. They must see that these men properly perform their

duties. They must keep the records and make the required reports of
the time of their men, and of the receipt, distribution and use of the
material furnished them.

202. When any part of an interlocking plant is to undergo repairs
an understanding must be reached with the signalman on duty, in order
to insure safe movement of trains and engines during repairs. If it is
necessary to disconnect any switch, movable point frog or derail, it
must be securely spiked in proper position before permitting trains or
engines to pass over it.

203. Signal Maintainers must notify the Supervisor of Signals
before taking any signal or interlocking apparatus out of service, and
authority must be obtained, except in emergency, before such apparatus
is taken out of service. Should an emergency arise which requires
removal from service of any apparatus, signals must display their most
restrictive indication ; switches, movable point frogs and derails must be
securely spiked in correct position and Supervisor of Signals, Division
Engineer and Superintendent immediately notified by wire.

204. In case of accident or serious damage to interlocking or signal
apparatus in their territory. Signal Maintainers must immediately pro-
ceed to the place, asking for such assistance and material as may be
required, and make repairs promptly.

205.- If an accident is caused or alleged to have been caused by
any defect in the interlocking or signal apparatus, a thorough examina-
tion must be made before any apparatus is disturbed; a record of the
position of the levers shall be made, and a written statement of condi-
tions found shall be sent to the Supervisor of Signals.

206. Signal Maintainers must co-operate with track forces in work
pertaining to the maintenance of such track appliances as affect the
operation of signals.

207. They must make such inspection and repairs of signal apparatus
under their charge as will secure proper operation. They must inspect
the signal lights on their territories at regular intervals and make report
to the Supervisor of .Signals.

Rules and Orgatiization. 828

208. They must make the usual standard tests for condition and
etticiencj' of interlocking switches, derails, etc., keep them adjusted, and
make the required reports.

SUPERVISORS OF TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE

209. Supervisors of Telegraph and Telephone report to and receive
instructions from the Division Engineer.

210. They are in charge, on their respective districts, of the mainte-
nance of all telegraph and telephone lines and apparatus and of the
employees engaged thereon.

211. They must make frequent inspection of all telegraph and tele-
phone lines and apparatus under their charge and make the required
reports.

212. The}- must know that Foremen, Maintaincrs and others under
their supervision fully understand and properly perform their duties ;
keep account of, and report their time in the manner prescribed and
discipline them when necessary.

213. They must know that Foremen and Maintaincrs are supplied
with tools and material necessarj- for the efficient performance of their
duties and that these are properly used.

214. They shall keep themselves informed in regard to all work
performed upon telegraph and telephone lines and apparatus in their
districts by Contractors and others who may not be under their super-
vision; see that the work is done in such a way.as not to endanger the
proper operation of the telegraph and telephone lines and apparatus, and
report promptly to the proper officer, if the Avork is not being done in
accordance with the plans and specifications or according to prescribed
standards.

215. In case of damage to wires or apparatus, they shall promptly
assemble men and material, proceed to the place of accident as quickly
as possible, and make the necessary repairs. Thej' shall investigate all
accidents to wires and apparatus and report promptly to the proper
officer on the prescribed forms.

216. They must investigate failures or improper working of tele-
graph or telephone apparatus, see that repairs are made promptly and
make the prescribed reports.

217. They must know that telegraph and telephone wires and ap-
paratus are tested frequently in order, if possible, to discover defects or
irregularities which might lead to failures.

218. They must not make or permit to be made, any alterations
or additions to the telegraph or telephone wires or apparatus, without
proper authority. Authorized additional changes or additions, when made,
must be reported to the proper authority immediately upon their com-
pletion, so that the other departments affected may have such information.

824 Rules and Organization.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE FOREMEN

219. Telegraph and Telephone Foremen report to and receive in-
structions from the Supervisor of Telegraph and Telephone.

220. They are responsible for the safe, proper and economical per-
formance of the work assigned to them.

221. They will have full charge of such forces as the Supervisor
of Telegraph and Telephone directs. They must see that these men
properly perform their duties and discipline those who are incompetent
or neglectful. They must keep the records and make the required
reports of the time of their men and of the receipt, distribution and use
of material furnished them.

222. They will have charge of, and arc responsible for such tools
and materials as are necessary for the performance of their work, and
must know that these arc properly used.

223. When any part of the telegraph or telephone ^ipparatus, which
affects the movement of trains, is to be repaired, an understanding must
be reached with the operator on duty to insure safe movement of trains
and engines during repairs. The operator on duty must be notified
when the repairs are completed.

224. Telegraph and Telephone Foremen must notify the Supervisor
of Telegraph and Telephone in advance of any work requiring the
removal from service of any part of the Telegraph or Telephone wires
or apparatus, and such apparatus must not be taken out of service until
proper authority is obtained.

225. The completion of any work includes the cleaning of the
premises, proper disposition of debris, and removal of usable material.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE MAINTAINERS

226. Telegraph and Telephone Maintainers report to and receive
instructions from the Supervisor of Signals.

227. They are responsible for the safe condition and proper main-
tenance of the Telegraph and Telephone wires or apparatus in their
respective territories and for the economical use of material in such
maintenance.

228. They will have full charge of such forces as the Supervisor
of Telegraph and Telephone directs. They must see that these men
properly perform their duties. They must keep the records and make
the required reports of the time of their men, and of the receipt, dis-
tribution and use of the material furnished them.

229. When any part of the Telegraph or Telephone wires or appa-
ratus, which directly affects the movement of trains, is to undergo repairs,
an understanding must be reached with the operator on duty in order to
insure the safe movement of trains and engines during repairs.

2i0. Telegraph and Telephone Maintainers must notify the Super-
visor of Telegraph and Telephone Ijefore taking out of service any
part of the Telegraph or Telephone wires or apparatus, and authority
must be obtained, except in emergency, before such wires or apparatus

Rules and Organization. 825

are taken out of service. Should an emergency' arise, which requires
the removal from service of any part of Telegraph or Telephone wires
or apparatus, the Supervisor of Telegraph and Telephone, Division
Engineer and Superintendent must be immediately notified by wire.

231. In case of accident or serious damage to Telegraph or Tele-
phone wires or apparatus in their territory, Telegraph and Telephone
Maintainers must immediately proceed to the place, asking for such
assistance and materials as may be required, and make repairs promptly.

232. If an accident is caused or alleged to have been caused by
any defect in the Telegraph or Telephone wires or apparatus, a thorough
examination must be made before any wires or apparatus are disturbed.
A record shall be made and a written statement of the conditions found
shall be sent to the Supervisor of Telegraph and Telephone.

233. Telegraph and Telephone Maintainers must make such in-
spections, tests, and repairs of the Telegraph and Telephone wires and
apparatus under their charge as will secure proper operation.

CONDUCT OF WORK

Right-of-Way
Care of

234. Section Foremen shall keep their sections in a neat and orderly
condition, and shall devote sufficient time to cleaning and putting things
in order around section toolhouses, station grounds, j^ards, sidings, high-
way and farm crossings, and the right-of-way generally.

Fencing

235. Section Foremen are responsible for the proper inspection of
the fences on their respective sections. They shall report to the Super-
visor any defects found, making such temporary repairs as possible,
and endeavoring to keep stock from getting upon the right-of-way or
tracks, until permanent repairs can be made. They should endeavor
to keep all gates closed, securing so far as possible, the co-operation of
the adjacent landowners in this effort.

Mowing

236. The amount of mowing done will depend upon local conditions
and Federal, State or County laws or regulations. Where the railroad
runs through forest lands, fire regulations must be complied with.

22)1. Section Foremen, under the direction of the Supervisor, arc
responsible . for compliance with all the laws, rules and regulations in
effect in their respective districts, with reference to mowing and fire
protection.

General Cleaning

238. Section Foremen should for reasons of economy, as well as
neatness, gather up scrap and usable material from the right-of-way,
disposing of the same as directed by the Supervisor. They should see
that no trees which by their location or condition might endanger trains

826 Rules and Organization.

or the Telephone or Telegraph wires, arc left standing on the right-oi-
way or adjacent thereto, getting permission to cut those trees not on
the right-of-way, if possible to do so. They should endeavor to keep
the tracks and right-of-way in a neat and tidy condition.

ROADBED

Drainage
General

239. Thorough drainage of the roadbed is absolutely necessary be-
fore good track can be secured or maintained, and it i? of the first
importance that this matter be given careful detailed consideration at
all points.

Surface Drainage

240. Ditches should be kept open at all times so as to divert the
water from the roadbed quickl}-. They should be dug out thoroughly
and restored to full size in the spring and late fall. Side ditches should
be dug uniformly and parallel to the track, and conform to the standard
roadbed sections.

241. Intercepting ditches should be constructed along the top of
the bank, for the protection of cuts, where the drainage area would be
likely to collect sufficient water during heavy rains, from the higher
ground adjacent, to wash the slopes.

242. The end of a ditch .should be diverted from the track, s(j that
the scouring action of the water will not weaken or wash away the
roadbed.

243. Waterways leading to and from bridges and culverts should
be kept clean within the limits of railroad property. All culverts should
be kept open for the free and unobstructed passage of water at all times.

244. In regions of heavy snows, ditches .should be cut through the
snow, wherever a sudden thaw would be likely to flood the track, and
all ditches should be cleaned when the snow is melting in the spring.

245. Cross drains should be put in at proper intervals, where
directed.

Underground Drainage

246. In wet or narrow cuts, where side ditches cainiot lie effectively

maintained, sub-drains will be provided as directed by the

who will determine the size and character of drains to be used. Such
drains must be laid to a' true grade and in conformity with standard
plans.

CARE OF ROADWAY

247. The cross-section of the roadway shall conform to the standard
plans. No deviation from the sections shown shall be made without
proper authority.

248. Growth of vegetation on the slopes of cuts and embankments
should be encouraged to prevent erosion.

Rules and Organization. 827

TRACK

Ties

Storage of

249. Ties stored along the right-oi-way should be piled to conform
to the standard plan. (The standard plan should show the minimum
distance to the nearest rail.)

250. Ties intended for treatment should not be inspected before
being brought to the shipping point. As soon as such lies are brought
to the shipping point by the producer, they should be inspected and
loaded prompth- for shipment to storage yards at treating plants.

Renewals — Inspection for

251. The ties in track must be inspected at stated times each year
and those which will not last until the next inspection marked for re-
newal. This inspection should be made preferably by the Supervisor
personally, accompanied by the Section Foreman. The Supervisor should
report to the Division Engineer, on the proper form, the number of
ties marked for renewal on each mile and each section. This report
should be carefully checked by the Division Engineer and where any
unusual or unfavorable condition is indicated, a thorough investigation
should be made to insure proper renewals.

Renewals — Method of

252. The renc\\al of ties should be started when directed by the
Division Engineer. All defective ties removed from track shall each
day be placed for burning or loading on cars. The Supervisor shall
frequently inspect ties removed from track to see if any have been
removed which might have remained in the track, with safety, until the
next inspection.

253. Ties shall be spaced according to the standard plan. All ties
shall be placed square to the line of rails. The outside ends on double
tracks, and the ends on one side throughout on single track should be
lined parallel with the rail.

254. Ties should be laid so as to obtain the best bearing. The
side nearest the heart of the tree should be placed down whenever
possible. Twisted or badly hewn ties should have the bearings made
true with an adze. It is good practice to adze ties requifing treatment
before the preservative is applied.

Use of Tie Plugs

255. Whenever spike^ are drawn from ties, wooden tie plugs should
be driven into all holes, except in ties which are to be renewed that
season. In replacing spikes, they should be driven into the plugs.

Records of

256. Full and accurate records of tie renewals and all data of value
in connection therewith should be kept on suitable forms. Forms recom-
mended bv the A.R.F.A. are most convenient and s;itisfactorv.

828 Rules" and. Organization. .

Rail

Renewals

257. The most expensive and the most easily damaged part of the
track structure is the rail, therefore care should be exercised in tho
unloading and handling of it. In unloading from cars, rails should be
skidded or otherwise carefully lowered to prevent injur}'. Where it is
necessary to drop them, both ends must be dropped at the same time,
and the greatest care taken to avoid their falling on hard or uneven
surfaces. Rails received in gondola cars should be unloaded with some
approved device to prevent injury.

258. Rails should be distributed, as far as practicable, where they
can .be laid with the least amount of handling. Unless the rail is to be
laid at once, it should not be distributed through yards and station
grounds where trainmen and others may stumble over it.

259. Rail laying may be done in the winter months, or at such
seasons of the year, depending on the climate, as are not favorable for
doing other track work.

260. Where practicable, rail should be laid one at a time. Standard
expansion shims should be used. The openings between 33 ft. rails
should be as follows :

—20° to 0° A inch

0° to 25° y^ inch

25° to 50° -^ inch

50° to 75° Yz inch

75° to 100° -h inch

Over 100° rail to be laid close.

Care should be taken that the openings between the rails be not
more than the above limits, as too much expansion in the joints will
spoil the rail quicker than any other error or defect in the method of
laying, especially under heavy traffic.

261. Care should be exercised by those in charge of rail laying
gangs to see that adzing is carefully done and the rail left in proper line,
gage and surface. Shims should be used if the track is frozen and the
ties cannot be lifted to eliminate low spots. It is desirable to place tie
plates and anticreepers the same day the rail is laid. It is especially
important to prevent any running of the rail by using a sufficient number
of anticreepers at once, as any running of the rail changes the expan-
sion in the joints, making some joints wide and others close, resulting in
battered joints, and in the hot weather danger from buckling of the
track where the joints are tight.

262. Except for very sharp curves, sharper than are usually found
in main line tracks, rail should not be curved before laying.

263. All kinked or crooked rails should be straightened before being
laid; if surface bent, they must either be removed or straightened.

264. In making temporary connections in main tracks, an old rail
should be cut and fastened to the new rail, using compromise joints
when necessary.

Rules and Organization. 829

265. When replacing rail of approximately the same width of base,
so that the tie plates need not be changed, but two lines of spikes should
be drawn. When a diflferent tie plate is required, all spikes must be
drawn. Where no tie plates are in use but three lines of spikes need
be drawn for any change in the width of the base of rail.

266. All spikes should be driven vertically with the face in contact
with the base of the rail. They should not be straightened while being
driven. The rail must be full spiked, and the spikes should be stag-
gered so that the outside spikes will be on the same side of the tie, and
the inside spikes on the opposite side. Where shoulder tie plates are
used, a third spike may be driven on the inside of the rail, with the
back of the spike against the base of the rail. Good second-hand spikes
can be used for the third spike.

267. All joint bars should be securely fastened with vhe full number
of bolts. At permanent connections of rails of different sections, com-
promise joints should be used.

268. For the preservation of the rail, and to secure the best bearing
for carrying the loads, and distributing the weight of the rolling stock
uniformly over the rail and to the roadbed, the ties should be spaced
a uniform distance, face to face. Approximately eleven (11) inches
apart will give, with average ties, twenty (20) ties to a thirty-three (33)
foot rail and eighteen (18) ties to a thirty (30) foot rail.

269. The rail joint should be so designed as to obviate any necessity
for special spacing of the joint ties. With properly designed joints, re-
spacing of ties when the rail is renewed is unnecessary.

Bonding

270. Where track circuits are used for operation of signals or
other purposes, bonding of the rails is necessary and this feature should
receive proper consideration and the work be carefully and efficiently
performed. Where air, electricity or other power is available, any
mechanical arrangement which will operate drilling machines successfully
is desirable and economical.

Replacement — Inspection of Rail in Track

271. A complete record should be kept by miles and sections, of
the manufacturer, section, year, position and rail letter, of all new rail
laid in track. This record should be kept in book form; one copy in
the Division Engineer's office, one copy covering his section, by each
Section Foreman. This record should be kept absolutely up to date,
each and every change, whether of individual rails or many rails, being
immediately recorded in the books and the old record removed.

272. Track walkers should be properly instructed to look for broken
or defective rails, and report same, when discovered, to the Section
Foreman, taking proper precautions to protect traffic, if necessary, on
account of the condition of the rail found.

273. Where rail failures become numerous, especially if transverse
fissures develop, a special rail inspection should be arranged. This can

830 Rules and Organization.

be facilitated by the use of a mirror attached to a short wire handle
for examining the inside and underside of the head of the rail. A good
magnifying glass with which minute defects or hair line cracks can be
inspected, is desirable. This method of inspection, if properly con-
ducted, will result in the discovery of a large percentage of transverse
fissures before the rail breaks in the track, and such rails can be re-
moved. When one rail of an ingot fails in track by reason of a trans-
verse fissure, all the remaining rails of that ingot should be removed
from main line passenger tracks. Such rails may be relaid in side tracks
or in yards.

Broken Rails

274. A broken rail found in the main track must be protected
immediately by a flagman and no trains allowed to pass over it until it
is found that the rail is in such condition as will permit the train to
pass in safety. If it is decided trains may pass over the rail safely, all
trains must be stopped before reaching the break, and then allowed to
proceed at slow speed. If a suitable rail is available, the broken rail
should be replaced immediately; othervdse, if it can be done, the broken
ends of the rail should be connected by joint bars, the rail drilled and
the joint bars full bolted, after which the resumption of traffic may be
permitted.

Joint Bars

275. Rail joints should be as simple and of as few parts as possible
to be effective.

276. The joints should be kept well oiled, both as a preservative
from rust and to facilitate expansion and contraction of the rail.

277. Insulated joints should be installed only on rails conforming
to the section for which they are designed. Care must be taken, when
installing such joints, to properly place the insulation, and not to damage
the fiber or bushings. The ties under and adjacent to insulated joints
must be kept well tamped.

Track Bolts

278. As large track bolts should be used as the rail and joint bars
will permit.

219. It is essential to the preservation of the rail and joint bars
that track bolts be kept tight. The use of proper nutlocks, keeping the
bolts well oiled, and careful inspection and systematic tightening of
all bolts is required of Section Foremen.

280. Track bolts should be gone over and re-tightened after new
rail has been laid, as soon as traffic has worn the mill scale and rust
off the joint bars and settled the bars into place.

281. Care should be exercised in the design of wrenches for tighten-
ing track bolts. The jaws should fit the nut as closely as possible and
the handle should be long enough so one man can tighten the nuts, but not
long enough so one man can twist or stretch the bolts.

Rules and Organization. 831

Nutlocks

282. Spring luitlocks of approved design should be used on all
track bolts.

Track Spikes

283. Care should be exercised in driving spikes to keep the .spike
vertical, so as not to necessitate straightening the spike by striking the
back of the head with a hammer when it is partly driven. Spikes
should be driven until the heads are in contact with the base of the
rail, but not driven too far, thereby bending the neck And causing the
head to crack or break off.

284. Badly bent, crooked, or neck-cut spikes should not be used,
especially in main tracks. Good spikes, which are bent, should be sent
to a reclaiming plant and straightened.

Anticreepyers

285. Anticreepers should be applied where instructed by

The number of anticreepers per rail will depend upon the physical

characteristics of the track, and the amount and character of the traffic.

286. In the application of anticreepers care should be exercised to
use proper tools, to properly applj^ the anticreepers, and not to damage
any of their parts. The use of spikemauls, or heavy hammers, should
be discouraged.

Tie Plates

287. Tie plates will be used where directed by the

288. Shoulder tie plates, so punched that special joint plates are
unnecessary, should be used.

289. \^'hen appbdng tie plates care should be exercised to see that
the plates have a full even bearing on the ties, that the track is in cor-
rect gage before they are spiked to the tie and that the shoulder of
the plate rests against the base of the rail for the full width of the
plate. The shoulder of the plate must not be permitted to remain
under the base of the rail. Rough or crooked ties should be adzed when
necessary to give a level bearing and all old spike holes should be
plugged.

BALLAST
Cross-Section

290. The cross-section of the ballast should conform to the standard
plans.

Unloading

291. When unloading ballast care must be exercised to secure
proper disposition and avoid waste. If special ballast cars are not
available, hopper bottom cars should be used.

832 Rules and Organization.

Ballasting

292. It is not possible to maintain good riding track under heavy
traffic with insufficient ballast. The purpose of ballast is to provide a
uniform support for the track, distribute the weight of the trainload to
the roadbed, hold the track in position, and assist in the drainage.

293. Track must be kept in good line and surface while ballasting.
The ballast program should be so arranged, and the supplj' so regulated,
as to leave the least possible open track when the season closes. During
the progress of the ballasting, open track should be watched carefully
and protected with the prescribed slow signals, if necessary.

294. Where directed by the Division Engineer, preparatory to the
distribution of new ballast, all the old ballast and unsuitable material
will be removed to the bottom of the ties, for the full width of the
roadbed, the old ballast cleaned, and the unsuitable material used for
widening embankments or other purposes. At the same time, all ties
requiring renewal should be replaced and the ties properly spaced, if
necessary.

295. When the old ballast has been thoroughly cleaned, sufficient
new ballast should be unloaded to make the first raise, which is usually
made by shovel tamping the ties. When ballasting or surfacing track out
of face, both rails should be raised together. It is safer, especially where
traffic is heavy and fast, to raise both rails together, than to raise and
surface one rail, and then bring the other rail up to grade.

296. Foremen should be sure they are properly protected bj' slow-
order, caution signs, or flag, or all of these, if necessary, when raising
track, and should, except in emergency, raise against the current of
traffic, where there is more than one track. A long easy runoff should
always be prepared ahead of fast passenger trains.

297. In gravel or broken stone ballast, it is recommended as good
practice to tamp the ties solid from 15 in. inside the rail out to the
ends. If possible, the end of the tie outside of the rail should be tamped
first and a train allowed to pass over before tamping on the inside of
the rail. The space under the rail should be tamped well. The center
of the tie should not be tamped.

298. Where the track is electrically bonded, the ballast must be kept
at least 1 in. below the base of rail. At road crossings, platforms, etc.,
where this is not practicable, the rails may be insulated by painting them
with an asphaltum or tar product, and good, clean stone mixed with the
same material may be used for at least 1 ft. each side of the rails.

299. The following tools should be used : For broken stone or
furnace slag ballast: Shovel, tamping pick and stone fork. For gravel,
chats, chert or cinder ballast : Shovel, tamping pick or tamping bar.

300. Mechanical tie tampers have been developed, which are efficient
and economical, and these may be used for heavy main line work in any
kind of ballast.

301. There are a number of devices and machines now being manu-
factured for use in cleaning ballast, and any device which is efficient and
economical should be used.

Rules and Organization. 833

LINE AND SURFACE

302. Good line and surface are the first essentials for good riding
track. If sufficient ballast is furnished at the proper time and properly
distributed, and tie renewals arc kept up to date, the proper attention to
line and surface will insure good riding track.

303. As early in the spring as the weather and track conditions will
permit, the entire section should be gone over and smoothed up. At this
time special attention should be given to those portions of the section on
which no tie renewals or ballasting is expected to be done, during the
season, and this track put in 100 per cent, condition. Where tie renewals
are to be made, or ballasting is to be done, no unnecessary work should
be done, the aim being to keep these portions of the section sufficiently
smooth for safe and comfortable riding, until the work of renewing ties
or ballasting can be accomplished.

304. Where the track shows evidence of being badly out of line on
curves, and there is opportunity to do so, it is recommended that line
stakes be set by Engineers. But ordinarily the Section Foreman, as-
sisted, if necessary, by the Supervisor, can line the track very accurately
and secure practically perfect riding curves by the use of a string.

305. By using a string 62 ft. long, holding the ends against the gage
side of the high rail and measuring the distance from the middle of the
string to the gage of the rail, the approximate degree of curve can be
found — each inch of distance representing 1 deg. of curve.

306. When raising or surfacing track, Foremen must not trust to
their eyesight alone, but must use the track level boards and sighting
boards. Track level boards must be tested frequently.

307. When not surfacing out of face, as in case of picking up joints
or other low- places, the general level of the track should not be disturbed.

Shimming

308. Wooden shims placed under the lails should be used to maintain
the proper surface of the track, when the surface is disturbed by the
action of frost, or when other conditions make tamping impracticable.

309. When shimming, the track level and track gage must always
be used.

310. Shimming should be done on top of the tie. No shimming
should be done under the tie, except in emergency and shims so placed
should be removed as soon as possible.

311. Shims must be the same thickness throughout, and not wedge
shaped. They must have an even bearing on the tie.

312. Where shims are used the rails must be securely braced to
prevent spreading. Tie plates with one end placed against the outside
under the head of the rail, and the other end spiked to the tie make good
braces.

313. Section Foremen must watch track which has been shimmed
very closely, testing frequently with the gage and level board to make

834 Rules and Organization.

sure that shims are in place and tight and that track docs not get out of
gage or surface.

314. When the frost is leaving the track, shims must be changed
frequently replacing thick shims with thinner, until the necessity for
shims has passed. As soon as the frost is entirely out of the track, all
shims should be removed and the track surfaced, if necessary. Care
should be exercised, however, that track surfacing is not done before the
frost has all gone.

GAGING

315. Uniform gage is essential to good track and must be maintained.

316. The standard gage is 4 ft. 8^2 in. Curves of 8 deg. and under
should be standard gage. Gage should be widened %-\n. ior each 2 deg.
or fraction thereof, over 8 deg., to a maximum of 4 ft. 9J4 i"- for tracks
of standard gage. Gage, including widening due to wear, should never
exceed 4 ft. 9% in.

317. The installation of frogs on the inside of curves is to be
avoided whenever practicable. Where this is unavoidable ihe gage of the
track at the frog should be standard.

318. Where track is lined and surfaced the gage should always be
checked and made standard at the same time. If the track is allowed
to remain out of line or out of surface for any length of time, bad
gage is ver^- likely to result therefrom, and for this reason Foremen
should always check the gage and make any necessary corrections when
lining and surfacing the track.

319. Track gages should be checked frequently with a standard
gage to assure that all gages are correct. This may be done each year in
the winter months, and the gages should be painted a new standard color
each time tested.

Elevation of Curves and Easements at Ends of Same

320. The elevation on curves and the easements at the ends of
same should be in accordance with the requirements and according to
prescribed standards.

321. Where the maximum speed allowed by timetable is higher
than the maximum standard elevation will safely permit, the speed should
be reduced accordingly. Signs should be placed at the beginiung of each
curve where the speed must be reduced below the maximum iillowed by
the timetable. The signs should show in plain figures the maximum
pern«$sible speed.

322. The maximum elevation on any curve must not exceed seven
and one-half inches. It should be remembered that speed is the principal
factor in elevation on curves, and that the degree is a secondary factor
only. Foremen should be cautioned not to carry too much elevation
where speed is slow, even if the curvature is sharp. Where there is
considerable freight traffic and passenger traffic is not so important, it

Rules and Organization. 835

is advisable to keep the elevation low on the curves, and slow down the
passenger trains to meet the conditions.

323. Where possible, posts should be placed at the side of the track
for the guidance of Section Foremen. These posts, indicating the eleva-
tion in inches and fractions thereof, should be set at the beginning of
the easement ; at the beginning and end of the regular curve, and at
the end of the easement or point of the tangent. Posts should also be
set at the points of compound and at each end of easements, between
compound curves.

FROGS AND SWITCHES

324. The proper ini.tallation and maintenance of frogs and switches
is essential both for safety and economy.

325. It is especially important to keep the track in good line and
surface through frogs and switches, and Foremen must give these features
special attention.

326. Switches and frogs must be inspected frequently to see that
they are in proper working order, and that all nuts, bolts and other
fastenings are in place and properly tightened. Any broken or damaged
parts should be replacsd promptly.

327. Switch points must fit closely and accurately vo the stock rail,
which must be bent in accordance with the prescribed standards. When
renewing a switch point, the stock rail should also be renewed, if neces-
sar}- to secure a proper fit of the point. In like manner a new stock
rail should not be used with a worn point, as there is grave danger of
derailment, if the stock rail is higher than the switch point.

328. Frogs must be protected by guard rails, constructed and placed
in accordance with standard plans. The tops of the guard rails .should
be level with the main running rails, and should be securely held in
place.

329. Guard rails should be so placed that the gage distance from
the frog point to the flangeway side of the guard rail will be at least
4 ft. 654 in-, and the distance between the flangeway sides of the wing
rail and guard rail shall not exceed 4 ft. S in.

330. Switch rod and connecting rod bolts must be equipped with
cotter pins. The bolts should be inserted with the nut on top for con-
venient inspection.

331. Switches must be kept free from obstructions at all times and
free from ice and snow in winter. The slide plates should be kept well
oiled.

332. Switch stands must be kept firmly spiked to the head-block ■
ties, must be set plumb, and with the target square with the track.

333. Automatic switch stands should be inspected frequently for
lost motion. They must be kept well niled. Head-block ties must be
kept firmly tamped.

334. The switch stand should be placed, wherever possible, on the
side of the track where the connecting rod will be in tension when the

836 Rules and Organization.

switch is set for the main track. The switch banners and lamps should
be placed on the right hand or Engineer's side of the track approaching
facing point switches.

335. All switch stands and facing point switches on multiple tracks
and all main track switches on single track should be equipped with
switch lamps of approved design, which will show the proceed color
when the switch is set for the main track and the stop color when the
switch is open.

336. Unless otherwise provided for, the Section Foreman is re-
sponsible for the proper care and maintenance of switch stands and
lamps and must give these devices careful attention. Switch stands must
be kept tight on the head-blocks and adjusted to give the switch the
proper throw and to keep the points tightly against the rails, when the
switch is closed, either for the main track or the turnout.

337. Switch lamps must be kept clean, supplied with oil, properly
adjusted, and firmly placed on the switch stand, so they will not jar out
when the switch is used.

338. Main track switches, not interlocked, must be kept locked at
all times except when in actual use by trains, or when being inspected.
Foremen must report immediately main track switches found unlocked
or with the lock missing.

SWITCH TIES

339. Switch ties should be used for all permanent turnouts, cross-
overs and railroad crossings, and should conform to the standard speci-
fications for material, sizes and workmanship. They should be placed
in track in accordance with the standard plans.

340. For temporary work, track tics may be used, lapping them in
place of switch ties, but switch ties should be used for head-blocks and
for at least three or four tics under the frog and guard rails.

TRACK SIGNS AND POSTS

341. Track signs and posts must be provided and placed in accord-
ance with standard plans and special instructions.

342. Section Foremen must see that all track signs and posts are
in their proper places and are kept plumb, and that weeds and other
vegetation are not permitted to obstruct the view of same.

343. All track signs and posts, so far as possible, should be made
of metal or other suitable material which will not quickly deteriorate.
If made of metal, the posts of small signs can be made of old boiler
flues, which have liecn scrapped. All track signs and posts should be
kept painted.

ROAD CROSSINGS

344. Section Foremen arc responsible on their respective sections
for the proper care and maintenance of public and private road crossings.

Rules and Organization. 837

345. Road crossings should be constructed and maintained accord-
ing to standards, and conform to legal requirements. Plankless cross-
ings are more easily maintained and more satisfactory to travelers on
the highways. These are constructed of clean stone, of the smaller
sizes used for road construction, with a good asphaltum binder for the
top coat.

346. Road crossing signs where required by law, must be maintained.
Such signs should be properly placed and kept clear of obstructions which
would interfere with the view of travelers on the highway. Where
possible, the permission of adjacent landowners should be secured, if
necessary, and all brush or trees, obscuring the view of approaching
trains, removed.

TRACK TOOLS

347. A sufficient number of the proper kind of tools, in serviceable
condition, is essential for economy and efficiency in the performance of
any kind of track work.

348. All track tools are furnished by and remain the property of
the Company.

349. Section and other Foremen in charge of men will be held
responsible for the proper care and use of tools. They must know
that they have at all times a sufficient supply, in serviceable condition.
They should see that tools are not lost or broken, and that, when in use,
they are not left where they are liable to be struck by trains or derail
trains.

350. WHen not in use, all tools should be collected and properly
protected from the weather and from being stolen. Where it is not
practicable for Foremen to take all tools to the toolhouse each evening,
suitable tool boxes, equipped with substantial locks, should be provided,
and all tools placed therein each night.

351. Labor saving devices and appliances should be used wherever
such use can be shown to be economical.

352. The use of heavy sections of rail makes the handling and
laying of such by hand, laborious and costly. Rail handling and laying
machines, or locomotive cranes, should be used for such work where
available.

Appendix C
THE SCIENCE OF ORGANIZATION

S. E. Coombs, Chairtuan, Sub-Committee (4).

Up to the present, Organization has developed as an art rather than
a science and has brought out two general types, viz., the Line Type and
the Staff Type.

Line Type is exemplified in the army, in which there is a direct
connection from the head through each subordinate to the next lower
until the worker, if wc may so call him, is reached.

Line Type

/yec7cf

$i/h//eod

$i>/>.//e^

fore/nao

/&/r

/"or:

f^TTi ^^KU s^^i%

>Vo r- ff/'r? ^ /^or c e

Staff T}pe is exemplified in manufacturing concerns, where there
are specialists who may direct the worker in any part of his work that
may be of a nature to be covered by the specialist's knowledge or
authority.

Staff Type

Sfi.

For.

iyo raring /^orce,

Nearly all organizations arc combinations or modifications of these
two types.

In the Organization of the Engineering forces of a railroad the
types work out into what is known as Departmental and Divisional
Organizations, which are modified Line Types, in the manner shown in
Exhibits "A" and "B."

838

Rules and Organization. 839

Fundamentals of Organization

1. An organization must have its object clearlj- defined.

2. In its simplest form Organization consists of Head and Working

Force.

3. Subdivisions, combinations, extensions and modifications of this

form may be made to an}' extent and may be most readily shown
and understood bj' means of charts.

4. The Head or Executive must

(a) understand his objective.

(b) plan and direct all activities.

(d) receive results.

5. Executive must have complete authority over working force.

6. Executive may subdivide or delegate his authority, in which case

each sub-head must know exactly his duties and responsibilities
and there must be an invariable sequence without any conflict
hi, nor division of, authorit}- and responsibility.

7. There must be harmony in all relations of different sub-heads.

8. There must be interchange of ideas and information between all

types of executives.

9. Working force consists of equipment, tools and men, and the

economic relations between these must be balanced.

10. Correct discipline is an essential feature of organization.

11. Compensation must follow the human effort in just proportion.

12. Xot only physical force is available in any human organization

but proper results from 10, 11 and 4c should develop in such a
body an esprit de corps.

13. Co-ordination and correlation of work as to time, place and mate-

rials must not onh' be planned by executive, but he must know
that it is* accomplished.

14. Sub-heads in the smaller spheres must apply all principles used by

the higher executives.

15. Standardization of methods and means must be intelligently applied.

16. Organization charts give the simplest and most readily compre-

hended means of expressing the system in use.

840

Rules and Organization

EXHIBIT -A

MAINTENANCE OF WAY ORGANIZATION

(DEPARTMENTAL)

VicePrejidenf
in cHarge of operafion

jChiefEnglneerMWl

|fl«(jChlefEnqr.KtV.|

1 1 1

1 1 II

Roadway Engr.|

Signal Engr. |

En<jr.ofBrldq«|

flrchifed |

5upf.5c«l«l

IVatcrSc rv.tr FmIBiJ

j flsst.Enqrs.l

ICKSi^nallMilfcj

1 fl«t.En,r.J

1 Draftsmen |

Kh^Scaltlnsp'H

jinspeclora |

iJ.morEncr^J

■jSignallnsptttnl

■j Junior EnqrsJ

HScalilntpedbl

HDraffsmen |

l— JDraf+smen I

HDraftsm.n 1

HDraffsmcnl

|Disl.Engr.M.W. 1
1 '

1 DisI.Engr.MW (

iD.sI.Enqr.M.W.

]

1 •

1 Efc 1

1 flsst.Enqrs.l

1 Etc

iJunio
1 |Oraf

Enqrd
ameni

|Division Enqr. |

1 1

1 J 1

1 flsst.Engr. 1 |B.H8.5up
' 1 ' ' 1

[Track 5upv. 1 |5ignalSupv.| \WaUr5trvS^i

1 Rodman 1

1 BAB. Foremen 1 ISeoTrkforemml
' 1 ' ' 1 '

|5ignjl Malntamtrs j jWjIerServiijrcM | 1

1 B> B- Forces j j SecTrh.Forc.j j

Rules and O r e a n i z a t i o n

841

exMB/r-B

MAINTENANCE OF WAY ORGANIZATION

(DIVISIONAL)

Vice President

.nth.r^e of operation

IchiefEnginecr MW 1

IftsstChiefEn^r.MW. 1

1 1 1

1 1 II

Roadwaij Engr 1

Srgna! Engr |

Enqrof Brld^e^

rchltecf 1 |5upt .Scales |

IValir5err.l|Fuil^c{

1 1

■| flsst.Enqrs. 1

{Signal lnspKtofs|

\ fl5sf.En,r.. 1

3rjflsmen | |5<:«I.ln5p.clorj|

H Inspeclor. 1

HJ>,niorEn,ns.|

L|Driftsm«n|

Hj.n,orEr.,rs.|

H Draftsmen 1

HD™ft5m«n|

'— JDrdftamen |

1 G.nl.Supt. 1

1 Genl.Supt. 1 1 5enl.5upl.

]

1 eIc 1

Dist.Engr.MW. 1 1 Etc

f flsst.Engrs, i iJuniorEngrs.l |Dra

ftsmen]

L(.ca,.-1.,r..,n.4

5uperlntenden

[]

1 Div.Enqr.

1 1

1 flsst Engr 1
1

iBIrBSupv

[ Track5ijpv

|5ignal5v-pv. | jlCalerSer.iupv.l

1 ■

' ' l:__.

i 1

1 Rodman 1

IB-B. Foremen 1

I5ec Track Forerr
1

ISlflnalMjintd'incrs | |Wdte

rServ. forces |

iBkB, Forces I

|3!C Track Fore<

I] 1

(A)

REPORT OF COMMITTEE VI— ON BUILDINGS

W. T. DoRRANCE, Chair mayi; J. W. Orrock, Vice-Chnirman;

F. L. Beal, J. B. Gaut,

G. A. Belden, a. M. Griffin,
Eli Christianskn, F. F. Harrington,
D. R. Collin, F. R. Judd,

W. H. Cookman, G. a. Mitchell,

A. Crable, R. V. Reamer,

W. L. Darden, C. W. Richey,

K. B. Duncan, G. A. Ropman,

Com)>iittci\

To the American Raiizvay fiiiniiiceriiig Association :

The Committee on Buildings su1>mits the following report of its
work for the past year.

The following subjects were assigned:

(1) Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Man-
ual and submit definite recommendations for changes, with especial refer-
ence to appropriate definitions.

(2) Report on a Classification of Buildings on the basis of "Specifi-
cation Tj^pes," and upon the use of the "Cubic Foot," "Square Foot" and
"Bill of Particulars" methods for ascertaining the approximate cost of
new construction.

(3) Report on Ice Houses and Icing Stations.

(4) Report on Design of Freight Houses, conferring with Committee
on Yards and Terminals.

(5) Study and report on "Specifications" for Buildings for Railroad
Purposes.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago on May 25th ;
Montreal, October 26th, and Ncav York, December 7th and 8th.

The work was divided to sub-committees, one sub-committee being
selected for each subject assigned.

Subject 1, Manual: Careful review and study was made oi tlie sub-
ject-matter in the Manual and rearrangement of this was determined on
so that the recommended practice would appear in more logical order.
This to be done wlicn the new Manual is printed ; no change or revision
of the text is recommended.

Subject 2, Classification of Buildings: Considerable study was given
this and investigations made. Report on this subject appears as Appendix
A to this report.

Subject 3, Ice Houses and Icing Stations: Very little work was done
on this as decision was reached to devote our efforts largely to complet-
ing Subject 2 and getting a good start on Subject 5. This latter subject
being one which will require several years to complete.

Subject 4, Design of Freight Houses: Some attention was given to
this, but the progress was so slight that it was not felt necessary to con-
sult with the Committee on Yards and Terminals.

843

(A)

844 Buildings.

Subject 5, Specifications: Specifications and methods in use were
secured from various railroads covering various sections of this country
and Canada. Careful study of the subject was made and decision reached
that it was advisable to prepare separate specifications on the loose-leaf
principle covering each class of work entering into railroad buildings.
This would enable selecting the specifications required for any building
desired and binding together to form a specification for that building.
The subjects for these separate specifications are covered by the following
Hst:

(1) General Conditions (to be attached to all specificati(Mis").

(2) Excavation, Filling and Back Fill.

(3) Sewers and Drains.

(4) Concrete.

(5) Brick Work.

(6) Carpentry and Millwork.

(7) Lathing and Plastering.

(8) Hardware.

(9) Painting and Glazing.

(10) Roofing.

(11) Plumbing.

(12) Lighting.

(13) Heating (Steam).

(14) Heating (Hot water).

(15) Heating (Hot air). .

(16) Scope of the Work — In addition to the above specifications

for the various trades, a specification should be
drawn for each job defining definitely the scope of
the work.

Ei,'?ht of these were completed and are given as Appendix B to this
report.

The Committee feels that it is practically impossible to write a specifi-
cation that could be used without change by every railroad, but feels that
the specifications submitted can be used as a guide, each road making
slight modifications to fit local conditions.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The Committee recommends :

(a) The adoption of its conclusions on Subject 1.

(b) The acceptance of its report on Subject 2.

(d) The approval of method determined for Subject 5, with a dis-
cussion of the specifications presented herewith at this convention, and
the expectation of having them presented for final approval at next year's
convention.

(e) Preparation of balance of proposed specifications for discussion
at next year's convention.

(f) The assignment to this Committee lor a report on the general
subject of Floors.

Respectfully submitted.

The Committee on Buildings,
W. T. DoRRANCK. Chairman.

Appendix A

CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS ON THE BASIS OF

"SPECIFICATION TYPES," AND UPON THE USE OF THE

"CUBIC FOOT," "SQUARE FOOT" AND "BILL OF

PARTICULARS" METHODS FOR ASCERTAINING

THE APPROXIMATE COST OF NEW

CONSTRUCTION

The subject assigned to the Committee indicates that only a method
be outlined and that no attempt be made to establish costs due to varying
prices of labor and material, and differences in types of construction. It is
manifestly impossible to set up any actual costs on one road that would
apply to other roads In a different locality, or even in some cases to dif-
ferent portions of the same road.

We are asked to report on three different methods for estimating as
follows :

(A) Bill of Particulars Method.

(B) Square Foot Method.

Bill of Particulars Method

The "Bill of Particulars" method calls for simply a detailed estimate
as is now the common practice of engineers and contractors for arriving
at cost of construction. This is the most accurate and is perhaps the
most satisfactory method which can be devised where only one or a very
few buildings are to be estimated. Where there are a number of struc-
tures similar in type the burden of making so many detailed estimates
would be large and it is advisable to use some short cut of reasonable
accuracy.

Square Foot Method

The "Square Foot" method necessitates first making up a series of bill
of material estimates or applying known costs of existing buildings on
the various types of buildings selected, and plotting these estimates and
costs so that curves can be drawn establishing a square foot price. The
application of it is very approximate due to the fact that buildings of the
same type will vary in height and other particulars, but the "Square Foot"
method is satisfactory for approximate estimates.

Cubic Foot Method

The "Cubic Foot" method must also be built up by first making bill
of material estimates or plotting known costs and establishing a price per
cubic foot in the same way for the various types of buildings selected.
The application of this method is more accurate, as it takes into account

845

846 B u i 1 d i n tr s .

the diflfereut heights of buildings, varying cubage of roof construction,
etc.

The following method which is based on specification type is by no
means perfect and is not the only one that can be used, but it has been
used satisfactorily on a number of railroads in connection with govern-
ment valuation with various modifications. Briefly the method is as
follows :

First, set up certain types of buildings, based on specifications, sepa-
rating the different types of construction and different utilities, giving for
each type a specification sheet showing briefly the principal details of
construction. It is advantageous to make as few types as possible, con-
sistent with local conditions. Each type may cover the complete structure,
including normal foundation, plumbing, heating and lighting, but for
accurate results it is recommended that the building type cover only the
shell, setting up the foundation as a separate type and adding plumbing,
heating and lighting at a cost per unit.

Following this latter scheme, we would first set up type standards to
cover the following foundations — the type description to show the depth,
general dimensions, class of masonry, etc., as follows :

(1) Timber post, 8 in. x 8 in. — 5 ft. C-C, 7 ft. long.

(2) Masonry pier, 12 in. x 12 in., brick on concrete footings.

(3) Trench walls, 20 in., rubble or concrete wall.

(4) Trench walls, 30 in., rubble or concrete wall.

iS) Cellar, 20 in., rubble or concrete walls, with 12 in. x 30 in.
looting concrete floor ; 1 flight plank stairs ; coal bin —
windows with areas and gratings.

The following tj'pes for superstructure are sugge.sted and will prob-
ably answer the purpose on most roads :

Frame passenger station 3 types

Brick passenger station 3 types

Stone passenger station 1 type

Concrete passenger station 1 type

Frame freight house 3 types

Brick freight house 3 types

Concrete freight house / 1 type

Frame shop, 1 and 2 story 2 types

Brick shop, 1 and 2 story 2 types

Frame engine house 1 type

Brick engine house 1 type

Concrete engine house 1 type

Frame section house 2 types

Frame yard buildings 3 types

Signal towers 4 types

Dwellings 5 types

Office buildings 3 types

The above schedule of types is suggested for use in connection with
valuation of existing buildings. For new work it would probably be
advisable for any one road to limit the number of types to a minimum.

Each superstructure type to show the kind and style of framing, size
of principal members, description of flooring, wall covering, ceiling, out-
side covering, roof, over-hang, chimneys, and other Iniildiiig items, as per
specimen type sheet as follows :

Buildings. 847

SPECIFICATION FOR BUILDING OF TYPE NO. 1
frame Passenger Station — Type No. 1

Frame: Spruce sills, 6x8 in. Floor joist, 3x10 — 16 in. C-C. Posts, 4x6
in. Studs, 2.x6— 16 in. C-C. Plate, 4x6 in. Rafters, 2x10—20 in. C-C.

Fr.vming: Full mortise and tenon.

Exterior W.^lls : Sheathed and claphoardtd with paper hetwecn (or cov-
ered with wood shingles or tin shingles).

Exterior Trim : Cypress, corner boards, water table, belt course, facia
and cornice.

IxTERioR Walls: No. I planed, matched and beaded Nor. Car. pine sheatii-
ing with wainscot 3 ft. 6 in. high.

Ceiling: No. 1 planed, matched and beaded Nor. Car. pine (or 2 coats
plaster).

Floors: 1 in. Rift hd. pine on 1 in. under floor.

Interior Trim : Cypress, all stock shapes.

Roof: 1 in. boarding with building paper, tin, wood or asphalt shingles.

Gutter : Wood or galvanized iron.

Conduction and Flashings: Galvanized iron.

Overhang : 6 ft. wide on four sides, sheathed underneath, with brackets.

Doors and Windows : All stock shapes and sizes.

Hardw.vre: Iron, bronzed finish or brass.

Painting: 3 coats lead and oil. Inside filled and varnished.

Interior Fittings : 1 ticket shelf, 1 telegraph shelf, 200 ft. B. M. of pine
shelving; iron wire grill in ticket window.

Chimneys: Two 4 in. brick walls, 8x12 in. flue lining.

Additions should be made for slate or tile roof, concrete or terrazzo
floor, special sizes and shapes of doors and windows, fireplace or mantel
of elaborate design.

Note. — A specimen sheet is attached illustrating various buildings
conforming to this type.

Plumbing

Various types should be set up to cover the principal classes of fix-
tures used bj' the carrier, and a price per fixture estimated for each type.
This price is to include the proportional part of the total cost of such
items as sewer and water connections, meters, soil pipe, etc. The follow-
ing types for plumbing fixtures will answer most purposes :

Closet with wood stall, complete.

Closet with slate stall complete.

Urinal, flat back.

Urinal, with slate stall.

Urinal, full porcelain stall.

Wash bowl.

Sink, 18 in. x 30 in., cast iron with back, legs and fittings.

Heating

\ We believe that the best method of typing and pricing heating systems
is on the basis of cubic foot of space healed — the system to be complete
in itself, including boiler, radiators, and piping. Type to be set up to
cover the following units :

848 Buildings.

Hot air furnace.

Steam — One- or two-pipe system. Cast iron radiators.
Steam — One- or two-pipe system. Pipe coils.
Hot water — Two-pipe system. Cast iron radiators.
Hot water — Two-pipe system. Pipe coils.

Lighting

This can be computed on either a cubic foot basis or price per fix-
ture, but from experience we believe that the. price per fixture is most
accurate and easiest to apply. The price per fixture to include connection
with city lines, meters, switches, and all wiring and fixtures inside the
buildings, throwing everything into a type with the exception of very
elaborate or expensive fixtures which should be priced separately. The
following types are suggested:

Electric lights with wall brackets — plug or drop.
Electric lights with chandelier, 2 to 4 lights.
Gas — wall brackets.
Gas — chandelier, 2 to 4 lights.

Furniture

The furniture in a building usually varies considerably even in build-
ings of the same general type, and we believe that a better method is to
make a complete inventory and price each article separately, although such
buildings as section houses and small railroad stations can be handled by
assigning a typical outfit and putting one lump sum price on the whole
outfit.

After setting up these various types, pricing curves should be plotted
to cover foundation and superstructure, and for illustration, sample sheet
is attached. The illustration is based on cubic foot basis. A similar pro-
cedure is followed if square foot basis is desired.

On the left-hand margin the cubic contents of the building is shown :
this is the total actual cubage including roof area. On the top and bot-
tom margins are shown price per cubic foot.

In order to establish the curve for any particular date, several struc-
tures conforming to the type are selected — taking the largest, the smallest
and several intermediate sizes — a complete bill of matrial estimated and
priced, and from this is computed the total estimated cost of the shell,
and the cost per cubic foot. These points are plotted on the sheet and in
addition all available contract costs and costs of structures built by com-
pany forces, which conform to this type, also plotted. With these various
points an average curve is drawn. These curves can be used for either
pricing buildings for valuation purposes or for estimating the cost of new
Work, as of the one given date.

Due to the rapidly changing labor and material prices, some method
must be devised for modifying cost figures so that comparison can be
made between similar types built at different dates. A specimen curve
sheet is attached showing the cost of construction from 1904 to 1920,
taking 1914 as normal and plotting the average for each year.

Buildings. 849

It is found that the pricing curves for the various types of buildings
all follow the same general shape and after establishing the form of the
curve it is only necessary to figure about three buildings of any one type
in order to give the curve the proper location on the pricing sheet.

The method of applj'ing this scheme in practice is to figure the cubic
contents of the building — pick off the price per cubic foot from the curve
sheet, and apply it to the cubage. In the same way figure the cost of
foundation, then add the number of units of plumbing, heating and light-
ing at the type price, add such items as furniture, grading, outside drain-
age, platforms, etc.

In this way estimates can be made very quickly and accurately; the
principal difiicultj' being in assigning the particular building under discus-
sion to the proper type. This necessitates considerable familiarity with
the type book and also with the construction features of the building
This practically confines the use of this method of estimating to a build-
ing expert.

This system will not cover special and elaborate structures, and where
there are only a few oi one type they can probably be estimated on a
"bill of particulars" with less work than to set up type and pricing sheets.
Where the particular building conforms, in a general way, to the type
description, but has a few departures from the type, it can be handled
under the typing system, making additions or deductions for departures
from the tjpe. This method has been followed by several roads in con-
nection with valuation work with very good results.

860

Build i n gs.

Fig. 1.

Buildings

851

Fig. 2.

852

Buildings.

tOAMt JtATlON tVlLPIWC . TV Pb • \

iillllllllllM»!;^i;^HIIHIIIIIIHi

ifflffl'pif

om| moo DOQ

LA9IKI y

WAITINO ROOM

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Fig. 3.

Appendix B

(5) "SPECIFICATIONS" FOR BUILDINGS FOR RAILROAD

PURPOSES

The Committee presents for discussion the following specifications :

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY BUILDINGS

SECTION 1
General Conditions

1. General

These general conditions to be used with the A.R.E.A. Contract
Form as published in the Manual, and shall apply to all specifications
used in connection with the work.

2. Company, Engineer and Contractor Defined

The word Company shall designate the Railroad Company or Railway
Company, and the word Engineer the Chief Engineer of the Company,
or his authorized representative, and the word Contractor the Contracting
Party.

3. Drawings Furnished by the Company

The drawings furnished bj' the Company shall be considered as part
of and illustrating these specifications. These specifications are intended
to supplement the drawings, the two being considered co-operative. Draw-
ings and specifications will be part of the contract and are equally binding.
They are the property of the Company and shall be returned when work
is completed.

The drawings show the general character of detail work but the
Company may furnish proper scale details of such portions as in its
judgment require it, in the preparation of which slight modifications will
be made in minor details of design, if necessary. The Contractor shall
not execute any work requiring such large size details imtil same have
been furnished him and all work must be made in strict accordance with
said details.

Figures on drawings shall take precedence over measurements by
scale, detail drawings over small scale drawings, and full size details
over all other dra\vlngs. The decision of the Engineer shall be final as
to the interpretation of drawings and specifications.

4. Errors or Discrepancies

If the Contractor in course of the work finds any discrepancy between
the plans and the physical conditions of the locality, or any errors in the
plans, or in the points given for the construction of the work, it shall be
his duty to immediately inform the Engineer in v.riting, and the Com-

853

854 Buildings.

pntiy will promptly verify and, if necessary, correct the same. Any work
done after such discovery until authorized will be done at the Contrac-
tor's risk.

5. Working Drawings

The Contractor shall submit triplicate copies of all working drawings
and erection diagrams required. All such drawings must be approved by
the Engineer before the work involved is started. The approval of said
working drawings by the Engineer will not imply any change in the
specifications or relieve the Contractor from the responsibility of any
errors thereon. The Contractor shall supply additional copies of erection
diagrams or w-orking drawings on request.

6. Laying Out Work

Lines will be staked out and elevations given, when necessary, by
the Engineer.

7. Prosecution of the Work

When the work of this Contractor engages with the work of any
other contractor, he must co-operate with the other contractor and exer-
cise extraordinary care to prevent injury to any work or material. This
Contractor shall do all necessary cutting and fitting of his work where
same engages the work of another contractor or the Company.

8. Special Materials

Special brands of material or devices mentioned in specilications or
on drawings are for the purpose of establishing a standard or criterion
of quality and character desired. Other material of equal quality
and adaptability to purposes for which they are intended may be sub-
stituted, but only with the written approval of the Engineer. If
the Contractor desires to substitute some other brand of material for
that mentioned on the drawings or in the specifications, he must submit
a statement with his proposal clearly and fully describing such substitu-
tions as he desires to make.

Where specific make or kind of apparatus is called for and furnished
by Contractor, the furnishing of the apparatus does not relieve the Con-
tractor of liability until he shall make such apparatus or appliance opera-
tive so that it will successfully perform the function for which it is
intended.

9. Equipment , ^
The Contractor shall provide all equipment required for the execu-
tion and completion of the work, including all staging, scaflfolding, ap-
paratus, tools, etc., which are necessary. -All equipment must meet with
the approval of the Company and the Engineer may require the removal
of any portion of equipment which is defective or unsuitable for the
proper prosecution of the work and the Contractor will be required to
substitute therefor satisfactory equipment without delay.

Buildings. 855

10. Permits

The Contractor shall give the proper authorities all requisite notices
in connection with his work and shall procure at his own expense all per-
mits, licenses, etc., of any description necessary for the construction and
completion of the work, and shall deliver to the Company all certificates
of inspection for plumbing, electric wiring or any other branch of the
work for which such certificates may be required in connection with this
contract.

11. Temporary Toilet Facilities

The Contractor shall establish and mauitain adequate temporary toilet
facilities for accommodation of Contractor's employees, to be located
where directed by the Engineer.

12. Temporary Heat

Wherever temporary heat or heat during construction of building is
required for drying of plaster or paint, for prevention of damaging ol
materials by freezing, or for any other reason, such heat shall be provided
for by the Contractor and the entire expense in connection therewith
shall be borne by him unless otherwise specified hereinafter.

13. Force Account Work

Whenever any work is done or material furnished for a price based
upon the actual cost and added percentage to cover general expense and
superintendence, profits, use of tools and equipment and Contractor's risk
and liability, the actual cost shall not exceed the fair market value of
the labor and material furnished. In such case the time of all employees
shall be entered by the Contractor on forms supplied by him for the pur-
pose and checked and signed daily in duplicate by the Contractor and the
Engineer, and no labor not so entered and checked will be allowed.

14. Accounting Requirements

At the completion of the work, the Contractor shall furnish a com-
plete list of all quantifies in accordance with the Company's classification
for all work underground for each item or structure, and shall furnish in
lump sum form, the cost of the superstructure for each item or building,
this cost to include the proportionate part of the Contractor's overhead
and profit.

Where the work is of such nature that existing facilities are removed
or remodeled by the Contractor he shall furnish the Company with a
statement showing in detail the cost of such work, the materials removed
and the disposition of the materials. The above information shall l)e fur-
nished in order to comply with Interstate Commerce requirements.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 2

Excavation. Filling and Backfilling

1. General

The Contractor shall furnish all labor, material, tools and equipment
except as otherwise noted, necessary to entirely complete all excavation
for foundation walls, piers, footings, pits, ducts, tunnels, Ijascmeiits and
any other excavation which may be implied or shown on the drawings to
receive the subsequent work.

Any excavation paid for or deducted on a unit price basis shall be
for the actual measured yardage.

No allowancp shall be made on account of slope to the sides of ex-
cavation, but measurements for quantities of excavation shall be taken
to outside of sheeting.

The unit price paid or deducted shall include the whole value of
the sheeting, bracing or any other material actually used in connection
with the work, either as a form for concrete foundations as a protection
against caving during the process of excavating, or as a coflferdam, and
shall also include any pumping or hailing which may be necessary.

2. Classification

All material excavated shall be classified as rock excavation, wet
excavation or common excavation.

3. Rock Excavation

Rock excavation shall comprise rock in solid beds or masses in its
original position, which in the judgment of the Engineer may best be
removed by blasting, and detached rock or boulders measuring one cubic
yard or more.

4. Wet Excavation

Wet excavation shall comprise that material, not included under rock
excavation, which requires pumping or sheet piling to overcome seepage
and overflow.

5. Common Excavation

Common excavation shall include all materials that do not come
under the classification or rock or wet excavation.

6. Soil Test

Before any foundation work is placed the Contractor shall satisfy
himself that the soil encountered is of such a nature that it will support
the structure as designed; in case of doubt he must notify the Engineer
and no* foundations shall be laid until a proper investigation is made.

7. Beds for Footings

The beds for footings shall be leveled and free of all loose material
before any concrete is put in place. No footings shall rest on filled

856

Buildings. 857

ground except where absolutely necessary, and all filling under such foot-
ings shall be sand or other approved filling, puddled and tamped in place.
No such footings shall be put in place by the Contractor without first
obtaining permission from the Engineer.

8. Quicksand Pockets

If any quicksand pockets or other soft spots are encountered be-
neath foundation walls, piers or footings, the same shall be excavated
and filled with concrete, the extra work being paid for on the basis of
unit prices provided in contract.

9. Pumping and Bailing

The Contractor shall perform all pumping and bailing necessary to
keep all excavation entirely free from water during the progress of the
work under all circumstances and contingencies which may arise, using
such means as may be best adapted to conditions. The cost of pumping
and bailing shall be included in the Contractor's bid for excavation.

10. Blasting

The Contractor shall do all blasting necessary in connection with the
excavation as shown on the drawings. All drilling, placing of charges
and shooting together with the covering of blasts, shall be done in an
approved manner. All work in connection with blasting shall be done
in strict accordance with any laws or ordinance in effect where the work
is located.

11. Piling

If foundation piles are required they will be excavated around and
cut off by the Contractor.

12. Disposal of Excavated Material

Excavated material shall be used for backfilling around all under-
ground work. After forms of such work have been removed and same
has been inspected by the Engineer, the Contractor shall fill up to the
finished grade as shown on the drawings.

Only material suitable for backfilling shall be so used. Large frozen
lumps, boulders, etc., shall not be used. Backfilling must be placed in
layers not to exceed six inches, each laj^er being thoroughly tamped and
puddled.

The Contractor, when so required, shall haul and place surplus ex-
cavated material within a distance not to exceed 300 ft. from the build-
ing as directed by the Engineer.

Any surplus excavated material which cannot be disposed of within
300 ft. of the building shall be disposed of by the Contractor, unless
otherwise released by the Company.

13. Filling

Where sand or cinder filling is called foi on the drawings, the
same shall be thoroughly tamped, rolled and compacted in place by
the Contractor. Where floors are on fill, the fill shall be placed in

858 Buildings. ^^

layers and thoroughly puddled, tamped and rolled or flooded. Wherever
such fill occurs it shall be included in the lump sum price for the struc-
ture in which it occurs. Sand fill shall be clean sand free from sticks
or other foreign matter. When cinder fill is used, cinders will be fur-
nished by the Company, in cars as near as practicable to the site of the
work, but must be unloaded and placed by the Contractor.

14. Frost

No filling or backfilling shall be done at a time when there is danger
of frost entering the same, except at the discretion of the Engineer.

15. Grading

All grading that may be necessary around the buildings as shown by
the drawings shall be done by the Contractor. Cinders, sand or clean dirt
shall be used for the work as called for by the drawings.

16. General Conditions

At the completion of the work the Contractor shall thoroughly clean
up and remove any rubbish, dirt or excavated material from site as called
for under disposal of excavated material, and leave site clean and graded
to finished grades as shown by the drawings.

No part of the work shall be considered as finally accepted until all
of the work is completed.

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 3

Sewers and Drainage

1. General

The Contractor shall furnish all materials and labor required to
make the excavation and construct the sewers, manholes, catchbasins,
sewer connections to existing manholes, etc., as called for on the drawings.

2. Excavation

All excavation shall be done in accordance with the section of these
specifications covering excavation. In general the excavation shall be to
line and grade as furnished by the Engineer, and shall be made by open
cut from the surface and the clear width at the bottom of trench shall be
at least one foot greater than the diameter of the pipe. The sides shall
be cut vertically or with only slight inclination. When the material en-
countered permits, the bottom of the trench shall be rounded and a hole
dug under each joint to give the pipe an even bearing and permit the
making of the joint. Where the trench is excavated below grade, except
at joints, it shall be refilled to grade with easily compacted material and
thoroughly tamped. Bids shall be based on common excavation. If rock
or wet excavation is encountered the Contractor shall receive compensa-
tion for the excavation according to his unit price per cubic yard sub-
mitted for rock or wet excavation less the amount of his price per cubic
yard submitted for common excavation.

3. Pumping and Bailing

The Contractor shall pump, bail or otherwise remove all water that
may be found or that may assemble in the trenches while the sewer is
being laid. No manholes, catchbasins or sewers shall be constructed or
laid in water, nor shall water be allowed to run through the sewer until
the mortar has satisfactorily hardened. All necessary precautions shall
be taken to prevent the entrance of sand, mud or other obstructing ma-
terial into the sewer. Any such material remaining in the sewer when
completed, shall be removed by the Contractor.

4. Sheeting

The Contractor shall furnish, place and maintain such sheeting and
bracing as may be required to support the sides of the excavation and
insure the protection of the work. The sheeting and bracing shall be
removed as the work progresses, in such manner as to prevent the caving
in of the sides of the excavation or the injury of the sewer.

5. Grade, Joints, Etc.

Each pipe shall be laid on a firm bed and in perfect conformity with
line and grades as given by the Engineer.

859

860 Buildings.

The end of each pipe shall be pressed firmly into the bell of the
other in such manner that there shall be no shoulder or want of uni-
formity of surface on the interior of the sewer. The joints are to be
as uniform as possible in thickness and thoroughly filled with cement
mortar. Each joint is to be wiped clean on the inside as the work
progresses. After the joint is made the pipe shall be firmly fixed in
place by means of earth carefully placed around same before the follow-
ing pipe is laid.

6. Backfilling

No portion of a trench or excavation shall be backfilled until the
sewer contained in it has been examined and approved.

No rock or frozen earth shall be put in the trench until the refilling
has reached at least two (2) feet above the top of the pipe. Fine earth
shall be carefully thrown into the trench and around the pipe in layers
not more than six (6) inches thick, each layer being thoroughly tamped.
The remainder of the filling may be flooded or otherwise thoroughly
compacted so that there will be no settlement. Any surplus dirt shall
be disposed of as directed by the Engineer. Whenever the Engineer
deems the excavated material unsuitable he may require the Contractor
to furnish suitable material to be paid for at the price bid for per cubic
yard for extra fill. Rock in pieces weighing over fifty (50) pounds
shall not be put in the trench. Any rock used as back filling shall be
placed with alternate layers of earth so that all spaces between the pieces
of rock shall be filled with earth.

7. Vitrified Sewer Pipe

The pipes and specials shall be of standard length and of the best
quality of salt glazed vitrified double strength sewer pipe of the "Hub
and Spigot Pattern." The pipe shall be smooth, dense and sound, thor-
oughly burned, impervious to moisture, free from laminations, cracks,
flaws, blisters or other imperfections. The interior surface shall be
smooth and well glazed and straight pipe shall be true cylinder and the
interior diameter shall be the full specified dimension, the inner and
outer surfaces shall be concentric. No pipe less than eight (8) inches
shall be used except for downspout connections.

The pipe shall be subject to inspection and approval or rejection by
the Engineer.

8. Mortar

All mortar for cementing the pipe joints shall be made from neat
Portland cement, of quality as specified without a mixture of sand, only
enough water shall be added to give it the proper consistency and shall
be mixed only as needed for use. The retempering of mortar that has
already become partly set will not be allowed.

All mortar for brickwork shall be prepared from Portland cement
of quality specified, thoroughly mixed with sand in the proportion of
one (1) part by volume of loose cement to three (3) parts of sand.

Buildings. 861

9. Cement, Sand, Stone

Cement, sand and stone shall be of the quality as specified in the
specifications for cement or concrete work.

10. Brick

The brick used shall be of the best quality, sound and hard burned,
uniform and free from lime and cracks and shall not absorb more than
fifteen per cent, in weight after being thoroughly dried, when immersed
in water for twenty-four (24) hours, and samples must be approved
by the Engineer.

11. Manholes and Catchbasins

Manholes and catchbasins shall be built at the places shown on the
plans or as otherwise directed by the Engineer and shall be of the form
and dimensions shown on the detailed drawings.

12. Cast Iron Covers

All covers shall be of tough gray iron, free from defects which
would tend to weaken them, such as cold shuts, or blow holes, shall be
absolutely clean and have a workmanlike finish. They shall conform to
the standards as shown on the plans.

13. Cast Iron and Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Cast iron pipes and special castings shall be used where shown on
the plans or as directed by the Engineer. They shall be the bell and
spigot type manufactured in accordance with the "Standard Specifications
for Cast Iron Pipe and Special Castings" of the American Water Works
Association for Class "A" pipe. The joints between cast iron pipe and
special castings shall be made in the usual manner. Reinforced concrete
pipe of a design acceptable to the Engineer, shall be used if called for
by the plans. Joints shall be made as specified for Vitrified Pipe.

14. Foundation Drains

When the ground is wet or of a swampy nature drain or farm tile
not less than four (4) inches in diameter shall be placed along all
foundations on a very slight grade at approximately the level of the
footings. These drains shall be placed in a layer of clean coarse gravel
or broken stone not less than one foot thick, and shall be connected with
the main drainage system.

15. Special Fittings

In case vitrified sewer is to be paid for on a unit price basis all
"Specials" including Y's, tees, bends, etc., will be figured as two lengths
of straight pipe.

16. General Conditions

All materials entering into the work and all methods used by the
contractor shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer and no part
of the work will be considered as finally accepted until all of the work
is completed.

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 4

Concrete

1. General

The Contractor shall furnish all labor, material, tools and equipment
necessary to entirely complete the work as herein specified and shown
on the drawings.

Any work paid for or deducted on a unit price basis shall be for the
actual measured yardage and shall include the entire value of the sheet-
ing, bracing and forms used in connection with the work.

2. Cement

The cement shall meet the requirements of the American Railway
Engineering Association's "Specifications for Portland Cement." 1 1 shall
be stored in a weather-tight structure with the floor raised not lets than
one foot from the ground in such a manner as to permit easy access
for proper inspection and identification of each shipment. Cement that
has hardened or partially set shall not be used.

3. Fine Aggregate

The fine aggregate shall consist of sand, crushed stone or gravel
screenings, graded from fine to coarse, and passing when dry, a screen
having holes one-quarter (J4) inch in diameter. Not more than twenty-
five (25) per cent, by weight shall pass a No. 50 sieve, and not more
than six (6) per cent, a No. 100 sieve when screened dry, nor more than
ten (10) per cent, dry weight shall pass a No. 100 sieve when washed
on the sieve with a stream of water. It shall be clean and free from
soft particles, mica, lumps of day, loam or organic matter.

The fine aggregate shall be of such quality that mortar briquettes
made of one (1) part Portland cement and three (3) parts of the fine
aggregate by weight shall show a tensile strength, after an age of
seven (7) days, not less than the strength of briquettes of the same age,
made of mortar of the same consistency in the proportion of one (1)
part of the same cement to three (3) parts of Standard Ottawa sand.

4. Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregate shall consist of gravel or crushed stone, which
unless otherwise specified or called for on the plans, shall, for plain
mass concrete, pass a screen having holes two and one-quarter (2%)
inches in diameter, and for reinforced concrete a screen having holes
one and one-quarter (1J4) inches in diameter; and be retained on a
screen having holes one-fourth (%) inch in diameter, and shall be
graded in size from the smallest to the largest particles. It shall be
clean, hard, durable and free from all deleterious matter ; coarse aggre-
gate containing dust, soft or elongated particles shall not be used.

862

Buildings. 865

5. Water

Water shall be clean, reasonably clear and free from oil, acid and
injurious amounts of vegetable matter, alkalies or other salts. The Con-
tractor shall arrange for his own water supply and shall pay for same.

6. Reinforcing

Generally the material used shall be a type of deformed bar and of
high carbon steel manufactured by the open-hearth process.

It shall in all respects conform to the American Railway Engineering
Association's "Specifications for Billet Steel Concrete Reinforcing Bars."
Whenever it is necessary to splice the reinforcement otherwise than
shown on plans, the character of the splice shall be decided by the
Engineer on the basis of the safe bond stress and the stress in reinforce-
ment at the point of splice. Splices shall not be made at points of
maximum stress.

Proper racks shall be provided by the Contractor for the storage of
reinforcing bars from the time they are delivered till they are used, and
these racks shall prevent the stored bars from coming in contact with
the ground.

Material used in reinforcing concrete shall be free from grease,
rust, scales or coating of any character which will tend to reduce or
destroy the bond between the steel and the concrete. All reinforcing
steel shall be placed in strict accordance with drawings and same shall
be held securely in place until the concrete has set.

All structural steel shapes used for reinforcing shall conform to the
requirements of the American Railway Engineering Association's "Speci-
fications for Steel Railway Bridges."

7. Proportioning

The unit of measure shall be the cubic foot. Ninety-four pounds,
one sack of cement or one-fourth barrel of cement shall be assumed as
one cubic foot. All concrete footings, piers, walls, etc., except those to
be waterproofed, or reinforced, shall be in the proportion of one (1)
part Portland cement, two and one-half (2i'4) parts fine aggregate and
five (5) parts coarse aggregate unless otherwise shown on plans.

All concrete which is to be waterproof and all reinforced concrete
<hall be in the proportion of one (1) part Portland cement, two (2)
parts fine aggregate and four (4) parts coarse aggregate unless otherwise
shown on plans.

8. Mixing Concrete

All concrete shall be mixed by machine (except when under special
conditions the Engineer permits otherwise), in a batch mixer of an
approved type, equipped with suitable charging hopper, water storage
and a water measuring device which can be locked.

The ingredients of the concrete shall be mixed to the required con-
sistency and the mixing continued not less than one and one-half (1^)
minutes after all the materials are in the mixer, and lie fore any part

864 Buildings.

of the batch is discharged. The mixer shall be cotnpUtely emptied before
receiving materials for the succeeding batch. The volume of the mixed
material used per batch shall not exceed the manufacturers' rated
capacity of the drum.

When it is permitted to mix by hand, the mixing shall be done on a
watertight platform of suflicient size to accommodate men and materials
for the progressive and rapid mixing of at least two batches of concrete
at the same time. The batches shall not exceed one-half (I/2) cubic yard
each. The materials shall be mixed dry until the mixture is of a uniform
color, the required amount of water added, and the mixing continued
until the batch is of a uniform consistency and character throughout.
Hand mixing will not be permitted for concrete deposited under water.

9. Consistency

The quantity of water used in mixing shall be the least amount that
will produce a plastic or workable mixture which can be worked into the
forms and around the reinforcement. Under no circumstances shall the
consistency of the concrete be such as to permit a separation of the
coarse aggregate from the mortar in handling. An excess of water
will not be permitted, as it seriously affects the strength of the concrete,
and any batch containing such an excess will be rejected.

10. Premixed Aggregate

Provided the contract specifically permits, premixed aggregate may
be used instead of separate fine and coarse aggregates. Frequent tests
shall be made to determine the relative proportions of fme and coarse
aggregates, and if these proportions are unsatisfactory to the Engineer,
or so irregular as to make it impracticable to secure a properly propor-
tioned concrete, he may reject the material, or require that it be screened
and used as separate fine and coarse aggregates.

The proportion of the cement to the fine aggregate shall at no time
be less than that specified for the classes of concrete where separate
aggregates are used.

11. Retempering

The retempering of mortar or concrete which has partially hardened;
that is, remixing with or without additional materials or water will not
be permitted.

12. Forms for Concrete

Foundation concrete may be placed without forms if in the opinion
of the Engineer the sides of the excavation arc sufliciently firm so that
the concrete may be thoroughly rammed without the adjacent earth
yielding, otherwise the concrete must be placed in substantial forms.

Forms shall be of wood or metal and shall conform to the shape,
lines and dimensions of the concrete as called for on the plans. Form
lumber used against the concrete shall be dressed on one side and both
edges to a uniform thickness and width, and shall be sound and free of
loose knots.

Buildings. 866

For all exposed edges, corners or other projections of the concrete,
suitable moldings or bevels shall be placed in the angles of the forms
to round or bevel the edges or corners of the concrete.

The forms shall be well built, substantial and unyielding and made
sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar, thereby causing voids in
the concrete. They shall be properly braced or tied together by rods,
bolts or wires. Metal braces or ties shall be so arranged that when the
forms are removed no metal shall be within one (1") inch of the face
of the finished work.

The face forms shall be securely fastened to the studding or uprights
in horizontal lines. Any irregularities in the forms which may mar the
exposed surface of the concrete shall be removed or filled. Where
necessary, temporary openings shall be provided at the base of the
forms to facilitate cleaning aud inspection immediately before placing
concrete.

The inside of the forms shall generally be coated with raw paraffin
or non-staining mineral oil, or thoroughly wet with water except in
freezing weather.

13. Anchors, Bolts, Etc.

The Contractor shall build into forms all bolts, anchors, ties, wood
railing blocks, gratings, etc., as indicated on the drawings or called for
in specifications and same shall be attached in such a manner as to
prevent their displacement when concrete is placed. He shall also provide
all holes and chases for pipes passing through concrete work and make
same water tight after pipes are in place.

14. Placing Concrete

Before beginning a run of concrete, all hardened concrete or foreign
materials shall be completely removed from the inner surfaces of all
conveying equipment.

Before depositing any concrete, all debris shall be removed from
the space to be occupied by the concrete, all steel reinforcing .shall be
secured in its proper location, all forms shall be thoroughly wetted
except in freezing weather unless they have been previously oiled, and
all form work and steel reinforcing shall be inspected and approved by
the Engineer.

Concrete shall be handled from the mixer to the place of final
deposit as rapidly as possible, and by methods of transporting which
shall prevent the separation of the ingredients. The concrete shall be
deposited directly into the forms as nearly as possible in its final position
so as to avoid rchandling. The piling up of concrete material in the
forms in such manner as to permit the escape of mortar from the coarse
aggregate will not be permitted. Under no circumstances shall concrete
that has partially set be deposited in the work.

During and after depositing, the concrete shall be compacted by
means of a shovel or other suitable tool moved up and down con-
tinuously in the concrete until it has all settled into place and water has

866 Buildings.

flushed to the surface. The concrete shall be thoroughly worked around
all reinforcing material so as to completely surround and embed the
same. Temporary planking shall be placed at ends of partial layers so
that concrete shall not run out to thin edge.

Before depositing new concrete on or against concrete which has
set, the forms shall be retightencd against the face of the latter, the
surface of the set concrete shall be roughened and thoroughly cleaned
of foreign matter and laitance, and saturated- with water. The new
concrete placed in contact with set or partially set concrete shall con-
tain an excess of mortar to insure bond. To insure this excess of mor-
tar at the juncture of the set and newly deposited concrete on vertical
or inclined surfaces, the cleaned and drenched surface of the set concrete
shall first be slushed with a coating of mortar, not less than one inch
thick, composed of one (1) part cement. to two (2) parts fine aggregate,
against which the new concrete shall be deposited before this mortar
has had time to attain its initial set.

15. Concreting in Cold Weather

During cold weather, the concrete at the time it is mixed and
deposited in the work shall have a temperature not lower than forty (40)
degrees Fahrenheit, and suitable means shall be provided to maintain
this temperature for at least seventy-two {12) hours thereafter, and
until the concrete has thoroughly set. The methods of heating materials
and protecting the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. The use
of any salt or chemical to prevent freezing will not be permitted.

16. Concreting in Water

Where water is encountered without current, but in such quantity
that it cannot be lowered to and maintained at the required depth, con-
crete shall not be placed until the method of placing has been approved
by the Engineer.

17. Waterproof Concrete

. The Contractor must guarantee that all pits, tunnels, basements, or
other concrete to be watei-proofed will be absolutely waterproof for a
period of one year after the acceptance of the work. Pic shall use his
own discretion as to the manner or method of waterproofing to be used
unless a specific method is indicated on the plans.

18. Removing Forms

Forms shall be left in place till the concrete has attained sufficient
strength to l)c self-supporting, and then removed only at Contractor's risk.

19. Finishing and Pointing

Immediately after the forms are removed, if there should be foiuid
any small pits or openings on the exposed surface of the concrete above
ground or if bolts are used for securing the forms, the ends of which
on removing, leave small holes, all such holes, pits, etc., shall be neatly
stopped with pointing mortar of cement and fine aggregate in same

Buildings. ^ 867

proportions as used in the concrete. This mortar shall be mixed in
small quantities and shall be used before same shall begin to set.

Exposed surfaces shall be made perfectly smooth. Horizontal sur-
faces shall be level unless otherwise shown on the drawings, and shall
be leveled with straight edges. All beveled surfaces and washes shall
be made true and uniform.

Where called for on the drawings or in the specifications, exposed
surfaces shall be finished as follows : The coarse aggregate shall be
carefully worked back from the forms into the mass of the concrete
with spades, fine stone forks, or other suitable tools, so as to bring a
surface of mortar against the form. Care should be taken to remove
all air pockets and to prevent voids in the surface.

The forms shall be carefully removed from the surface to be
finished as earlj' as practicable, all joint marks, projections and inequalities
chipped off and all voids filled with a mortar made of the same propor-
tions of cement and sand as those of the concrete.

These surfaces shall then be thoroughly wet with water, and while
wet, rubbed to a smooth uniform finish with a brick made of one part
Portland cement and two (2) parts or two and one-half (2^) parts
sand, or with a No. 3 Carborundum brick followed by a No. 30 or with a
No. 24 Carborundum brick, as may be necessary to obtain the desired
degree of smoothness.

No mortar or cement shall be applied except to fill distinct voids in
the surface. Uneven places shall be smoothed by rubbing down and not
by plastering. The surface shall be kept moist and protected from rapid
drying for not less than three (3) days.

20. Concrete Floors

Concrete floors on fill shall consist of a base of thickness indicated
on drawings, composed of one (1) part Portland cement and two and
one-half (2J^) parts fine aggregate and five (5) parts of coarse aggre-
gate of the size as specified for reinforced concrete.

A finish one (1") inch thick, composed of cement, fine aggregate,
and a metallic hardener, shall be applied in accordance with the manu-
facturer's specifications, before the base has set. This finish shall be
floated and troweled to a smooth, hard and even surface, finishing neatly
against walls. All floors shall be sloped to drains and finished neatly
with same.

21. Concrete Base for Wood Floors

The concrete base for wood floors shall be of thickness indicated
on drawings and shall be of the mixture specified above for base for
concrete floors.

The filling between floor sleepers or screeds shall be concrete com-
posed of one (1) part cement, four (4) parts fine aggregate and eight C8)
parts coarse aggregate.

S68 Buildings. ,

22. Concrete Floors on Wood Joists

Concrete floors on wood joists shall be constructed according to
details as shown on the drawings. The joists shall be beveled as shown
with 1 in. by 6 in. D&M board filler placed between. Concrete of mixture
specified above for concrete floors shall be placed and reinforced as
called for on the plans. All such floors shall be finished as specified in
paragraph No. 20.

23. Concrete Wall Base

Concrete wall bases for rooms shall be made from a mixture of
cement, fine aggregate, and a metallic hardener, finished as specified for
cement floors. This base shall be of the contour and height as detailed,
and on stud construction shall be reinforced as shown and securely
fastened to wall construction by means of metal anchors.

24. Expansion Joints

Where expansion joints are required the bond between the two
sections shall be completely broken by a coating of petroleum oil or hot
oil tar pitch over the entire joint surface of the first deposited concrete.
No reinforcement shall extend across an expansion joint.

25. Construction Joints

Where construction joints are required such joints shall be located
and formed so a^ to least impair the strength and appearance of the
structure. Where so required, by the Engineer, construction joints shall
be reinforced as directed in order to secure the necessary bond strength.

Where watertight joints are required, sheet lead or other metal not
less than six inches wide and extending the full length of the joint shall
be imbedded equally in the two deposits of concrete.

26. Protection and Cleaning

All exposed surfaces of concrete work such as edges, corners, faces,
etc., shall be protected during the progress of the work so same will
not be marred or chipped. At the completion of the work all concrete
shall be cleaned and left in a manner satisfactory to the Engineer.

27. General Conditions

All materials entering into the work and all methods used by the
Contractor shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer and no part
of the work will be considered as finally accepted until all of the work is
completed.

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 5
Brickwork

1. General

The Contractor shall furnish all labor, materials, tools, scaffolding
and equipment, except as otherwise noted, necessary to entirely complete
any or all classes of brickwork herein specified, according to the class
of building and as shown or implied on the accompanying drawings,
including all backing, covering of iron and steel, all piers, walls, chim-
neys and other special work shown, specified, or otherwise implied.

2. Classification of Brickwork

Brickwork shall be classified as either common brickwork or face
brickwork. The class of brickwork to be used shall be determined by
the class of the building or by notations on the accompanying drawings.
Unless otherwise specified common brickwork shall be used on all build-
ings of mechanical terminals, shops, storehouses, isolated freight houses
and similar buildings. In general, face brick shall be used for Passenger
Stations and Auxiliary Buildings, Combination Passenger and Freight
Stations and Freight Houses built in conjunction with Passenger Stations.

3. Common Brickwork

All common brickwork shall be laid even and true to line, plumb,
level and with all joints accurately kept. All brickwork shall be laid
with joints not more than three-eighths inch (^") and bonded together
with full headers every sixth course. All brick shall be good, hard, well
burned brick free from cracks and uniform in size, shape and quality
and shall not absorb more than twenty per cent, of their weight of
water. They .shall be laid in a full bed of mortar with shoved joints,
neatly struck on all exposed walls. The bricks used on the face of
the wall shall be selected whole bricks of a uniform size and with true,
rectangular face.

All brick shall be thoroughly wetted either by immersion or sprink-
ling before being laid, except in freezing weather.

4. Face Brickwork

• The exterior face brickwork shall be laid up with a selected and
approved pressed face brick. The Contractor as a basis for his proposal

shall figure on a face brick to cost $ per thousand, f. o. b.

building site or Company's lines as provided in the Letter of Invitation,
and any variation from this price more or less will be adjusted according
to the actual cost of the brick. Face brickwork shall be laid with all
stretchers unless otherwise shown and shall be bonded either by blind
headers or an approved metal wall tie every sixth course.

All pressed brickwork shall be laid true to line, plumb, level and
with all joints accurately kept. All work shall be laid so that four

869

870 Buildings.

courses shall not exceed eleven inches (11") in height, and joints shall
be raked out to a depth of at least three-eighths inch (H") unless
otherwise shown on drawiaigs or ordered by Engineer. Where rough
face brick is used, instead of raking the horizontal joints, strips shall
be placed in those joints as the brick is laid up and after the mortar
has hardened properly these strips shall be removed. The vertical joints
shall be raked in the usual manner.

The Company reserves the right to deviate from the type of joint
specification above so as to conform with the type of -brick selected. All
brick courses shall be so proportioned that they will work out evenly
with height of windows and doors. No split or fractional courses will
be permitted. All backing up of pressed face brick shall be as specified
under common brickwork.

5. Detail of Brickwork

All brickwork details such as sills, lintels, belt courses and other
trim shall be laid up according to details shown on accompanying draw-
ings and as specified under either common brickwork or face brickwork.

6. Samples

The Contractor will furnish samples of all brick to be used, together
with prices for the various kinds of face brick submitted for approval
of the Engineer. The Engineer also shall have the option of obtaining
samples and prices for face brick. The samples selected and approved
will be filed with the Engineer and taken as a standard of material to
be furnished and all material used in the work must be equal in all
respects to the approved samples.

7. Cement

Specifications for Portland cement as given in Section 4 — Concrete
shall apply to cement for brickwork.

8. Sand

Sand for all classes of brickwork shall be clean, sharp, coarse and
of grains varying in size. It shall be free from sticks or other foreign
matter, but it may contain clay or loam not to exceed two per cent. (2%).

Where so required for pressed face brickwork sand shall bo clean,
sharp, white sand of the very best quality.

9. Lime

All lime used shall be of good quality, in large lumps, free from
cinders, or clinkers, must contain less than ten per cent. (10%) impuri-
ties and must slake readily in water, making a very soft paste, free
from core. Before being used all lime shall be thoroughly slaked with
water. No air slaked lime shall be used. The use of hydrated lime of
an approved brand will be permitted at the discretion of ihe Engineer.

10. Mortar Color

A mortar color of an approved brand shall be used to color mortar
for face brickwork, color and mixture shall he as approved by the

Buildings. 871

Eilgineer. The Contractor shall upon request of the Engineer lay up
samples of face brickwork with different shades of mortar in order that
the Engineer may decide by comparison the proper shade of mortar
to use. These samples shall be of a size not to exceed six (6) square
feet in area, and the Contractor shall, if requested, build not to exceed
six such samples. In general, unless otherwise specified, or ordered by
the Engineer, the mortar shall be colored slightly darker than the face
brick used.

11. Mortar

Mortar for all common brickwork except where otherwise specified
shall be composed of one (1) part Portland cement and four (4) parts
sand thoroughly mixed and tempered with lime paste to make it work
smoothly. Where directed, the mortar is to -be as above specified,
omitting lime paste.

Mortar for all pressed brickwork shall be of either of the following
mixtures, as directed by the Engineer. One (1) part Portland cement,
one (1) part lime putty and two (2) parts sand, the sand and cement
to be mixed dry, then wet to proper consistency and the lime putty
added. If pressed face brick is to be laid with colored mortar, the fol-
lowing mixture to be used: One (1) part Portland cement to two (2)
parts sand with lime paste added to make it work smoothly and colored
with approved mortar color as directed by Engineer. No more mortar
containing cement shall be mixed at any one time than can be used
within thirty minutes after mixing. Retempering cement mortar which
has begun to set will not be permitted. No mortar which has frozen
shall be used on the work.

In lieu of cement mortar, the Contractor may, when permitted by
the Engineer, use a patent cement or a natural cement of a brand
acceptable to the Engineer, in which case one part of the patent cement
shall be used with two and one-half to three parts of sand. Such mortar
shall be mixed and used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions and these specifications. No more mortar than is required
for the current day's work shall be mixed.

12. Water Supply

The water shall be clean, reasonably clear, and free from oil, acid
and injurious amounts of vegetable matter, alkalies or other salts. The
Contractor shall arrange for his own water supply and shall pay for same.

13. Wood Centerings

Contractor shall provide wood centers for all openings wherever
necessary. Centers shall be strongly constructed, made to fit accurately
to the work, be well supported and rigidly braced so as to carry all
loads until the brickwork has set. At the completion of the work all
centering shall be removed from the premises.

14. Scaffolding, Protection, Etc.

The Contractor shall provide all scaffolding, staging, ladders, etc.,
necessary for the work. All walls or other parts shall be securely braced
and protected against damage by wind and storm during construction.

872 Buildings.

15. Anchors, Steel, Etc.

The Contractor shall provide chases for all pipes, set bearing plates
for beams, etc., and build into the brickwork all anchors, bolts, ties,
nailing blocks, etc., as indicated on drawings and will be responsible
for accurate location of same.

16. Backing

Where so shown iron, steel and other material shall be backed up
with brickwork in a manner indicated on details.

17. Flue Linings

Brick chimneys or flues which are not of such dimensions that fire
brick lining is required or called for on detailed plans, shall be provided
with a terra cotta flue lining from a point two feet below the lowest
smoke pipe entering same to base of chimney cap. All joints in this
lining must be completely filled with cement mortar and carefully pointed
up. No lime mortar shall be used in laying up tile linings or brick flues.

18. Fire Brick Linings

Brick linings for circular concrete stacks shall be laid up with radial
fire brick in cement mortar. The interior surface shall be true, plumb,
perfectly smooth and without taper, with bed joints not more than one-
eighth inch thick. This lining shall be entirely independent and separate
from the stack proper.

19. Vitrified Tile Wall

Vitrified tile wall coping shall be provided where indicated on the
accompanying drawings. It shall be best hard burned, salt glazed tile,
laid in full bed of mortar of one (1) part cement to three (3) parts
sand, omitting all lime.

20. Cast Concrete Coping

All walls where so indicated on the drawings shall be coped with
cast concrete coping. This to be of the section as detailed and made in
lengths of approximately six feet (6')-

21. Cast Concrete Sills, Lintels, Etc.

Where so indicated on drawings, window and door sills, lintels, chim-
ney caps, etc., shall be of cast concrete according to details shown for
same.

22. Proportions for Cast Concrete

Concrete for cast coping, lintels, sills, caps, etc., shall be composed
of one (1) part Portland cement, two (2) parts sand and three (3)
parts crushed stone or gravel of a size to pass through a one and one-
fourth inch (1^") ring. Exposed surfaces shall be troweled smooth
and edges to be smooth and unbroken. All coping shall be carefully
pointed up. All window and door sills shall be set true, level and plumb.
All sills shall be carefully pointed up.

Buildings. 873

23. New Masonry Joining to Old

Contractor shall use special precaution where new masonry work
joins up with old masonry work, to see that the old work is sufficiently
roughed up, anchors provided and work keyed so that an absolutely
tight and neat bond is assured between old and new work.

Contractor shall do all work in connection with cutting out old
brickwork, stone work or concrete where required. Care shall be exer-
cised to see that only such portion of the masonry is disturbed as is
necessary.

24. Protection and Pointing Up

Contractor must keep his work covered and protected from the
action of the weather or frost. He shall also protect by boxing all
dressed or ornamental work liable to damage. At the completion of
the work or at any time when so ordered he shall do all patching in a
most satisfactory manner, clean down and point up all brick work, etc.,
removing all surplus mortar and stains from same. All window and
door frames shall be carefully caulked with oakum and pointed up after
they have been inspected and before staff bead is applied.

25. General Conditions

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 6
Carpentry and Millwork

1. General

Under the heading of "Carpentry and Millwork" shall be included
all woodwork of every description, except lath, which forms a part ol"
the completed building. The sizes of all timbers and lumber shall
conform to the sizes shown on the plans or specified hereinafter, and
where sizes are not so indicated the Contractor shall request the Engi-
neer to furnish this information before beginning the work affected.
All lumber throughout the work shall be graded and classified in
accordance with the American Railway Engineering Association "Specifi-
cations for Lumber and Timber to be used in the Construction and
Maintenance of Way Departments of Railroads" and shall be subject
to inspection as received at the site. Rejected lumber shall be promptly
removed from the site l)y the Contractor.

2. Seasoning

All framing lumber and timbers shall be thoroughly air seasoned
before being used, and all finishing lumber, flooring, ceiling, moulded
casing, base and window and door jamb shall be kiln dried. After
delivery at the site all kiln dried lumber shall be protected from the
weather and other damage until the final completion and acceptance of
the building.

3. Species and Grades

The lumber used in the various parts of the work shall be of the
species and conform to the grades listed below:

Description of Lumber Species Grade

Timbers and framing lumber

Window, transom and door frames

Exterior finishing lumber

Interior finishing lumber

Flooring

Ceiling

Moulded casings, base, window and

door jambs
Roof and storm sheathing
Drop and bevel siding, weatherboards
Fencing
Shingles
Sash
Doors
Blinds

874

Buildings. 875

4. Dressing

Unless otherwise shown on the plans, all lumber used throughout
the work shall be sized on four sides to uniform widths and thicknesses,
except that sills may be rough and platform joists need be dressed on
two edges only.

5. Treated Lumber

Where called for on the plans, lumber treated with a preservative
such as creosote oil or zinc chloride shall be used and such lumber shall
be termed "Treated Lumber." Unless otherwise provided in this specifica-
tion, the Railwaj' Company will furnish all treated lumber, delivered on
cars at the nearest available track to the building, and the Contractor
shall provide for unloading, framing and erecting such lumber in his
proposal, quality of workmanship to be the same as for other carpenter
work under this specification. The Railway Company will furnish suffi-
cient preservative and the Contractor shall apply two brush coats of this
material to all parts of the lumber that have been framed. The pre-
servative material shall be heated before application if directed by the
Engineer.

6. Framing

All framing throughout shall be of the dimensions shown on the
plans and shall be placed as indicated. The framing shall be done in a
neat, workmanlike manner to give close joints and shall be securely
nailed, spiked and bolted. Studding shall be doubled at all openings
and opposite each cross partition, and all corners and angles shall be
made solid and well braced, and all bracket supporters tripled. All studs
shall be in one piece from sill to plate. Horizontal block bridging of
the same dimensions as the studding shall be inserted at intervals of
four feet in height and at the level of all floors. Where partitions come
over voids they shall be trussed as detailed, or according to instructions
from the Engineer.

The Contractor shall provide and set all hangers, straps, shoes and
bolts required in trussing partitions. Horizontal joist supports shall be
carefully notched into studding and well nailed. Wall plates on top of
studs shall generally be in two pieces, each of the same dimensions as
the studding, breaking joints. All joints shall come over studs and not
between studs.

7. Joists

Joists shall be of the dimensions shown on the plans, and spaced as
indicated. All through partitions carried from the ground floor up
shall have a joist run close up against the same on either side al each
floor. All joists carrying partitions, all trimmer joists, and all joists
around wells or openings shall be doubled unless otherwise shown. Where
their span is greater than 8 ft. joists shall be stiffened with bridging of
the size shown crossed both ways between each joist, and placed al leavt

(A)

876 Buildings.

every six feet. Ceiling joists shall be firmly spiked with the roof, and
when not supported on intermediate partitions shall be in one piece.

8. Roof Framing

Roofs shall be framed and built in accordance with the detail plans,
accurately fitted and securely nailed, spiked or bolted. Chords of trusses
shall be in one piece unless otherwise detailed, and shall be set level and
plumb and securely braced longitudinally and in the planes of the top
chords. Trusses shall be framed with a camber as directed by the
Engineer. Wall plates shall be in long lengths with lapped joints halved,
and well spiked at all angles. Rafters and purlins shall be set at the
centers shown on the plans. They shall be carefully cut and set, and
have a solid bearing over wall plates, beams, and at ridge pieces, and
be well spiked at all bearings, and properly trimmed for chimneys or
other openings. Sprocket or lookout pieces not less than 2 in. in thick-
ness shall be carefully cut to form curves where shown, and well nailed
to rafters. Sheathing boards shall be of uniform width, nailed twice at
every bearing to avoid warping and injury to the roof covering; all
joints to come on rafters.

9. Sheathing and Siding

Storm sheathing, when called for by the plans, shall be laid diagonally
or horizontally as detailed, and nailed twice at everj' bearing. Sheathing
boards shall be of uniform width. Drop siding, shiplap and weather
boards shall be placed truly horizontal, with tight square butt joints,
closely and accurately fitted against all casings, sills, water table and
corner boards. All siding shall be drawn tight, secret nailed if called for,
and when complete shall be wind and rain proof.

10. Flooring

Rough flooring shall be of the dimensions shown on the plans
(tongued and grooved if called for), evenly laid, in long lengths and
securely nailed throughout, all joints to come on joists. Finished floor-
ing shall be dressed and matched, of the dimensions shown on the plans,
with not more than two joints together, and shall be secret nailed with
wire or cut floor nails as directed by the Engineer. It shall be smoothed
by hand or machine to the final finish. No floor board, except in closets,
shall be less than four feet in length. Finished floors shall not be laid
until the plastering is finished. Where maple flooring is called for as
the finished flooring in warehouses and shops, it shall be of the dimen-
sions shown but square edged and end matched, and unless otherwise
directed shall be face nailed with wire floor nails.

All flooring shall be tightly driven up before nailing so that joints
are absolutely tight. Where wood floors are laid over concrete sub-
floors, a coat of approved liquid Avaterproofing compound shall be mopped
over the concrete fiUing and screeds before the rough flooring is laid.

11. Building and Sheathing Papers, Etc.

Where called for on the plans, storm sheathing and sub-flooring
shall be covered with one layer of waterproof building paper, weighing

Buildings. 877

not less than 5 pounds per 100 sq. ft. Paper shall be lapped at least
two inches at all joints, and carried underneath all corner boards, casing,
etc., making a windtight finish throughout.

12. Furring and Grounds

All interior surfaces of stone, brick or concrete walls which arc
to be plastered, also all studded partitions and ceilings where studs or
joists are more than sixteen inches on centers, shall be furred with one
by two inch furring strips placed sixteen inches on centers and securely
nailed. Furring on masonry walls shall provide a plumb surface for
lathing, and shall be nailed to wood bricks or inserts built into the walls
by the mason. Grounds 54 in. thick shall be provided around all open-
ings and along base, and shall be in true planes.

13. Window and Door Frames

All window and door frames shall be substantially built to details,
of kiln dried lumber, all securely framed into sills and heads. Frames
shall be given one priming coat of paint before delivery at the site,
and shall be braced and protected until the building is completed. Frames
shall be set plumb and true, and shall be anchored into masonry walls by
wrought iron ties attached to the frames with screws; and if in wood
walls, shall be firmly fixed into reveals with wood blocks built in. Frames
v/ith transoms and mullions shall be made in one frame with transom
bar and mullion mortised in. All frames shall be of proper size to
receive sash and doors, and shall be weatherproof. Frames for double
hung windows shall have sash pulleys built in as specified under "Hard-
ware."

Where called for on the plans window frames shall be built to
receive "winter" or "storm" sashes, and door frames to receive "storm"
doors. All frames shall be built to receive screens where required.
Plank frames for masonry walls shall have a break strip built into wall
and nailed to frame around head and jambs.

14. Stairs

Stairs shall be strongly and rigidly built in locations shown, and as
detailed. Rough work for all stairs shall be self-supporting without the
aid of angle posts. Treads shall have moulded nosings,, be ploughed
into risers, and risers into the under side of treads, and both housed
into the wall stringer and tightly wedged. In general for all stairways,
treads shall be 1J4 in. thick and risers 1 in. thick, and both of hardwood
and shall be in one piece. All newels, balusters and handrails shall be
as detailed. Landings and platforms shall be finished to match treads,
and all finish on stairways shall match general finish throughout the
building. Cellar and porch stairs on minor buildings may be open without
risers where directed by the Engineer. Outside steps shall be framed
with proper waterfall.

15. Outside Finish and Trim

All outside trim and finish shall be neatly and accurately fitted. All
necessary base boards, water table, corner trim, casings, facias, frieze

878 Buildings.

boards, cornice and mouldings, and everything necessary to make a
complete, finished piece of work shall be furnished and erected.

16. Platform Shelters

Where platform shelter sheds have wood posts supported on con-
crete foundations, the posts shall be set in and bolted to a cast iron
base which shall be securely anchored to the foundation. If treated wood
posts are called for these shall be set in the ground and anchored and
braced as detailed. Corners of posts, brackets and purlins shall be stop
chamfered, and posts up to a height of 5 ft. above the top of platform
shall have the corners protected by steel angles. All braces and brackets
shall be securely bolted, using beveled washers under bolt heads and nuts
where required. Brackets for overhanging roofs shall be built as de-
tailed and in locations shown, and shall be securely bolted to walls and
set true against solid bearings. Where no ceiling is used on the under
side of sheds and shelters, the roof sheathing shall be tongued and
grooved, and of size and design shown on drawings. All necessary
facia boards and moulds shall be provided, and ends of show rafters
shall have scroll cut ends.

17. Interior Finish

All interior trim, wainscoting, chair rail base, picture mouldings,
etc., shall be kiln dried and conform to the details, be neatly and
accurately fitted with mitred joints and secret nailed with fine finishing
nails. If face nailed, all nails shall be set for puttying. Interior finish
shall be free from hammer marks and shall be hand dressed and sand-
papered where required. No splicing of the window or door trim will
be permitted, and joints of bases, chair rail and mouldings must be care-
fully matched.

18. Cabinets, Counters, Etc.

Provide in place all cabinets, counters, drawers, lockers, shelving,
etc., called for on the plans, fitted up with all hardware as specified
under that heading. All lumber for this work shall be kiln dried, and
of same species and grade as interior finish. Cabinet work shall be done
in an approved manner, securely nailed and glued, and all drawers and
cabinet doors shall work easily and fit accurately. Tops of counters
shall be accurately joined, hand dressed, scraped and sandpapered so
that joints will not show. Shelving shall be securely and rigidly built
in place, supported by necessary brackets and cleats.

19. Toilet Partitions

Where wood water closet partitions are called for on the plans,
they shall be provided by the Carpenter, together with all metal fittings
and hardware; also doors in accordance with the details. In general
these partitions shall begin at a point 6 in. above the floor and extend
to a point 6 ft. above the floor, and may consist of either standard ceiling
fitted into ploughed stiles and rails, or panelled sections supported and
fastened by nickel plated toilet partition fittings.

Buildings. 879

20. Sash

All sash shall be accuratelj' made to fill openings, dressed and sanded
to a smooth finish, pinned and through tennoned with muntins, etc., as
detailed. All shall be checked for glass and moulded and shall be
properly hung, hinged or pivoted as required. All sash for exterior
windows shall have small groove cut around sash to make a watertight
fit. All double hung windows shall have the sash carefully balanced and
counterweighted with cast iron or lead weights hung on approved sash
cord or sash chains of proper strength. Sash shall be fitted so as to
operate easily, but shall not be so loose as to rattle. Casement windows
shall be made watertight b}' grooving the bottom rails and providing
rebates at jambs, head and meeting stiles. Glass sizes, thicknesses, widths
of rails and stiles will be shown on the plans. Where glass sizes only
are given, widths of rails, stiles and muntins shall be in accordance with
standard mill practice.

21. Doors

Doors shall be of the sizes and types shown on the drawings, prop-
erly and neatly hung so as to fill openings, free from warp, and fully
equipped with all hardware necessary for their operation. Sliding doors
in warehouses and baggage rooms shall have suitable protection built
to protect the doors when in an open position, shall have all necessarj'
stops, shall be so hung that the doors cannot be lifted off the track from
the outside, and shall be hung and fitted so that no lateral motion will
exist. Heavy and special doors shall be built to details with frames
mortised together, backing rigidly fastened, and fitted with sash where
shown.

Unless metal doors are called for, fire doors shall in general be built
of two thicknesses of tongued and grooved boards nailed together in
opposite directions, and covered on both sides and all edges with asbestos
sheets covered with sheets of tin. Fire doors shall be hung to close
automatically in accordance with the standard practice of the National
Board of Fire Underwriters.

A special schedule of hinged doors, showing thicknesses, sizes, de-
sign, panelling, glazing, etc., will be furnished to supplement this specifica-
tion where needed. In general all panelled doors shall be 1^4 in. thick,
except interior doors in minor buildings, which may be lYs in. thick,
stiles and rails to be through tennoned and pinned and solidly glued up.-
Doors shall be hung with the proper size and number of butts to prevent
sagging. Double acting doors and gates shall swing clear and fill open-
ings. Hardwood carpet strips or thresholds shall be provided for all
doors unless otherwise shown on the plans.

22. Shingles

Where called for on the plans, ruofs and exterior walls of buildings
>liall be covered with shingles of the species and grade herein specified.
Unless otherwise provided for, shingles shall be 4 in. x 16 in. in size,
laid 4^ in. to the weather, thoroughly nailed with coated shingle nails.

880 Buildings.

No split shingles or pieces shall be used. Shingles shall be laid in
courses which are truly horizontal or parallel with eaves, all joints
truly vertical or perpendicular to eaves, joints alternating with courses
below. Shingles at eaves and base shall be started with double course
projecting one inch below the sheathing. Valleys shall have shingles
cut parallel to valleys, leaving flashing exposed not less than. 12 in., and
hips shall have shingles worked into Boston hips unless otherwise pro-
vided. All necessary saddle boards on ridge .cap shall be provided and
when completed, shingle roofs shall be watertight.

23. Miscellaneous Carpentry

The Carpenter shall provide in place all miscellaneous woodwork
not above specified, such as wood foundation blocks and posts, fencing,
latticing, coal bins, walkways in attics, wood gutters, signs, notice boards,
etc., and do all necessary cutting, fitting and patching and special framing
necessary for the proper installation of work of other trades. Upon
completion of the work, the Carpenter shall remove all temporary work,
scrap lumber and debris, draw all projecting and temporary nails, and
leave the work in a complete, finished and orderly condition.

24. General Conditions

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 7
Lathing and Plastering

1. General

Under this heading shall be included all wood and metal furring and
cross furring, all wood and metal lathing, all plain and ornamental plaster-
ing and all stucco work. The Contractor shall provide all scaffolding,
tools, labor and materials, and everything necessary to complete the
plastering and stucco work shown on the drawings or required to com-
plete the building.

2. Metal Furring

The Contractor shall furnish and set all wood and metal furring, cross
furring, forms, anchors and ties for all suspended ceilings, cornices, coves,
mouldings, etc., called for on the plans. Where ceilings are hung below the
beams of floor or roof systems, they shall be formed on steel channels
of sizes indicated and spaced as shown, and securely fastened by means
of hangers to the floor or roof members. Hangers shall be flat iron of
dimensions shown, securely bolted and clamped to the beams and
channels. Ceilings shall be cross furred as noted with one inch (1")
angles, channels or tees spaced twelve inches (12") on centers. Cross
furring shall be secured by approved clips to furring channels and beams.

3. Metal Lathing

Metal lath shall be painted or galvanized expanded metal. No. 24
gage, painted or galvanized after expansion, and of a make approved
by the Engineer. All metal lath shall be draw^n tight over steel furring,
studs or joists, lapped not less than three inches (3") at all sides where
joints occur, and laced together and to the furring at intervals not to
exceed six inches (6") with No. 18 galvanized soft wire. Ends of wire
shall be well twisted and bent up beyond lower line of lath. Lathing
shall l)c left in perfect condition to receive plaster — level, true nnd rigid.

4. Painting

All metal furring, cross furring, ties, hangers and clips shall be
painted on all sides before erection wnth one coat of approved lead and
oil paint.

5. Wood Lath

Wood lath shall be of cypress, white pine, spruce or hemlock, No. 1
quality, and shall be well seasoned and free from sap, bark and dead
knots. Before putting up any lath the lather shall test and check all
studding, furring and grounds to see that they are all true and properly
prepared for his work. Lath shall be securely nailed at every bearing,
using two nails at ends, and shall break joints every sixth course. No
lath 5hall be set vertical to fill out corners and no lath shall extend

881

882 Buildings.

beyond any corner or angle. Where laths cross a bearing over two
inches in width a strip or lath shall be put under the laths so there will
be a space back of the laths for the plaster to key. l.-aths over doors
or other openings shall have as few vertical joints as possible and where
practicable laths shall extend across such openings. Laths shall be spaced
5^ in. apart for ordinarj' lime mortar and % in. apart for patent or
hard plasters. At the junction of all walls covered with wood lath and
unfurred brick or tile walls, and at all angles in walls covered witli
wood lath, a strip of metal lath not less than twenty-four (24") inches
wide shall be securely fastened over the entire length of the joint or
angle, lapping twelve (12") inches on each side.

6. Corner Beads

Except where rounded corners are specifically indicated, all exposed
vertical corners where plastering occurs shall be provided with metal
corner beads, securely fastened in place.

7. Interior Plastering

In general all plastering on lathed surfaces shall consist of a scratdi
coat, a brown coat, and the finishing coat. On unfurred brick or tilo
surfaces the scratch coat will be omitted. Each coat shall be permitted
to dry thoroughly before the next coat is applied. Before beginning his
work the plasterer shall test and prove the lathing and grounds so that
the finished plaster will be -plumb, true, level and waveless. Plastering
shall run up behind all sill aprons, wainscoting, etc., and shall extend
behind all bases.

All stone, brick or terra cotta walls to be plastered and all wood
lath shall be thoroughly drenched with water before applying the first
coat of plaster.

In hot dry weather, especially if windy, close all openings in the
liuilding while plastering, to prevent too rapid drying. In winter the
temperature in the rooms being plastered shall be kept above the freezing
|)niiit while plastering and until the plaster has hardened.

The scratch coat shall be well rubbed in and troweled against brick
and tile and into lathed surfaces so as to form a perfect bond, and shall
be scored and scratched in both directions to form a key for the brown
coat.

The brown coat shall be applied to the scratch coat and l>rouglit flush
with the grounds, with all surfaces straight, true, plumb, level and
waveless.

The finishing coat shall be applied to the brown coat and may be a
sand float or white trowel finish as specifically designated. If a white
trowel finish is called for, it shall be made of Keene's cement and linn'
putty trowele<l to a smooth hard finish free from trowel or brush marks.

The plasterer shall run all plaster moulds, cornices, coves, etc., in
accordance with models or full-sized profiles; all angles to be carefully
and accurately mitred. Run work shall be carefully and accurately
formed from templates to form continuous, unbroken, level lines. Orna-

Buildings. 883

mental enrichments shall be firmly secured in place with plaster of Paris,
white lead and galvanized wire nails.

Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, all plastering shall be
done with "Patent" or hard wall plaster of a brand specifically approved
by the Engineer and mixed and applied in accordance with the Manu-
facturer's directions. Plaster shall be delivered at the site in the original
unbroken packages and stored in a dry place until used.

All lime putty used for plastering shall be made from first quality
pure lump lime, screened and free from impurities, and shall be mixed
at least two weeks before being used.

Sand for plastering shall be sharp and angular and free from dirt,
oil, or impurities that will stain the plaster. It shall be screened, washed
and dried.

8. Patching

The plasterer shall do all necessary patching of plaster after the
other mechanics have finished their work and shall leave same complete
and perfect in every respect.

9. Exterior Stucco Work

The work required under this heading comprises the stuccoing of
all exterior wall surfaces, as shown on the drawings and hereinafter
described. Fresh stucco shall be protected from the weather and no
stucco in which cracks, pits, streaks, discolorations or other defects
may occur will be accepted. Cement shall be Portland cement for the
under coats and white Portland cement for the finish coat in accordance
with specifications for Portland cement described in the section of
these specifications covering "Concrete." Aggregate for the under coats
shall be thoroughly clean sand, graded from fine to coarse grains with
the coarse grains predominating, and shall be free from loam, salt,
vegetable and other deleterious matter. Aggregate for the finish coat
shall be thoroughly clean yellow gravel grit, marble or granite screenings,
as directed by the Engineer. Hydrated lime and coloring compounds
shall be first quality, of a brand acceptable to the Engineer. Hair shall
be first quality long cattle or goat hair.

Mortar for the first and second coats shall be composed of one part
Portland cement, three parts sand and one-tenth (1/10) part of hydrated
lime by volume with sufficient hair added to bond the mortar to the lath.

Mortar for the finishing coat shall be composed of one part white
Portland cement, three parts of aggregate and one-tenth (1/10) part by
volume of hydrated lime. This coat shall be brought to the tone selected
by the addition of dry coloring compound not exceeding ten (10%) per
cent, of the weight of the cement.

Mixing shall be done on a watertight platform, the different constitu-
ents thoroughly mixed dry to a uniform color, water then added to obtain
the proper consistency, and the whole turned over imtil the mass is uni-
form in color and consistency. No retcmpercd mortar shall be used and
no more mortar shall be mixed than can be used in thirty minutes. The

884 Buildings.

dry color in the finishing coat shall be carefully weighed or measured
and thoroughly mixed with the sand. The cement and lime shall then
be added and the entire mass thoroughly mixed by shovelling from one
side of the platform to the other through a J^-'"- mesh screen, and when
the batch is of uniform color, the water shall be added.

The stucco shall be applied in three coats, each coat not less than
}4-i"- nor more than ^-in. in thickness, the whole finishing ^-^-in. thick
beyond the normal masonry line or 1 in. thick over the furring strips.
The plastering shall be carried on continuously in one general direction
without allowing the mortar to dry at the edge. Where this is impossible
the joints shall be made at a break, an opening, or other natural division
of the surface. Stucco shall not be applied when the temperature is below
freezing. Masonry surfaces shall be cleaned and wet before the first
coat is applied and brick walls shall have the joints raked out about
^-in. The first coat shall be applied under pressure so as to secure a
perfect bond with the masonry wall or lathed surface. After the first
coat has set, but before it has dried, the second coat shall be applied and
floated to a true plane. The under coats shall be cross scratched and
scored before the initial set has taken place and shall be thoroughly
wetted before the succeeding coats are applied. The finishing coat shall
be kept damp for at least 4 days, either by sprinkling after the mortar
has hardened sufficiently to permit it or by hanging wet burlap over the
surface.

After the second coat has set, but before it has dried, the finishing
coat shall be applied and finished in accordance with one of the methods
hereinafter specified as directed by the Engineer.

Exposed Aggregate (Integral Method). — The finishing coat shall be
^-in. thick and, within 24 hours after it has been troweled to an even
surface, shall be scrubbed with a stiff brush until the aggregate has been
uniformly exposed. Should the cement be too hard to be readily removed
by water, a solution of 1 part muriatic acid to 5 parts of water may be
used ; but as soon as the aggregate has been exposed, particular care shall
be taken to remove all trace of acid by spraying thoroughly with clean
water from a hose.

Smooth Troweled. — Finishing coat shall be smoothed with a metal
trowel, with as little rubbing as possible.

Stippled. — Finishing coat shall be smoothed with a metal trowel, with
as little rubbing as possible, and then shall be lightly patted with a brush
of broom straw to give an even stippled surface.

Sand Floated. — Finishing coat, after being brought to a smooth, even
surface, shall be rubbed in a circular motion with a wood float. This
floating shall be done when mortar has partially set.

Rough Cast or Spatter Dash. — After the finishing coat has been
brought to an even surface and before attaining its final set, it shall be
uniformly coated with a mixture of 1 part white cement to 2 parts white
sand, thrown forcibly against the wall in such a manner as will produce
a rough surface of uniform texture.

Buildings. 885

Pebble Dash. — After the finishing coat has been brought to an even
surface and before attaining its initial set, clean pebbles shall be forcibly
thrown against the mortar and embedded therein. Pebbles shall vary in
size from ^-in. to -H-in., shall be well wetted before being cast, and shall
be uniformly distributed over the surface. They may be pressed into the
mortar with a clean wooden paddle, but the surface shall not be otherwise
disturbed.

Note. — The above surface finishes are alternatives. Under no circum-
stances should the stucco be worked after it has attained its initial set.

Samples of the surface finish shall be laid up well in advance of the
work, and the approved sample shall be carefully preserved during the
prosecution of the work and used as a standard.

10. General Conditions

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILROAD BUILDINGS

SECTION 8
Hardware

1. General

The Contractor shall provide and set all rough and finish hardware
necessary for the operation of all doors, windows, blinds, screens, screen
doors, toilet partition doors, cabinets, drawers, gates, ticket windows, etc.,
and for completely equipping the building. Hardware shall be neatly and
accurately fixed in place by skilled mechanics, with screws or bolts, which
shall match the hardware and shall be left in perfect working order, free
from rust, scratches and other defects. The Contractor sh;dl provide such
hardware as screws, bolts, coat and hat hooks and other minor articles,
although not specifically mentioned or shown, but necessary for the ordi-
nary operation of the building. All hardware required in connection with
slate or marble toilet partitions shall be furnished by the Plumbing Con-
tractor. Hardware for toilet partition doors will be furnished and fitted
to the marble or slate partitions by the Plumbing Contractor, but the
doors will be hung by the Carpenter. Where wood toilet partitions are
called for, all necessary hardware shall be furnished and set by the
Carpenter and such hardware shall be included in this schedule. All
escutcheons, push plates, kick plates, push bars, etc., shall be set after
the wood finishing and varnishing are completed.

2. Finish Hardware

Finish hardware shall be selected by the Engineer. As a basis for

bids the Contractor shall include in his proposal the sum of

dollars ($ ) to cover the purchase cost of all

finishing hardware, together with freight on same to the building. Any
difference between actual cost and tliis sum will be added to or sub-
tracted from the lump sum amount of the contract as the case may re-
quire. The cost of placing the finish hardware shall not be covered by
the above amount, but shall be included by the Contractor in his proposal.

3. Rough Hardware

The Contractor shall furnish all rough hardware of every descrip-
tion and shall include the cost of furnishing and setting such hardware
in his proposal. Rough hardware shall include nails, spikes, screws, bolts
and washers, sash pulleys, sash weights, sash cord or chain, sliding door
hardware, fire door hardware, special operating devices for rolling doors,
horizontal cross folding doors and all windows requiring -.pecial operating
devices. In general special hardware will be noted on the plans or de-
scribed in a supplement to this specification, but where not so shown and
described it shall be furnished and placed if necessary for the operation
and use of the building. Hardware for sliding doors shall include all

886

" Buildings. 887

track, hangers, bumpers, stops, stay rollers, chafo atid bituhr stripes, door
pulls and locks.

Hardware for lire doors shall be of an automatic type approved by
the National Board of Fire Underwriters.

Sash weights shall he of cast iron or lead and of proper weight to
exactly counterbalance the sash, and shall be properly proportioned to fit
in the weight- boxes.

Sash pulleys shall be of an anti-friction type, of proper size and with
approved face. Sash weights and pulleys shall be fitted to the sash and
frames at the mill manufacturing same.

Hardware for special doors such as engine house doors shall be of
extra heavy design to prevent sagging of doors. All rough hardware
shall be of substantial construction and of a make approved by the
Kngineer.

4. General Conditions

All materials entering into the work and all methods used by the
Contractor shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer and no part
of the work will he considered as finally accepted until all of the work
is completed.

The General Conditions as given in Section 1 of this specification
shall be considered to apply with equal force to this section of the specifi-
cation.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIV— ON YARDS AND
TERMINALS

B. H. Mann, Chairman;
J. E. Armstrong,
Hadley Baldwin,

C. A. Briggs,

J. H. Brinkerhoff,
Miles Bronson,
A. E. Clift
L. G. Curtis,
H. T. Douglas, Jr.,
A. W. Epright,
E. M. Hastings,
Reuben Hayes,
L. J. F. Hughes,

A. Montzheimer, Vice-Chairman,
J. B. Hunley,

D. B. Johnston,
H. a. Lane,

R. J. Middleton,
O. Maxey,
F. E. Morrow,
H. J. Pfeifer,
S. S. Roberts,
C. H. Spencer,

E. B. Temple,

E. E. R. Tratman,
J. G. Wis hart.

Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Yards and
Terminals for study^ and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Make final report, if practicable, on unit operation of railroad
terminals in large cities, including a revision of the catechism on unit
operation of terminals as a statement of principles.

3. Report on handling of freight on two-track level freight houses
and team tracks. Also, multiple-storied freight houses and handling of
freight by mechanical means.

4. Make final report, if practicable, on tj-pical situation plans for
passenger stations, and methods of their operation.

5. Report on classification yards, including methods of switching
from classification yards to advance yards.

6. Report on advantages of small sorting yards with grade sufficient
for gravity switching to be located between classification and advance
pocket, for the purpose of switching trains into station order.

7. Report on passenger station, freight house, and grain weighing
scales.

8. Study and report on methods of economic transfer of lading of
bad-order cars in large terminals by the introduction of mechanical means
or otherwise.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Chicago, May 20 and De-
cember 9; in Atlantic City, September 22, 23 and 24, and in Washington,
November 30. The names of members in attendance have been given in
the minutes of the meetings, which have been printed in the Bulletin.

889

890 Yards and Terminals.

(1) Revision of Manual
No changes in the Manual are recommended by the Committee.

(3) Two-Track Level and Multiple-Storied Freight Houses,
Two-Track Level Team Tracks

In Appendix A the Committee submits the results of its study of the
subject of handling of freight on two-track level freight houses and team
tracks. Also multiple-storied freight houses and handling of freight by
mechanical means.

(4) Passenger Stations
In Appendix B the Committee reports its continued study of the sub-
ject of typical and actual situation plans for passenger stations and meth-
ods of their operation.

(7) Scales

In Appendix C the Committee submits its outline of methods of work
and enumerates some of the problems to be solved in its study of proposed
specifications for the manufacture and installation of railroad, motor
truck, built-in, self-contained and portable scales. The Committee reports
progress in the result to be attained.

(8) Economic Transfer of Lading of Bad-Order Cars

In Appendix D the Committee reports on the subject of economic
transfer of lading of bad-order cars in large terminals by the introduction
of mechanical means or otherwise and its recommendations are given
under the head of Conclusions.

Progress Report

The Committee reports progress this year in its continued study of
subject (2) Unit operation of railroad terminals in large cities, on subject
(5) Classification yards, including methods of switching, and subject (6)
Advantages of small sorting yards and gravity switching for switching
trains into station order.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that the following plans, taken from
the Proceedings and revised, be approved for publication in the Manual :

Typical and actual situation plans for passenger stations and metliods
of their operation :

(a) Plan showing a typical track layout at a dead-end passenger

terminal station.

(b) Plan showing a typical track layout at a through passenger termi-

nal station.

tions.

rr— T-^r-T^-^r-^-T-t-^t-T— r-r t t

. — ■

r\^

/"^

less than a
rain length -

No. 2?

Types of Ladders.

^Wot less than

Types of Ladders.

TvpEs OP Ladders.

Fic. 1— Typical Tback Lavoui at Deao-eno Passescm Terminal Staiio

ELE ^ATIO

l-ic, 2— TvpicAi. Track Layout at Th»ouch Passekgeb Tfi

Yards and Terminals. 891

2. The Committee recommends the following for approval and pub-
lication in the Manual :

Methods of economic transfer of lading of bad-order cars in large
terminals by the introduction of mechanical means or otherwise :

(a) Hand labor for transferring freight from cars in most cases is

slow and expensive and without real justification.

(b) The employment of a locomotive crane is generally justified in

any case where the transfer of freight from open-top cars
otherwise requires the equivalent of the constant daily service
of six or more men, or the intermittent service of six men
where the machine may be economically employed in the interim.

economy out of all proportion to the cost and such study is
justified in each case.

3. The Committee recommends that its report on the subject of
handling freight in two-track level freight houses and team tracks be
received as information and that the subject be reassigned.

4. The Committee has made progress in its study of the subject of
passenger station, freight house and grain weighing scales and recom-
mends that the subject be reassigned.

5. The Committee recommends that the subject of unit operation
of railroad terminals in large cities be continued and reassigned.

6. The Committee recommends that the subject of classification
yards be reassigned.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that the following new topic be as-
signed for future work:

Analyze the relative advantages and disadvantages of including stor-
age warehouses in L. C. L. freight houses.

Respectfully submitted,
The Committee on Yards and Terminals,

B. H. Mann, Chatrman.

Appendix A

(3) MULTIPLE-STORIED FREIGHT HOUSES

H. T. Douglas, Jr., Chairman; F. E. Morrow,

A. E. Clift, H. J. Pfeifeh,

L. G. Curtis, E. E. R. Tratman,

L. J. F. Hughes, J. G. Wishart,

Sub-Committee.

Your Committee has held three meetings in the offices of the Asso-
ciation at Chicago and x>ne at Atlantic City, and submits the following as
a preliminary or progress report. It is felt that labor and railway operat-
ing conditions have been so unsettled that statistical information now pro-
curable as to present costs and service has little or no value and that the
importance of the subject demands further study before a final report
is made.

The subject divides itself into four parts:

(1) Two-track-level freight houses as compared with single-level

freight houses.

(2) Two-track-level team tracks.

(3) Multiple-storied freight houses, or the operation of storage

warehouses in connection with freight houses.

(4) Handling freight by mechanical means.

The Committee has been unable to find any installations of two-track-
level freight stations. In its report of 1917 the Committee noted two-level
stations at several points, but these — as well as later structures — have the
tracks at one level and the team driveways at the other level. Of nine
such stations, five have the tracks on the upper level and four have them
on the lower level. Though in some cases the time or operating cost for
handling freight may be greater in a two-level station than in a single-
level station of equal capacity, the net cost may be favorable when the
overhead and capital costs are included.

Assuming that a two-level design is adopted, one of the first con-
siderations is adequate provision for handling freight between the two
levels. Elevators are the principal means employed, handling both freight
packages and freight trucks, although inclined conveyors or escalators
have been proposed in some cases.

As to the general plan, the almost universal arrangement is to have
both tracks and driveways run longitudinally with the building, with the
platforms on the upper level directly above those on the lower level. In
a design made in 1912 by the Pennsylvania Railroad for a large freight
terminal at Chicago the freight house was to cover an entire block and to
have transverse driveways connecting the two streets on the longer sides,

892

Yards and Terminals. 893

thus increasing the length of frontage for teams. This project was aban-
doned, however, in favor of the present terminal with longitudinal drive-
ways.

(1) Two-Track Level Freight Houses

Double-deck freight house design is attracting increased attention in
connection with railway terminal facilities in large cities, especially where
separation of grades of tracks and streets involve steep grade approaches
for single story freight houses. The floor area of many single-level
freight stations is inadequate for their business, but expansion is either
impossible or is practicable only at great expense for additional land. In
such cases the introduction of the two-level type of station may furnish a
satisfactory solution of the problem, also being adapted to separation of
grades, reducing congestion of vehicles, avoiding steep driveways and
shortening trucking distance, the latter being one of the principal fac-
tors in the expense of freight house operation.

Two-level stations have been and are being built under governing
conditions such as are imposed by topography, grade separation or the
necessity of intensified use resulting from restricted area or high value of
land. Where conditions permit of choice between single or multiple level
designs, selection should be based upon these considerations :

(1) Value of land.

(2) Construction costs.

(3) Present and future business.

(4) Operating costs.

(5) Operating capacity.

(2) Two-Track Level Team Tracks

The Committee has been unable to find any installations of two-track
level team tracks but is advised that plans for such installations are being
considered by some railroads to secure intensified use of the property.

(3) Multiple- Storied Freight Houses

This subject relates to the provision of upper stories for holding of
inbound freight until delivered or for warehouse purposes. Some railway
officers do not favor going into the warehouse business ; the Committee
holds, however, that where the freight house occupies land of high value
it is desirable to develop revenue from the area occupied, increase traffic,
and offer economy to shipper, providing that this can be done without in-
terfering with the normal business of the railway.

One objection that has been made is the possible confusion between
teams for freight house and warehouse business, and confusion in the
elevator service handling both kinds of business. In this connection ref-
erence may be made to the combined freight station and warehouse of
the Central Manufacturing Company at Thirty-ninth and Robey Streets,
Chicago. The tracks are at the first-floor level, and two outside tracks

894 Yards and Terminals,

along one side are for the carload business of tlie warehouse. Along the
other side is a double deck driveway, the lower deck serving the freight
house platform and the upper deck serving the warehouse. Access to
the upper deck is by two large elevators for wagons and motor trucks.
Some of the interior elevators serve the warehouse floors only, and others
serve both the warehouse and the freight station.

The new five-story freight terminal of the Pennsylvania Railroad at
Chicago has tracks at the basement level and team driveways on the first
floor, with the three upper stories designed for warehouse purposes. The
new Chicago freight stations of the Chicago & Alton Railroad and Chi-
cago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad will have a similar arrangement, the
Chicago & Alton Railroad having one warehouse floor, the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy four. The Orange Street freight station of the New
York Central Lines at Cleveland, Ohio, is of the single-floor type with
provision for future upper floors for warehouse purposes.

(4) Mechanical Handling of Freight

Two difficult conditions are involved in attempts to simplify the opera-
tion and to introduce mechanical methods of handling. In the first place,
there is the network of movements. Outbound freight from each doorway
must go to a scale and checker's desk and then to any one of the cars
which stand alongside the house. In the second place, the freight to be
handled is of bewildering variety in material, size and weight.

Hand trucking has met the requirement of flexibility of movement
fairly well, but it is slow and expensive, and involves considerable con-
fusion, with liability of numerous errors. Overhead cranes, trolley hoists
and conveyor equipment has been used very little in freight house work.
In fact, it has been difficult to adapt such appliances to this work, since
their operations are limited to fixed routes and directions and cannot gen-
erally be adapted to the irregular and changing directions of movements
on a freight house floor. In warehouse work, however, such mechanical
equipment finds numerous applications.

For the mechanical handling of freight in freight house work the
most extensive and successful development has been the introduction of
small tractors to haul trucks or trailers in trains. The tractor taking a
train of loaded trucks drops them at their destined cars and collects empty
trucks for delivery to loading points.

This system is in operation at a number of freight houses and also
at warehouses. To enable the truck trains to cross the tracks between
station platforms, light bascule bridges are employed in the Orange Street
freight house of the New York Central Lines at Cleveland, Ohio. In set-
ting cars on the house tracks they are spotted to clear these bridges. In
the U. S. Army warehouse at Brooklyn, N. Y., the truck and tractor sys-
tem is operated in combination with an automatic elevator service. De-
tailed description of the methods of operation at above stations as well as
several others are described in articles listed in an appendix to this report.

Yards and Terminals. 895

Your Committee in 1917 also described this system as used at the 43rd
Street house of the Chicago Junction Railway at Chicago.

Automatic elevator service is a remarkable development of elevator
equipment which has been applied with marked success in some of the
busiest railway, commercial and army warehouses. It requires no opera-
tors on the elevator cars, thus eliminating a large wage item and eliminat-
ing also the innumerable slight delays due to the personal equations of a
number of employees. In ordinary railway installations the elevators are
operated by the freight handlers by means of push buttons at the elevator
doors. As applied at the Brooklyn Army warehouse, however, one dis-
patcher at a desk equipped with a battery of signal lights controls all
movements and has before him the record of movements and location of
all elevator cars.

At the Brooklyn Army warehouse he controls thirty elevators in the
inbound warehouse and forty-two in the outbound warehouse. In any
case the operation of the doors and the leveling of the cars at the land-
ings are effected automatically. The system is applicable to terminals
of moderate size as well as to the immense warehouses provided for war
emergencies. The Pennsylvania freight station at Chicago has sixteen
of these automatic elevators of three to five tons capacity, and the new
Chicago & Alton Station at Chicago will have seventeen five-ton and
two ten-ton automatic elevators. These Chicago elevators do not require
dispatchers, but are operated by the freight truckers liy means of push-
buttons adjacent to the doors of the elevators.

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that any study as to the applica-
tion of mechanical methods of handling freight in a specific freight house
should include study of methods of improving the efficiency of operation
as a whole.

REFERENCE LIST TO ARTICLES ON FREIGHT TERMINALS
AND FREIGHT HANDLING

Engineering News-Record

1. Ocean Freight Terminal on Staten Island, New York. Private
plant. Covered piers and seven-story concrete building, with no walls
around first floor. January 17 and February 28, 1918, pages 120 and 426.

2. Produce Market and Warehouses at Los Angeles. Two-story and
six-story buildings. January 24, 1918, page 167.

3. Freight Station of Central Manufacturing District, Chicago; L.
C. L. freight handled by tractors and trucks ; tunnels for trucking to in-
dustries. February 28, 1918, page 405.

4. Warehouse at Buffalo, N. Y. Conveyor systems used and upper
floors cantilevered over tracks. February 28, 1918, page 411.

5. Freight Terminal at Cleveland ; New York Central R. R. Elec-
tric elevators and inclined conveyors. Bascule bridges for trucking
across tracks Instead of through the cars. Details of operation. March
14, 1918, page 495 ; March 13, 1919, page 509.

6. Freight Piers at Norfolk, Va. ; Norfolk & Western Ry. Hinged
ramps with conveyor chains for loading and unloading vessels. May 16,
1918, page 940.

896 Yards and Terminals.

7. Freight Handling by Tractors; Chicago Junction Railway L. C. L.
business at 43rd Street Station; cost figures. October 17, 1918, page 720.

8. Ocean Pier and Warehouse at Houston, Texas. Ramps at wharf ;
elevators and overhead traveling crane into warehouse. July 24, 1919,
page 156.

9. Freight Terminal Design as Work of Engineers. September 18,
1919, page 540.

10. Freight Handling at the Brooklyn Army Base, U. S. A. Double-
deck piers, nine-story warehouses, electric tractors hauling trains of
trucks under control of dispatcher system. September 18, 1919, page 555.

11. Ocean Pier and Terminal at Seattle. Freight-handling methods.
November 13, 1919, page 855; January 1 and June 3, 1920, pages 37 and
1107.

12. Transfer of L. C. L. Freight at Cincinnati. Motor truck service
between all freight stations. Freight loaded into large wagon bodies,
which are sealed; bodies placed on and taken ofif trucks by overhead
cranes. March 11, 1920, page 508.

13. Railway Terminals in Relation to City Planning. May 6, 1920,
page 901.

14. Ocean Terminal at New York, Lehigh Valley R. R. Long piers ;
warehouses. May 13, 1920, page 970.

15. Municipal Ocean Terminal on Staten Island, New York. Long,
narrow piers. May 27, 1920, page 1047.

16. Width of Steamship Piers. Provision for cargo storage, rail-
way tracks and mechanical handling. July 22, 1920, page 160.

17. Freight Yard of Denver & Rio Grande R. R. at Soldier Summit.
Operating conditions; flat switching. Alay 27 and June 10, 1920, pages
1069 and 1159.

18. Freight Yard of Michigan Central R. R. at Niles, Michigan.
Hump switching. January 8, 1920, page 81.

19. Freight Yard of Illinois Central R. R. at Chicago. Main line and
local transfer business. Hump switching. August 5, 1918, page 313.

20. Trainshed of Indianapolis Union Station. August 19, 1920,
page 350.

21. Development of Grand Central Station, New York. Lofty build-
ings erected over track space of electrically operated terminal. September
9, 1920, page 496.

22. Chicago Freight Terminal of Chicago & Alton R. R. Double-
deck station with upper floors for warehouse and company's main offices.
October 14, 1920, page 728.

23. Improved Freight Yard at Lincoln, Nebraska, for Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy R. R. November 18, 1920, page 996.

24. Operation of Car-Float Transfer Yards. December 16, 1920,
page 1186.

Railway Age

1. Terminal Ten-Story Warehouse at Cleveland; Big Four. June
29, 1917.

2. Freight House at Indianapolis ; Pennsylvania System. Single deck.
July 13, 1917.

Yards and Terminals. 897

3. Freight Station at Chicago : Pere Marquette Railroad. Three-
story. August 10, 1917.

4. Freight Terminal at Vancouver ; Canadian Northern Railway.
Herringbone tracks in team yard. November 23, 1917.

5. Freight Terminal at Orange Avenue, Cleveland; New York
Central R. R. July 19, 1918.

6. Freight Station and Warehouse at Chicago ; Pennsylvania System.
August 2, 1918.

7. Freight Station at Salt Lake City ; Denver & Rio Grande R. R.
Bascule bridges for trucking across tracks. May 2, 1919.

8. Electric Tractors at Pier 4, New York. August 3. 1917, page 199.

9. Pcre Marquette Freight Station at Chicago. .\ description of a
new local freight station. August 10, 1917, page 22t>.

10. Pennsylvania Hump Yard at Indianapolis. October 26, 1917,
page 735.

11. Electric Trucks for Handling Freight. December 7, 1917, p. 1039.

12. Union Package Terminal. A proposed new package freight
terminal at Jersey City. March 1, 1918, page 445.

13. Illinois Central Markham Yard and N. Y. N. H. & H. New
Haven Freight Terminals Compared. May 10, 1918, page 1164.

14. New Passenger Station of R. F. & P. at Richmond, Va. Febru-
ary 14, 1919, page 401.

15. An Analysis of the Locomotive Tenminal Problem. March 7,
1919, page 538.

16. Modern Tendencies in the Design of Roundhouses. March 14,
1919, page 587.

17. British Railway Improvements at Glasgow. March 28, 1919,
page 843.

18. Reinforced Concrete Roundhouse Layout for T. & O. C. at Co-
lumbus. April 18, 1919, page 994,

19. Some Modern Tendencies in Roundhouse Design. Ma\' 16, 1919,
page 1199.

20. Illinois Central Projected Terminal at Chicago. July 11. 1919,
page 51.

21. Michigan Central Classification Yard at Niles, Mich. January
IZ. 1920, page 287.

22. Modernizing I'reight Car Repair I-'acilities. February 11. 1920,
page 608.

23. Handling 1. c. 1. freight in Interchange by Motor Trucks at Cin-
cinnati. March 5, 1920, page 681, and August 6, 1920, page 219.

24. D. & R. G. Freight Terminal at Soldier Summit, Utah. March
26, 1920, pa^e 1025.

25. Relation of Railroad Terminals to City Plan. April 30, 1920,
page 1285.

26. First Unit of St. Paul Union Station Completed. May 21, 1920,
page 1442.

n. Unit Construction Enginehouse. .\ standard design of unit con-
struction for engine houses on the Pennsylvania. June 11. 1920, page 1663.

898 Yards and Terminals.

28. Report of Committee of American Railway Association, Section
III — -Mechanical (Master Car Bnildcrs) on Repair Shop Lavonts. Jnne
20, 1920, page 1801.

29. A. C. & C). En^inelK)nse for Mallet Componnd Locomotives.
Jnnc 25, 1920, page 1975.

30. N. Y. N. H. & H. Freight Terminal at Cedar Hill (New Haven),
Conn. Jnly 30, 1920, page 179.

31. The Claremont Terminal of the Lehigh \'allcy in Lower New
York Harbor, October 8, 1920, page 599.

Railway Review
1. Freight Station and War.ehonse at Pittsburgh (Federal Street) ;
Pennsylvania System. December 15, 1917.

Appendix B

(4) PASSENGER STATIONS

E. M. Hastings, Chairman; S. S. Roberts,

J. E. Armstrong, C. H. Spencer,

Miles Bronson, E. B. Temple,
H. A. Lane, Sub-Committee.

It is the view of the Committee that the subject of Passenger Termi-
nals covers work which is 'constantly in the process of development and it
is not thought wise to make a final report on the subject, but that the
work should be continued open from year to year, so that progress and
development in the design and operation of passenger terminals may from
time to time be reported.

Following out this idea, the Committee presents for information and
publication in the Proceedings the plan of the new passenger terminal
now being constructed at St. Paul, Minn., by the St. Paul Union Depot
Company, and for a description of this terminal refers to "Railway Age"
of May 21, 1920, page 1442, and "Engineering News-Record" of Tune 20,
1918; also the plans and photograph of the new passenger terminal con-
structed at Richmond, Va., for the Richmond Terminal Railway Com-
pany and used by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and the Richmond,
Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad. For a description of this terminal
refer to "Railway Age" of February 14, 1919, page 401, the "Architectural
Review" of June, 1919, and the "Railway Review," December 15, 1919.

The Committee recommends that the plans submitted to the Associa-
tion and printed in the Proceedings as information in 1911, Volume 12,
page 240, Fig. 1, showing a typical track layout at a dead-end passenger
terminal station, and Fig. 2, showing a typical track layout at a through
passenger terminal station, as revised, be included in the Manual as recom-
mended practice.

The Committee recommends that types of ladders originally prepared
by Mr. S. S. Roberts, a member of this Committee, and printed in the
Proceedings of 1917, Volume 18, pages 746 to 749, types Nos. 20 to 26.
both inclusive, as revised, be printed in the Manual as recommended
practice.

890

Appendix C
(7) SCALES

Hadley Baldwin, CIminiiait ; A. W. Eprh.ht.

J. E. Armstrong, R. Hayes,

C. A. Brigcs, J, B. HiNLKv,

A. E. Clift, O. Maxey,

Sub-Committee.

The Sub-Committee was instructed to make report on passenger sta-
tion, freight house, and grain weighing scales, conferring with Committee
on Buildings.

The Sub-Committee has gathered statistics, a digest of which indi-
cates that the practice of the railroads and of the scale manufacturers also
is far removed from anything approaching rational standardization — a sit-
uation that in the Committee's opinion deserves remedy, such as can be
attained only by the preparation of specifications that will meet the proper
requirements and reduce the multiplicity of types, now in use or recom-
mended, to the minimum number consistent with satisfying the common
demands of railroad service weighing.

The Sub-Committee has begun the work of preparing such specifi-
cations. This work has been prosecuted energetically during the year,
but because of the large amount of time required to accumulate and digest
statistics and recommendations submitted by the individual railroads and
for an exhaustive analysis thereof and for the adjustment of more or less
widely varying opinions, on questions of basic importance, among mem-
bers of the Committee itself and between the Committee and the Scale
Manufacturers' Association, it has been found impossible so to advance
the work as to have ready at this time even a tentative draft of the speci-
fications later to be submitted.

9(10

Appendix D

8. METHODS OF ECONOMIC TRANSFER OF LADNIG OF

BAD-ORDER CARS IN LARGE TERMINALS BY THE

INTRODUCTION OF MECHANICAL MEANS

OR OTHERWISE

D. B. Johnston, ChairDiaii; A. Montzheimer,

J. H. Brinkerhoff, R. J. Middleton,

H. T. Douglas, Jr., H. J. Pfeifer.

In every large railroad terminal and many small terminals there
accumulates loaded cars, which, through defects of equipment or loading,
are not ready to move forward, but must undergo heavy repairs. In the
majority of cases such attcnticm requires entire transfer of, reduction in,
or shifting of lading.

The routine of yard operation collects bad-order cars as they appear
and moves them from the current of traffic into the car repair yard or
other yard where transferring is done by forces assigned for that purpose.
The variation in the nature of the transfer work required is very wide,
covering the whole range of rolling stock and commodities. In certain
districts, such as those devoted to mining, quarrying, or steel maiui-
facturing, the major portion of the lading to he transferred may be
similar from da_\- to day, but in most terminals all varieties are handled
in transfer.

A canvass of the principal terminals of tiic ctnuitry made by your
Committee indicates that the great bulk of transferring is done by hand
labor, either entirely or supplemented by such machinery as can be di-
verted from its primary use. The ol)jection to hand labor lies in its heavy
cost of wages, the delay to cars while undergoing the process, the delay
to the lading, to the disadvantage to the owner thereof, and the invest-
ment in tracks and other plant for holding cars awaiting transfer.

The selection of proper •machinery for work of such varied nature
brings out its own problems, for instance ; As only freight in open top
cars can be transferred by machinery, if box cars comprise the prevailing
equipment, the cost of machinery may not be justified. If the bulk of the
transferring is applied to self-clearing cars, elevated trestles may be su-
l^erior to the use of machines.

For situations requiring the transfer of miscellaneous freight the
locomotive crane is the most useful machine that has been employed. Its
range of efficienc}' is very wide, its operation is simple and low in cost,
and its portability makes it preferable to stationary machines.

The question of the possible economies to be eflfected in each loca-
tion and by each railroad can be determined only locally, and should be
based upon the amount and nature of transferring normally made, the
cost and efficiency of hand labor, the cost of machinery serving the same
purpose including investment, and the demand for expediting the forward
movement of cars and lading.

900-a

900-b Yards and Terminals.

TIic cost of traiisferring a carload of Irciglit by hand varies from
$15.00 to $60.00. the narrow range being from S20.00 to $40.00. The cost
when machinery is available varies from $5.00 to $25.00, the narrow range
being from $5.00 to 15.00, and as a general rule the use of machinery
effects a saving ranging from 25 to 75 per cent, with an average of 50
per cent, or $12.00 to $15.00 per car.

While analysis may well be made of the efliciency of any proposed
machine, the locomotive crane, being of wide application, is here taken as an
example: A modern 8-wheel crane of 15 to 25 tons capacity costs. .$15,000

Interest at 6% S 900

Depreciation, maintenance and repairs at \OVf 1,500

$2,400

(Operation, wages, fuel and stores 2,400

Making cost per annnm 4,800

or per month 400

This cost is tlic equi\alenl of about three laljorcrs witli their necessary
supervision, l)ut as at least three laborers, not included in the above cost
of operation, must accompany the crane, the machine is equivalent in cost
to six men. This force of six men is about the minimum usually applied
to car transfer work and its performance will average no more than two
cars per day. Therefore, it may be said that where more than two cars
per day are set out for transfer or more than six laborers are employed
in transferring, the use of machinery should I)e seriously considered.

A few suggestions bearing on the general subject are offered:

For transferring self-clearing cars, a dumping trestle with track
laj'out to serve it is low in cost of operation. The justification for build-
ing it is dependent upon fir.st cost.

The overhead crane is efficient for transferring lading from open top
cars, but it has the disadvantage of involving high first cost and expenses
of car switching due to fixed location of the crane.

Service similar to that suited to the locomotive crane mav be had bv
the use of industrial and home-made derrick cars costing much less than
cranes.

For transferring hea\\' units, over 25 tons, sucli not being conmion,
the steam wrecking crane should be used, but tlie constant use of such
an expensive and important macliine for light work may easily become
an abuse.

When it appears proljable that the purchase of a locomotive crane
would result in economies, investigation should be made to determine
whether it may also be used in shop, yard or road service, to determine
the maximum saving which may be made by using the crane during as
many hours per day and in as many localities as may be scheduled.

Portable scoop convenors operated by steam and gasoline have re-
cently come on the market and give promise of large savings in labor.

The end shifting of lumber by Innnping in place is rapid and cheap.
Tt should be performed only by crews experienced in the i)ractice as other-
wise damage to equipment may lie expected.

Yards and Terminals. 900-c

When a machine is inaugurated to supplant hand labor, there is at
once opened a field for the foreman in charge to study, observe and apply
new means of making hitches and movements, and thereby increase his
economy, speed and safety. It can not be expected that any machine
will develop its maximum service without constant watchfulness and
study to improve its operation and broaden its field of usefulness.

Conclusions :

(a) Hand labor for transferring freight from cars in most cases is
slow and expensive and without real justification.

(b) The employment of a locomotive crane is generally justified in
any case where the transfer of freight from open top cars otherwise re-
quires the equivalent of the constant daily service of six or more men,
or the intermittent service of six men where the machine may be eco-
nomically employed in the interim.

(c) A study of each situation may develop extensive means of econo-
my out of all proportion to the cost aiul sucli study is justified in each
case.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XI— RECORDS AND

ACCOUNTS

H. M. Stout, Chairman;
A. M. Blanchard,

H. BORTIN,

VV. A. Christian,
R. A. Cook,
W. P. Cronican,
E. B. Fithian,
L. B. Lincoln,

J. H. MiLBURN,

Henry Lkhn, Vice-Chairman;
A. W. Neel,
H. J. Sargent,
*R. C. Sattley,
C. W. Simpson,
T. H. Strate,
V. R. Walling,
W. D. Wiggins,

Comutittcc.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Records
and Accounts :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Make final report, if practicable, on cost-keeping methods and
statistical records.

3. Recommend forms for recording data for keeping up-to-date
valuation of property of railroads as required by Valuation Order No. 3,
Second Revised Issue.

4. Study and report on feasibility of reducing the number of forms
used in the Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Department, com-
bining forms, and simplifying those retained.

5. Study and report on the feasibility of reporting engineering data
in diagrammatic or graphic form, and submit recommended diagrams.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the General Committee. were held as foUows:

Chicago, 111., May 26.
Chicago, 111., June 24.
Pittsburgh, Pa., August 5.
Buffalo, N. Y., September 16.
Detroit, Mich., October 21.
Chicago, 111., November 18.

The names of the members in attendance have been given in the
Minutes of the Meetings, abstracts of which have been printed in the
Bulletin.

*Died December 31, lH2li.

901

ft02 Records and Accounts.

(1) Revision of Manual

In Appendix A proposed changes in the Manual are given.

(2) Cost-Keeping Methods and Statistical Records

The Sub-Committee handling this subject has continued its study
with the idea of embodying in its final report practical applications of
the principles which were embraced in its preliminary report last year.

But, owing to the changes resulting from the return of the roads
to their owners and the unsettled conditions, it was deemed advisable to
report progress only so as to permit a more thorough report next year
which will reflect more stabilized conditions.

(3) Forms for Recording Data for Keeping Up-to-Date Valuation
of Property of Railways as Required by Valuation Order No, 3,
Second Revised Issue

In Appendix B the Committee submits three additional forms as
results of their work on this subject.

(4) Feasibility of Reducing the Number of Forms Used in the
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Department, Combining
Forms, and Simplifying Those Retained

This subject is being studied and data collected by a Sub-Committee,
but it has not progressed sufficiently to present recommendations or
conclusions to the Association this year.

(5) Feasibility of Reporting Engineering Data in Diagrammatic or

Graphic Form, and Submit Recommended Diagrams

The Sub-Committee engaged in the study of this subject presents
in Appendix C a bibliography of this subject and the progress of its
work.

Progress Report

The Committee reports progress on subjects (2) Cost-keeping
Methods and Statistical Records; (4) Reducing the number of Forms
used in the Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Department, and
(5) Reporting Engineering Data in Diagrammatic or Graphic form.

Death of Robert Carlos Sattley

During the past year the Committee sustained the loss, by death on
December 31, 1920, of one of its most active and valued members, Rpbert
Carlos Sattley.

Mr. Sattley's contribution to the work of the Committee, on which
he lias served the past six years, was of high order and his death is
keenly felt by members of this Committee ;md by his associates in the
Association.

Records and Accounts. 903

CONCLUSIONS

1. The Committee recommends that the changes in the Manual as
given in Appendix A be approved and the revised matter be substituted
for the present recommendations in the Manual.

2. The Committee recommends thajt the three additional forms
shown in Appendix B, for keeping up records under Valuation Order
No. 3, Second Revised Issue, be approved and published in the Manual.

3. The Committee recommends that subject (3) be continued as a
part of next year's work.

4. The Committee recommends that the reports relating to (2) Cost-
keeping methods and statistical records ; (4) Reducing the number of
forms, and (5) Reporting engineering data in diagrammatic or graphic
form, be received as information and the subjects continued.

Recommendations for Future Work

The Committee recommends that the following new subject be added
to those continued for future work :

Submit proposed Conventional Signs for Practical Architectural
Details.

Respectfully submitted,
The Committee on Records and Accounts,

H. M. Stout, Chairman.

Appendix A

(1) REVISION OF MANUAL

The Committee recommends the changes in the Manual shown below.
Under Definitions the new or added letters and words are underscored
and the old or omitted letters and words are enclosed in parentheses.

Definitions, Page 339

Account(s). — A statement (s) required to enable payment (s) to be
made for labor performed and material furnished, or to establish
the detail, total and comparative cost of work and various classes
of expenses.

Conventional Sign(s). — ^A symbol (s), such as a mark, character,
abbreviation or letter, selected or sanctioned by general agreement
or common use (and) to indicate upon a map or plan certain
forms, conditions (and) or objects, both natural and structural.

Ledger Accounts (for Individual Pieces of Work). — Statements
kept in ledger form in order to establish the detail, total and
comparative cost of (any particular) individual pieces of work
or classes of expenses.

Progress Profile. — A graphical record (of the progress) .showing
status of work (prepared) at stated periods.

Record (s). — Authenticated information or data in graphical, tabular
or statement form relating to physical characteristics, conditions,
cost and such other information as may seem desirable for
(record) preservation.

Report(s). — The medium through which information is transmitted
(from one to another official) and from which records and
accounts are prepared or compiled (in the filing office).

Right-of-Wav Map. — A plat representing the actual location and
dimensions of the property, (right or) franchises or other rights
(that are) owned or controlled by a railway company.

Track Chart. — A diagram showing the physical characteristics of
(track and roadbed) roadway and track.

Track Map. — A (map used primarily for) plat showing existing
physical (conditions) plant, including tracks, bridges, buildings,
water service and mains, leases, station facilities and all (of the)
other physical and operating (features) property.

Form 501, Monthly Track Material Report, opposite page 384

At a meeting of the Committee, October 23, 1919, it was decided to
collect copies of material report blanks in use by various railroads.
The Secretary of the Association collected the forms in use on the 23
railroads shown in the attached list and these have been examined to
determine what, if any, changes should be made in the form as published

904

Records and Accounts. 905

in the Manual. Eleven of these reports are bound in book form, in
some cases being combined with time books and tool reports. The
principal features in which these forms differ from the form in the
Manual are as follows :

Four roads use separate forms for recording ties, rail, and miscel-
laneous track material; three roads divide the columns showing materia
received from track into fit and scrap ; the Norfolk Southern ant
B. & L. E, have a simplified form using only five columns. Some roads
use an alphabetical arrangement of the material in the left-hand column,
and one road prints the material in columns reversing the use of the
lines and columns. P. & L. E. prints a list of 232 items on four sheets,
and furnishes a blank sheet for additional items ; the Pennsylvania Lines
has a form with 40 columns. The form in the Manual is followed
closely by the C. & W. I., C. R. I. & P., M. O. & G., and M. D. & W.
railroads.

The list of materials shown in the left-hand column will vary on
different railroads and should be omitted entirely, and left to be filled
in by printing or in pencil, according to requirements of individual rail-
roads. It might be advisable to print a list of materials as now shown
on Form 501, as a suggestion of the items to be included.

The headings of the columns on Form 501 in the Manual seem to
meet the requirements of a form of this kind, except that we suggest
dividing column five (5), showing material received from track, into
two columns, showing main tracks and side tracks ; changing columns
10 and 11 to three columns, in order to itemize material used on different
construction jobs, and divide column 12 into three columns in order to
report material shipped to various divisions or destinations.

On the back of Form 501 are instructions, daily record of material
received and shipped, and switch tie data. The instructions should be
printed on the face of the form. The daily record of material received
and shipped does not seem to be necessarily a part of this blank. The
switch ties might be included in the items on the face of the sheet, with
details in a separate table, if desired.

We recommend that the form be revised as here shown (Exhibit A),
to be made 11x16 inches, so as to fold once to lettersize with one-inch
margin for binding. The form to be printed in black with horizontal
lines, 6 per inch. Instructions to be printed at the bottom of the sheet
as shown.

In making up the report one or more «;heets may he used as required.

906

Records and Acco u n t « .

s§ s • 1 !

_ ___ ___ .

i f

i
1

■ _[_ T 1 ^ i

1 it 1

i
1

i.~

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...;t_t 1 -^ 1

1 . il

5?
P

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i 1

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I.N !

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1

lis

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T 71 I Ii ^

A _, \ = ^ K *^

1 1 P
+„. 1 1 II

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.4------ %■

b =• if,

IK II

M s j i 1 i

Records and Accounts

907

List of Raii-roads Srinrn tinc; Materiaf, Rkpdkt Blanks in Usf.

Pittsburgh & Lake Erie,
Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania Lines,
Chicago & Western Imliana.
Chicago. Rock Island & Pacific,
Missouri, Oklahoma & Gulf,
Bessemer & Lake Erie,
Central Railroad of New Jersey,
United States Railroad Admin-
istration,
Port Arthur Route,
Pere Marquette,

Temiskaming & Northern Ontario,

Southern,

Seaboard Air Line,

Minnesota, Dakota t*l' Western,

Grand Trunk,

Elgin, Joliet & Eastern,

Colorado & Southern,

Louisville & Nashville,

Norfolk Southern,

Georgia & Florida,

Duluth & Iron Range,

Bangor & Aroostook.

(A)

Appendix B

(3) RECOMMEND FORMS FOR RECORDING DATA FOR
KEEPING UP-TO-DATE VALUATION OF PROPERTY
OF RAILWAYS AS REQUIRED BY VALUATION ORDER
NO. 3, SECOND REVISED ISSUE

The Interstate Commerce Commission, Bureau of Valuation, in
issuing Order No. 3, Second Revised, made clear to the carriers that the
purpose of the order is to keep up to date the valuation of the railway
properties. To accomplish this the order provides :

I. A Uniform System of Records to be kept by the Carriers.
L Authority for Expenditures.

2. Detailed Estimate Sheet to accompany the A. F. E.

3. Register of Authorities for Expenditures.

4. Roadway Completion Report.

5. Equipment Completion Report.

6. Record of Property Changes.

II. Prescribed Reports to be made to the Interstate Commerce
Commission.

1. Semi-annual Statement of Roadway Completion Reports.
(B. V. Form 586)

2. Semi-annual Statement of Equipment Completion Reports.
(B. V. Form 587)

3. Statement of Property Units Added and Retired and their
Costs. (B. V. Form 588)

4. Annual Statement of Charges and Credits to the Investment
Account for Property Brought into or Retired from Opera-
tion. (B. V. Form 589)

Since the four reports listed above (II. Prescribed Reports) are
prescribed by the Order as to form, size, and contents, no modifications
are proposed.

Of the six forms "I. Uniform System of Records," the minimum
amount of information required by the Commission is stipulated for
each of the first five; the size, arrangement and total amount of infor-
mation is optional with the carrier. The sixth form, "Record of Prop-
erty Changes," is prescribed, except as to size, which is optional.

Last year your Committee submitted an A. F. E. form on a Roadway
Completion Report form which was approved and ordered published in
the Manual. Your Committee now offers the following three additional
forms which have been drawn primarily to fit the needs of the carriers
but the minimum requirements of the Interstate Commerce Commission
as prescribed by its B. V. Order No. 3, Second Revised, have also been
kept in mind :

908

Records and Accounts. 909

1. Detailed Estimate Sheet. (See Exhibit B)

This form to be the same size as the A. F. E. form ; size,
8^^x11 inches, printed in black on one side only.

2. Register of Authority for Expenditure. (See Exhibit C)

This form to be 14x17 inches, printed in black on both sides
and is designed as a leaf of a loose-leaf book.

3. Equipment Completion Report. (See Exhibit D)

This form to be 8^x14 inches, printed in black on one side
onl}-. A margin is provided on the left for binding.

Your Committee recommends (he a{l(j])tion of these three forms and
their publication in the Manual.

In addition to these forms for receiving the records in the final form
there is room for a great deal of good work in planning for the col-
lection of and asscmblying the elemental and s'lpporting data.

910

Records and Accounts

Exhibit B

North 4 South Railroad

DETAILKD ESTIHATE

Plaa 50.

Offloa of Date

Looatlon and description of project

k.r.t. Ho..

Shi^e t Ho . . _
Peferenoe _

.1?2-

Quantlty

Description of Unit

Bintrlhutlon of

Boail Md RqulpMnt

Expenses

Kstlnated by
Checked by —

Approved

Approvea

Fill In individuals t Companies, Profit and Loss, Mlso, niyalcal Property or

other account titles as crrcumsConc^s roqulre

912

Api>endix C

(5) STUDY AND REPORT ON THE FEASIBILITY OF RE-
PORTING ENGINEERING DATA IN DIAGRAMMATIC OR
GRAPHIC FORM, AND SUBMIT RECOMMENDED DIA-
GRAMS

As a preliminary study of this subject the Committee has prepared
a short bibliography comprising a list of nineteen books, pamphlets, and
papers. Also, a very complete bibliography has been prepared for the
Committee under the direction of Mr. R. H. Johnston, Librarian, Bureau
of Railway Economics, Washington, D. C.

These lists follow and are offered as information and a report of
progress. -

Bibliography Relating to the Graphical Presentation of Engineer-
ing Data

1. Elements of Statistical Methods.— Wm. I. King, Univ. of Wisconsin.

2. Elements of Statistics. — Arthur I. Bowley, London.

3. An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. — G. Udny Yule, London.

4. Statistical Averages. — Dr. Franz Zizek, Univ. of Vienna. Translated

by W. M. Persons of Colorado College.
^ 5. Primer of Statistics. — W. P. and E. M. Elderton, London, 1912.

6. School Statistics and Publicity. — Carter Alexander.

7. Graphic Algebra.— Arthur Schultze, N. Y. University.

8. Graphic Presentation of Statistics. — L. M. Haupt. Jour., Franklin

Inst. Vol. 147, No. 5, 1889.

9. Graphical and Mechanical Computations. — J. Lipka, Wiley, N. Y. 1918.

10. Graphics applied to Arithmetic, Mensuration and Statistics. — G. C.

Turner.

11. Graphical Methods. — C. Runge, Columbia Univ. Press, N. Y. 1912.

12. The Logarithmic Plotting of Alinement Charts for Additive Expres-

sions.— C. E. P. Sankev, Inst. C. E. Paper No. 4154, London, 1916.

13. Book of Charts.— Warne, London, 1918.

14. Developing Executive Abilitv. — E. B. Gown, The Ronald Press Co.,

N. Y.

15. Nutshell Reports for the Boss.— I. H. McCullough, "System," May,

1918.

16. How I get my ideas across. — J. H. Patterson, "Sy.stem," June, 1918.

17. Graphs and Statistics in Business. — (In Library of Business Practice,

Vol. 10) Shaw, 1914.

18. Graphic Presentation of Data. — American Railway Engineering Asso-

ciation, Bulletin 206, June, 1918.

19. Illustrations of Graphical .^nalvsis. — J. Harrison, Engineering, Sept.

18, 1903.

List of References on the Graphic Representation of
Engineering Data

This list has been prepared by Miss Mary B. Ladd, Cataloguer of
the Bureau of Railway Economics Library. It is based primarily on the
contents of the Bureau Library, but other material has been added as
found in certain other libraries indicated by the abbreviations below. The

913

914 Records and Accounts. . -

use of these abbreviations at tlie end of titles must not be understood,
however, as meaning that other titles in the list may not also be found
in these libraries.

The figures which t(^llow titles, such as 18-1492, represent the Library
of Congress printer! rnrd tuimlicrs by wbirli the card may be ordered for
use in cataloguing.

Agr — Lil)rary U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

B ■ — Bureau of Railway Economics.

BA — Boston Athenaeum.

BPL — Boston Public Library.

HU — Harvard l^nivcrsity Library.

LC — Library' of Congress.

MIT — Massachusetts Institute of Technology Library.

NY — New York Public Library.

LIES — LInitcd Engineering Societies Library, New York.

Library Bureau of Railway ErnxnMics.
November 23, 1920.

Lkst of Rkfkrknces on the Graphic Rkprksf.ntatiox of
Engineering Data

American society of mechanical engineers. Joint committee on standards
for graphic presentation.
Preliminary report published for the purpose of inviting sugges-
tions for the benefit of the com.mittec. New York [1915] 2 p. 8°
B, HU, NY, UES.

Reprinted in Quarterly publications of the American statis-
tical association, v. 14:790-97; Dec. 1915; in Engineering
record, v. 72 :633 ; Nov. 20, 1915 ; in Bulletin of the Ameri-
can institute of mining engineers, v. 106:ix-xii; Oct., 1915;
in Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry,
V. 7:894-95; Oct., 1915; in Society for the promotion of
engineering education, Bulletin, v. 6:141-46; 1915.
Anderson, A. H.

Plotting blower-test curves.

(Journal of the American society of mechanical engineers, v. 39:
902-04; Nov., 1917) B, HU, MIT.
Appel, R.

Reducing time out through graphic charts.
(Factory, v. 19:349; Sept., 1917) HU.
^Arthur, William.

Graphics as applied to car maintenance.

(Electric railway journal, v. 32:30-31; June 6, 1908) HU, LC.
Auerbach, Felix.

Die graphische darstdlung ; cine allgemeinvcrstandliche, durch
zahlreiche beispiele aus alien gebieten der wissenschaft und praxis
crlauterte einfiihrung in den sinn und den gebrauch der methode.
Leipzig und Berlin. B. G. Teubner, 1914. 97 p. 12° (Aus natur
und geistcswclt, 437. bdchen) MIT, NY.
Bailey, William Bacon, and Cummings, John.

Statistics. . .Chicago, A. C. McClurg & co., 1917, 5 p. 1., 153 p. diagrs.
12° (The national social science series, cd. bv F. L. McVev)
B. BPL, HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES. 18-1492

Bibliography : p. 149.
Graphic representation : p. 109-30.
Bertillon, Jacques.

Propositions relative a I'uniformite a apporter dans retablissement
des graphiques.

Records and Accounts. ' 915

(Bulletin de I'lnstitut international de statistique, v. }3, 1:313-18;
1903) Agr, HU, MIT, NY.
Discussion : p. 132-37.
Blake, A. F.

An alinement chart for the evaluation of coal.

(Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, v. 10:627-28; Aug..
1918) HU, LC, MIT, UES.
Blake, A. F.

A graphic chart for the evaluation of coal.

(Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, v. 8:1140-42: Dec,
1916) HU, LC, MIT, UES.
Bolam, Austen.

Chart for determining economy of insulation.
(Electrical world, v. 71:1275; June 15, 1918) HU, LC.
Brinton, Willard Cope.

. . . Graphic methods for presenting facts. Nevi' York, Engineering
magazine company, 1914. 371 p. 4° (Works management library)
B, BPL, HU, LC. MIT, NY, UES. 14-18712
Published in part in the Engineering magazine, v. 47:651-
66; 817-29; v. 48:73-85, 229-41, 396-406, 551-68; Aug., 1914-
Jan., 1915.
New York Ronald press co., 1918, xii, 371 p. 12° [Industrial man-
agement library] BPL.
Brown, Reginald.

Diagrammatic statistics for municipal engineers.
(Canadian engineer, v. 31:317-19; Oct. 19, 1916) LC, MIT NY
UES. / . , ,

Read before the Institution of municipal and county engi-
neers. Also in Surveyor and municipal and county
engineer, v. 50:138-45; Aug. 18, 1916.
Buck, Alonzo Morris.

...Some graphical solutions of electric railway problems. Urbana,

University of Illinois, 1916. 36 p. 8° (Bulletin no. 90, Engineering

experiment station) B, BPL, LC, MIT, NY. A 16-1176

Abstract in Electric railway journal, v. 48:281 ; Aug. 12,1916

Buford, C. H.

Program of construction work shown graphicallj'.
(Engineering record, v. 74:89; July 15, 1916) HU, LC.
Burkhardt, Otto M.

Determining of piecework rates from charts.

(American machinist, v. 49:383-87; Aug. 29, 1918) HU LC MIT
Carpenter, Sidney C.

Graphic presentation of train resistance formulas.
(Railroad age gazette, v. 46:944-45; Apr. 30, 1909) B, HU, LC NY
Charlton, D. E.

Utilization of mine-accident reports.

(Engineering and mining journal, v. 106 :945-48 ; Nov. 30 1918)
LC, NY, UES.

Graphic methods of presenting data.
Conway, J. B.

An accumulative graphic record.

(American machinist, v. 50:242; Feb. 6, 1919) HU LC MIT
Copeland, Melvin T., ed. . .

Business statistics. Cambridge, Harvard nniversitv press 1917
696 p. 8" HU, LC, NY, UES. ' 17-1859Q

With numerous applications of the g.-aphic method to the
presentation of business statistics.

916 Records and Accounts.

Cunningham, William J.

The logarithmic scale in graphic charts.

(Railroad age gazette, v. 46:1517-19; June 25, 1909) B, HU, LC, NY.
Cunningham, William J.

Statistics of railroad operation.

(New England railroad club. Proceedings, Oct. 12, 1909, p. 4-61)
B, HU, AIIT, UES.

Illustrated by graphic charts.
Curves reveal significant facts; valuable data which indicate performance
of personnel, machine equipment, and administration policies .in
manufacturing plants are obtained from graphic records.
(Iron trade review, v. 65 :1116-17; Oct. 23, 1919) HU, LC, UES.
Davies, John P.

Engineering office svstems and methods. New York, McGraw-Hill
book CO., 1915. XVI, 544 p. 8° BPL, HU, LC, MIT, UES.

15-5340
"Progress charts, scheduling systems, etc.": p. 392-406.
Davis, Francis W.

Truck efficiency eraphically shown.

(Automotive industries, v. 38:33-36; Tan. 3, 1918) HU, LC, MIT.
NY, UES.
Deesen. F. J.

The logarithmic chart in the analysis of railroad operations.
(Railway age, v. 67:570-71; Sept.' 19, 1919) B, HU, LC. NY.
Dreyfus, Edwin D.

Graphic analyses of managerial problems.
(Electrical world, v. 68:710-12; Oct. 7, 1916) HU, LC, NY.
Durand, W. F.

Graphical methods for reduction of experimental observations.
(Siblev journal of engineering, v. 13:57-62; Nov., 1898) HU, LC,
UES.
Durand, W. F.

' The uses of logarithmic cross-section paper.

(Engineering news, v. 30:248-50; Sept. 28, 1893) HU, LC, MIT.
Engineers' studv course. Curve plotting.

(Power, V. 39:315-16, 346-48, 385-86; Mar. 3, 10, 17, 1914) HU, LC,
MIT, UES.
Estes, L. V.

Visualizing facts for control.

(Industrial management, v. 59:57-63, 127-33, 209-14; Tan.-Mar.,
1920) HU, LC, UES.
Ewing, D. D.

Dissecting passenger interchange time graphs; in this article the

author shows how an interchange time graph can be built up from

simple elements and separates some actual graphs into their

component parts.

(Electric railway journal, v. .52 :610-12 ; Oct. 5, 1918) B, HU, NY.

Farnham, Dwight T.

How graphic control facilitates the fixing of profits.
(Engineering magazine, v. 52:16-22; Oct., 1916) HU, LC, MIT.
UES.
Farnham. Dwight T.

Scientific versus intuitive administration.

(Enerineering magazine, v. 51:849-54; .Sept., 1916) HU, LC, MIT,
UES.
Farnham, Dwight T.

Visualizinpr the essential facts of a business.

(Enerineerine macazine, v. 51:651-56; Aug., 1916) HU, LC, MIT,
UES.

Records and Accounts. 917

Farnham, Dwight T.

Visualizing the essential facts of a business.

(Cassier's engineering monthly, v. SO . -331-46; Nov., 191(i) LC, UES.
Field, James A.

Some advantages of the logarithmic scale in statistical diagrams...
[n.p., 1917] cover-title, p. 805-41. diagrs. 8° B, HU.

Reprinted from the Tniirnal of political economv, v. 2.5,
no. 8, Oct., 1917.
Fisher, Irving.

The "ratio" chart for plotting statistics.

(Quartcrlv publications of the American statistical association,
V. 15 :577-601 ; June, 1917) B, BA. HU, MIT. HU and NY have
separate.
Gehring, H. A.

Logarithmic diagrams based on isoplethe points.
(Engineering record, v. 61 :77-79 ; Jan. 15, 1910) HU, LC, MIT, UES.
Gilbreth. Frank B. ...

Graphical control on the exception principle for executives.
(Journal of the American societv of mechanical engineers, v. 39:
"311-12; Apr., 1917) B, HU, MIT, NY, UES.

Presented at the annual meeting of the American society

of mechanical engineers, Dec. 6, 1916.
Also in Scienitfic American supplement, v. 83 :1888-89 ; Alar.

24, 1917.
Abstract in Iron age, v. 99:426-27; Feb. 15, 1917.
Gilbreth, Frank B.

Graphical control on the exception principle.

(Engineering and industrial management, v. 1 :433-34 ; Maj' 15,
1919) LC, NY, UES.
Gilman. Stephen.

Basis principles of graphic illustration.
(Personal efficiency, v. 6:12-13; Oct., 1916) B, NY.
Gilman, Stephen.

Graphic charts for the business man. Chicago, La Salle extension
universitv [cl917] 62 p. 8° HU, LC, UES. 17-23819

Another ed. 1918. NY.

Goldenweiser, E. A.

Classification and limitations of statistical graphics.
(Quarterly publications of the American statistical association,
_ V. 15:205-09; June, 1916) B, BA, BPL, HU, MIT.
Goodwin, H. M.

Notes on graphical methods. Boston, 1904, 22 p. 8° MIT.

Printed for the use of students of the Massachusetts insti-
tute of technolog^i'.
A graphical method of recording data of boiler trials.

(In Cvclopedia of anplicd electricitv, Chicago, 1905, v. 3, n. 391-96)
BPL, MIT.
Graphics in maintenance work. Examples of graphical records of various
kinds in modern electric railway practice, together with some
generalizations based thereon.
(Electric railwav journal, v. 46:947-51; Nov. 6, 1915) B, HU, LC.
Gray, F. W.

A graphical note-book.

(Mines and minerals, v. 31:332-34: Jan., 1911) LC, UES.

Explains a graphic method of recording data in connection
with mining work.

918 Records and Accounts.

Hall, Leo G.

Another method of constructinp; lo^arithniic charts for hydraulic

formulas.
(Engineering and contracting, v. 44:31-32; hily 14. 1915) HU, LC.
NY, UES
Haskell, Allan Cecil.

How to make and use grapliic charts . . . with an introduction
by Richard T. Dana . . . 1st ed. New York, Codex book com-
pany, 1919. 539 p.' 8° Agr., B. BPL, HU, LC, MIT, UES. 20-99.
Contains bibliographies.
Hele-Shaw, H. S.

The graphical method of solving engineering problems.
(Liverpool engineering society, Transactions, v. 14:173-88; 1893)
LC, MIT, UES.
Hele-Shaw, H. S.

Second report on the development of graphic methods in mechanical

science.
(British association for the advancement of science. Report of the
62d meeting, 1892, p. 373-531) BPL, HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES.

Appendix: Classified list of references to graphical meth-
ods : p. 433-531.
Hess, Henry.

A new development in cross-section paper.

(Proceedings of the Engineers club of Philadelphia, v. 25:153-80;
Apr., 1908) HU, LC, MIT. NY, UES.
Discussion : p. 180-95.
Hess, Henry.

A useful industrial diagram.

(Mechanical engineering: the journal of the American society of
mechanical engineers, v. 41:165-6; Feb.. 1919) HU, LC, MIT, NY.
For .showing output, etc.
Hibbard, H. Wade.

Graphical study of information.

(Wjestern railway club, Proceedings, v. 22:300-19; Mar. 15, 1910) B.
Hildebrandt, R.

Graphische Darstellung der rentabilitats verhaltnisse von fabrik-

betrieben.
(Technik und wirtschaft, v. 5:366-67; May, 1912) NY.
Holcroft, H. • .

The graphical representation of locomotive performance.
(Engineer (London), v. 125:3.53-55, 376-79; Apr. 26, May 3, 1918)
HU, LC, MIT, UES.
Howe, Henry M.

Note on the use of the tri-axial diagram and triangular pyramid .for

graphical illustration.
(American institute of mining engineers. Transactions, v. 28:346-55;
Oct., 1898) HU, LC, MIT. NY, UES.

Calls attention to the tri-axial diagram as a convenient
means of illustrating the nrnperties of slags, and com-
mends it to those inclined to graphical studies, liaving
other possible applications.
Discussion: p. 894-901.
Huhn. R. von.

Graphic analysis of an overtime problem.

(Industrial management, v. 57:86-88: Feb., 1919) Hl^ LC, NY.
UES.

Recordsand A c c o u n t s . 919

Huhn, R. von.

New graphical method for comparing performance with program

or expectation.
(Science, n. s., v. 47:642-4.=^; June 28. 1918) HU, LC. MIT NY
UES.
Hummel, F. H.

Graphical solutions of certain problems in engineering
(Practical engineer, v. 21:371-73; Apr. 20, 1900) HU, LC MIT
NY, UES. ' '

Abstract of a paper read at the meeting of the Society of
civil and mechanical engineers.
Knoeppel, C. E.

Graphic production control. New York, Engineering maerazine co
1920. xxiii, 477 p., 8°. BPL, HU, LC, NY, UES. 20-3564

Reprinted in part from Industrial management, v. 56 •177-80-
V. 57:56-62, 113-18; Sept., 1918- Feb., 1919.

Another edition [n. p., 1919?], various paging. HU

Krulla, Rudolf.

Die graphische darstellung von mehr als drei komponenten und

uber logarithmische darstellung.
(Zeitschrift fiir metallkunde, v. 12:81-84; Mar. 1 1920) NY
Land, Frank.

A production chart for turned pieces.

(American machinist, v. 37:171-72; Aug. 1, 1912) HU LC MIT
Lane, E. W. , , .

System makes easy determination of empirical formulas; procedure

laid down for use of logarithmic paper in finding equations for

simpler experimental graphs.

(Engineering news-record, v. 79:554-56; Sept. 20 1917) HU LC
NY, UES. , yi^j n^, 1.^.

Layng, J. F.

Keep graphic records of railway statictics; how the expenditures of
each department can be checked against preceding years and their
corresponding gross earnings.
(Electric railway journal, v. 51:9-10; Jan. 5, 1918) B, HU LC
Levasseur, E.

La statistique graphique.

(In Royal statistical society, London, Jubilee volume Tune 22-24
. 188o, p. 218-50) BPL, HU, LC. NY has separate.
Lewin, C. M.

Graphische statistik im dienste der fabrikorganisation.

(Zeitschrift fur werkzeugmaschinen und werkzeuge, v. 15 :63-66; Nov.

^ . , Graphical charts in factory management.

Lindsay, C. E.

Efficiency in track maintenance.

(Railway age gazette, v. 52:1112-14; May 17, 1912) B, HU, LC,

I ^ Graphical method for showing costs in maintenance work

Lyon, Tracy.

Graphic methods as applied to railway records.
(North-west railway club. Official proceedings, v. 3. Tan 1898 o
8-17) B, MIT, NY. s , , j^i^., loyo, p.

Lyon, Warren A.

Procedure in logarithmic diagram plotting of hydraulic formulas
(Engineering and contracting, v. 43:239; Mar. 17, 1915) HU, LC.
Alii, JN y, UES.

920 Records and Accounts.

McCauley. VV. J.

Solution of pulp problems by graphic methods.

(Engineering and mining journal, v. 100 :98-100 ; July 17, 1915) LC,
NY, UES.
Mailloux, C. O.

Notes on the plotting of speed-time curves. Followed by a general
discussion of railway papers and topics, at the 19th convention of
the American institute of electrical engineers, Great Harrington,
Mass., June 19th, 1902. Ln. p., 1902J p. 1035-1146. diagrs. 8°
B, UES.

Also in Transactions of the American institute of electrical
engineers, v. 19:901-1001 ; June 19, 1902; in Street railway
journal, v. 20:51-54, 121-28, 199-203, 231-34, 254-57, 275-79;
July 15, 26, Aug. 9, 16, 23, 30, 1902.
March, Lucien.

Les representations graphiques et la statistique comparative.
(Journal de la Societe de statistique de Paris, 43d year. 407-20; Dec,
1904) NY.
Marey, E. J.

La methode graphique dans les sciences experimentales et principale-
ment en physiologic et en medecine. Paris, G. Masson [1878] 673
p. 8° HU, MIT.
.Uarshall, Alfred.

The graphic method of statistics. London, 1885. 10 p. 8° NY.

Read at the International statistical congress, 1885. Also in
Royal statistical society, London, Jubilee volume, June
22-24, 1885, p. 251-60. BPL, HU, LC.
Martin, F. H.

The practical value of curves ; the application of curves, charts and
grapLo to facilitate the analyses of engineering problems and statis-
tical information.
(Electrical news, v. 25:28-31; Mar. 1, 1916) NY.
Mark, Guido H.

Isometric plotting of graphical charts.

(American machinist, v. 31:701-03; Nov. 12, 1908) HU, LC, MIT,
NY, UES.
Merry, H. M,

Graphic metallurgical control.

(Bulletin of the American institute of mining and metallurgical
engineers. No. 153:2313-21; supplement to Sept., 1919) LC, NY,
UES.

Methods and records developed for use of executives of the

Chino Copper Company in New Mexico
Abstract in Engineering and Mining Journal, v. 108:512; Sept.
20, 1919.
Moore, Joseph K.

Presenting facts graphically.
_ (Brick and clay record, v. 53:39-43; July 2, 1918) NY.
Morrisson, James W.

Making pictures of facts.

(System, v. 33:382-83; Mar., 1918) HU, LC, MIT, NY.
Midler, O.

Graphisches rechnen und die graphische darstellung; ein hilfs und
lehrbuch fiir den unterricht an hoheren schulen und gewerblichen
lehranstaltcn, sowie zum solhstnntorricht. Glanchau i. Sa.. O. Streit
(1913] 64 p. 8° HU.

"Die anwendung der graphischen darstellung": p. 51-64.

Records and Accounts. 921

Munger, William P.

Keeping progress records.

(Railway age, v. 64:1075-76; Apr. 26. 1918) B, HU. LC, NY.
Records of engineering work.
Murphy, Carroll Dean.

Graphs that short-cut your work.

(System, v. 30:247-56; Sept., 1916) HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Musyck, J.

Note on the drawing of the speed-time curves of electric trains.
(Bulletin of the International Railway Association, English ed.,
V. 2:581-90; Sept., 1920) B.
Parker, F. A.

Graphic comparisons of tonnage.

(Railway age gazette, v. 49:971; Nov. 18, 1910) B, HU, LC, NY.
Parker. R. W.

Graphic aid in figuring power bills.

(Electrical world, v. 67:1422; June 17, 1916) HU, LC, MIT, UES.
Patch, Dan.

Diagrams for cost of placing steel reinforcement.
(Engineering record, v. 74:264; Aug. 2^, 1916) HU, LC, NY, UES.
Patch, Dan.

Predict labor demand before job is started. New use of progress
charts combined with "bogey scores" makes it possible to tell
where and why actual work varies from estimate.
(Engineering news-record, v. 79:684-87; Oct. 11, 1917) HU, LC, NY,
UES.
Peddle, John Bailey.

The construction of graphical charts. New York, McGraw-Hill book
CO., 1910. 109 p. 8° Agr, HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES, 10-20827.
Originally published in the American machinist.

1st ed., 2d impression, cor. New York, McGraw-Hill book co., 1910

109 p. 8° HU, LC. 15-15597

2d ed., New York, McGraw-Hill book co., 1919. 1.S8 p. 8° LC, MIT,

NY, UES. 19-10098

The Pennsylvania railroad company's educational course conducted by cor-
respondence.
Curve reading.

(Mutual magazine, v. 4:37-39; July, 1918) B.
Pigott, R. J. S.

Graphic methods of analysis in the design and operation of steam

power plants.
(Journal of the American society of mechanical engineers, v. 38 :947-
53; Dec, 1916) B, HU, LC, MIT. NY.

Discussion: v. 39:16-17. 128-29; Jan.. Feb.. 1917.
Abstract in Power, v. 45:62-5; Jan. 9, 1917.
Polakov, Walter N.

Chart with which to make various records of coal.
(Electrical world, v. 70:911-12; Nov. 10, 1917) HU, LC, NY.
Rizer, F. W;

A graphic train sheet.

(Railway age gazette, v. 60:1549-50; June 23, 1916) B, HU, LC. NY.
Roberts. E. P.

The use and abuse of statistics, and pictures with punch.
(Journal of the Cleveland engineering society, v. 9:211-39; Jan,
1917) LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Robinson, E. W.

An office system for construction work, covering records of plans,

progress and cost and bookkeeping methods.
(Engineering and contracting, v. 40:683-86; Dec. 17, 1913) HU, LC,
MIT, NY.

922 Records and Accounts.

Ruflfner, Charles S.

Some practical applications of the principles of statistics.
(Journal of the Association of engineering societies, v. 53:264-80;
Dec, 1914) HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES.

Read before the Engineers' club of St. Louis, Nov. 11, 1914.
Schlink, F. J.

Expenditure chart for executives.

(Industrial management, v. 55:192; Mar., 1918) HU, LC, NY, UES.
Schlink, F. J.

An improved progress-of-work chart.

(Journal of the Franklin institute, v. 185 :697-701 ; May, 1918) HU,
LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Schuyler, Mont.

War industries being brought under modern engineering control ;

use of progress chart by Ordnance department. . . .
(Engineering news, v. 80:323-25; Feb. 14, 1918) HU, LC, MIT,
NY, UES.

Also in American machinist, v. 48:341-43; Feb. 21, 1918.
Seager, J. A.

Curves and their uses.

(National engineer, v. 19:137-39, 275-78; Mar., May, 1915) LC, NY.
Secrist. Horace.

An introduction to .statistical methods. New York, Macmillan, 1917.
482 p. 12° BPL, HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Graphic presentation: p. 193-233.
Secrist, Horace.

Statistics in business ; their analysis, charting and use. New York,
McGraw-Hill book co., 1920. IX, 137 p. 8° Agr, HU, LC, NY,
UES. 20-4489

"Presenting the facts — Graphics": p. 55-96.
Simpson, Tracy W.

Notes on speed time curves.

(Street railway journal, v. 29:244-48; Feb. 9, 1910) B, NY.
Slifer, Hiram J.

Graphical daily records of performances of enginemen and loco-
motives.
(In International railway fuel association. Proceedings of the 9th
annual meeting, 1917, p. 278-94) B, HU, UES.
Spidy, E. T.

Graphic production control.

(Canadian railway club. Official proceedings, v. 19:15-30; Jan.,
1920) B, HU, MIT, UES.

Abstract in Canadian railway and marine world. No. 264:55-
58 ; Feb., 1920 ; in Railway mechanical engineer, v. 94 :227-
30: Apr., 1920; in Railway review, v. 66:364-68- Mar. 6,
1920, with editorial comment, p. 383-84.
Squier, C. W.

Current and power curves show results to be expected of motors ;
the writer describes how current and power input graphs are
derived from the speed-time and motor characteristic curves.
(Electric railway journal, v. 51:1134-36; June 15, 1918) B, HU, LC,
NY.
Squier, C. W.

Effect of grades and curves in plotting speed-time graphs.
(Electric railway journal, v. 52:96-98; July 20, 1918) B, HU, LC,
NY.
Starker. C. W.

Graphic control of production and cost.

(Industrial management, v. 55:306-10; Apr., 1918) HU, LC, NY,
UES.

Records and Accounts. 923

Stevenson, G. G.

Graphic use of logarithms.

(Machinery, v. 24:966; June, 1918) LC, NY, UES.
Stothart, E. C.

Graphs, charts and statistics as aids to administration.
(Electric railway journal, v. 46:665-67; Oct. 2, 1915) HU, MIT,
NY, UES.
Strohm, R. T.

Curves of engineering data.

(National engineer, v. 18:749-51; v. 19:28-29; Dec, 1914, Jan.,
1915) LC, UES.
Stronck, H. N.

The exception principle applied to graphic charts.
(Colorado school of mines magazine, v. 5:91-93; May, 1915) NY.
Swarts, Gardner T.

Dravvring a picture of municipal business.
(American city, v. 21:39-44; July, 1919) HU, LC, NY.
Tarrant, Stanley C.

The graphic presentation of gas company statistics.
(Gas age, v. 39:13-18; Jan. 1, 1917) HU, LC, UES.
Tarrant, Stanley C.

Graphs that watch for danger points.
(System, v. 29:308-12; Mar., 1916) HU, LC, MIT, NY.
Tarrant, Stanley C.

6 simple ways to picture facts.

(System, v. 33:564; Apr., 1918) HU, LC, MIT, NY.
Tarrant, Stanley C.

Visualizing the vital facts.

(System, v. 26:665-67; Dec, 1914) HU, LC, MIT, NY.
Thorn, C. C.

Locating signals frOm braking distances. The effect of grades and
curves complicates the problem, but a graphical chart reduces cal-
culation.
(Railway signal engineer, v. 13:7-10; Jan., 1920) B.
Thurston, R. H.

Graphic diagrams and glyptic models.

(American society of mechanical engineers. Transactions, v. 19 :514-
50; June, 1898) HU, LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Twyford, H. B.

Picturing prices by charts.

(Factory, v. 16:573-74; June, 1916) HU, MIT, UES.
U. S. Central bureau of planning and statistics.

. . . Graphic presentation of statistical data. [Washington, Oct. 10,
1918] 20 p. 8° (Weekly statistical news, issued for information
of government statistical agencies by the Statistical clearing house
of the Central bureau of planning and statistics, No. 5.)

Report of Edmund E. Day, L. J. Reed and Horace Secrist,

committee on graphic forms.
Originally mimeographed. NY has photostat copy.
Upton, S. B.

A system for plotting and cross-fairing results in lubrication testing.
(Sibley journal of engineering, v. 30:194-96; Alar., 1916) HU, LC,
NY, UES.
Using graphs and statistics in business.

(In The library of business practice. Chicago, New York [etc.] A.
W. Shaw CO., cl914, v. 10, p. 151-200) HU, NY.
Van Zandt, J. G.

The interpretation of experimental data.

(Railway engineering and maintenance of way, v. 29:116-18; 254-56;
Mar., June, 1914) B.

924 Records and Accounts.

Waldo, Russell.

Use of charts in the employment department.
Machinery, v. 25:500; Feb., 1919) LC, MIT, NY, UES.
Warne, Frank Julian.

Chartography in ten lessons. Washington, D. C, cl919. 11 pts. 12°
Agr, HU, LC, NY. 19-1660-1.

Warne, Frank Julian.

Elementary course in chartography ; twenty lessons — seventy charts.
Washington, D. C, cl917. 6 p. 1., 70 numb.col. diagrs. i" LC. 18-369.
Warne, Frank Julian.

Warne's book of charts, a special feature of Warne's elementary
course in chartography. . . Washington, D. C. [cl917] 2 p. 1., 100
charts, i° Agr., HU, LC. 17-28210

Wenzel, John.

Graphic charts; the use of the logarithmic scale for charting statis-
tics.
(Scientific American supplement, v. 83:236-37; Apr. 14, 1917) BA,
HU, LC, NY.
Wenzel, John.

Graphic charts that mislead. Faulty constructions that obscure facts.
(Scientific American supplement, v. 83:380-81; June 16, 1917) B, BA,
HU, LC, NY.
Wishart, James G.

Forms for complete rail and ballast records. A discussion of the
advantages of the methods for keeping such information accurate
and up to date.
(Railway age gazette, v. 56:378-81; Feb. 20, 1914) B, HU, LC, NY.
Woodruff, E. C. -

. . . Graphic method for speed-time and distance time curves . . .
[1914] p. 1689-92. 8" B, HU.

"To be presented at the 301st meeting of the American insti-
tute of electrical engineers, Newr York, November 13,
1914."
Also in American institute of electrical engineers. Proceed-
ings, v. 33:1689-92; Nov., 1914. Discussion, v. 34:2804-46;
Nov., 1915.
Abstract in Electric railway journal, v. 44:115-56; Nov. 21,
1914.
Woods publishing co., New York.

Report No. 11 on statistic and graphic charts. New York [cl908]
22 p. 4° HU.
Wyer, William.

Checking percentages by chart.

(Railway age, v. 66:1826-28; June 27, 1919) B, HU, LC, NY.
Percentage of change chart : p. 1827.

Also in Engineering and contracting, v. 52 :80-81 ; July 16,
1919.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE XIX— ON CONSERVATION
OF NATURAL RESOURCES

W. Forrest Ogle, Chairman; E. E. King, Vice-Chairman;

F. T. Beckett, F. A. Gaby,

C. M. Buck, R. H. Howard,

Moses Burpee, William McNab,

J. R. Caswell, J. B. Myers,

O. P. Chamberlain, J. L. Pickles,

J. B. Dawson, S. N. Williams,

W. A. Duff, R. C. Young,

C. H. Fisk, Committee.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

The following subjects were assigned the Committee on Conserva-
tion of Natural Resources for study and report :

1. Make thorough examination of the subject matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes.

2. Make final report, if practicable, on reclamation of materials,
submitting conclusions.

3. Make final report, if practicable, on tree planting, submitting
conclusions.

4. Report on the conservation of human life and energy among
engineering employees, conferring with the appropriate committee of the
Association of Chief Railway Surgeons.

5. Report on progress of conservation in Canada.

Committee Meetings

Meetings of the Committee were held in Detroit, June 8th, and
Chicago, October 5th. Names of members in attendance have been
given in the Minutes of the meetings, which have been printed in the
Bulletins.

(1) Revision of the Manual

It is the judgment of your Committee that the rules adopted last
year for the prevention of the spread of forest and field fires are now
in a good and condensed form, and need no revision. We are glad to
report that several thousand copies of these rules have been requested
by different railroads for distribution.

(2) Reclamation of Materials

In Appendix A your Committee submits its report, together with
the methods and tabulated results adopted by several of the larger rail-
road systems. It also wishes to refer to the report of Division VI —
Purchases and Stores, of the American Railway Association.

925

926 Conservation of Natural Resources.

(3) Tree Planting and Reforestation

In Appendix B your Committee submits its study of this subject,
and reports it as progress. It is the judgment of the -Committee that
there should be greater interest manifested by both State and Federal
Governments in this subject, by enacting more lenient tax laws on grow-
ing timbers, and appropriations made for acquiring denuded lands, un-
suitalilc for agricultural purposes, which should be reforested.

(4) Conservation of Human Life and Energy

In Appendix C your Committee submits its study of this subject,
and reports it as progress.

(5) Progress of Conservation in Canada

In Appendix D your Committee submits its study of this subject,
and reports it as progress.

Respectfully submitted.
The CoMMriTEE on Conservation of Natural Resources.

W. Forrest Ogle, Chairman.

^ Appendix A

RECLAMATION OF MATERIAL

R. C. Young, Chairman; J. B. Myers, R. H. Howard, Sub-Committee.

The results obtained in tlie reclamation of material by railroads arc
so well known and understood that it hardly seems necessary to restate
the fact that "it pays." This report will therefore be confined to pre-
senting typical examples of what has been accomplished along this line
on a few railroads represented on this Committee. It is believed th:it
this information will serve a useful purpose and stimulate still further
interest in the reclaiming of scrap and material and thereby effect economy.

Wabash Railway

On this railway, during a period from August 19, 1919, to July, 1920,
inclusive, new material costing $24,702.73 was reclaimed at an expense of
$7,396.45, effecting a saving of $17,306.28.

These figures cover such track material as clawbars, lining bars,
pinch bars, track chisels, track spikes, guard rail clamps, head rods, con-
necting rods, switch stands and targets, derails, etc.

The following is an illustration as to the accounting procedure :

(1) Ail material deHvcred to reclamation plant is' accepted as mis-
cellaneous scrap, whether it be tools, couplers, bolsters, switch stands, etc.

(2) Material in some cases is worked over into other items from its
originality or it is repaired, or rebuilt by applying to new parts, etc.

(3) The cost of labor in repairing and assembling is charged direct
to the particular item or material that has been handled.

(4) To the cost of labor is added the price of miscellaneous scrap
used.

(5) To the cost of labor, new material and scrap also a pro rata charge
is applied to the various items on percentage basis. This pro rata repre-
sents overhead charges, i. e., supervision, oil, power, light, telephone, and
water. In other words, covering such expenses that cannot be accurately
charged direct to any one item of material.

(6) Recapitulations of all charges are brought forward, which makes
the total cost of reclaiming, we being allowed either current or contract
prices for all material or, in other words, new value.

(7) The total cost of reclaiming any one item is deducted from tlic
new value which leaves the net saving as compared with new value.

Atchisox, Topkka & Saxta Fk Railway

]5ctails of the results obtained in tfie Corwith Scrap Reclamation
Plant have been given in previous A-olumes of the Proceedings. Some
additional interesting data is quoted below :

"If a switch stand can be repaired we allow credit to the division
from which it came at the price of the new stand, giving the stand a .sym-
bol, and when it arrives on dock after going through shop it has been

927

928 Conservation of Natural Resources.

charged with time of each man's work and with the material used ; then
the office charges the division from which the stand comes with the actual
cost of repairs, and by this method the division receives credit for tho
true value of the stand.

"All materials received are handled in lliis manner; frogs, switch
points, guard rail and switch stands.

"If a frog is received that is good for nothing more than scrap, we
allow credit for any parts that are serviceable, such as clamps, fillers
and rods. Clamps at $3 each, cast fillers at $1..'^0, steel fillers at $3, and
25 cents each for the rods.

"We repaired

31 box stands at a cost of $4.13 each. Total, $128.19.

6 low star stands at a cost of .$3.31 each. Total, $19.87.
1 high star stand at a cost of .$6.84 each.

32 switch stands at a cost of. . .$3.05 each. Total, $97.95.

"The frogs would run in cost of repairs from $1 to $30. One new
No. 10 90-lb. spring frog was repaired at 99 cents. The frog new is
worth $103.70. Four No. 10 75 and 90 lb. spring frogs cost $82.24 to
repair, or $20.56 each. These were above the average co.=t of repairs."

Baltimore & Ohio RAtLRo,\D

The following is an extract from a report made to the Chief Engineer
Maintenance on reclaiming repair rail by resawing:

"It has been the policy of the management to lay new rail out of
face on important high speed passenger divisions and those carrying heavy
traffic, renewing the worn rail, which is often of lighter weight, and relay
the repair rail on branch lines where the passenger movement is less
frequent and speed considerably lower, or on such branch lines where the
traffic consists almost entirely of slow heavy freight trains. Therefore, in
the relaying of these four different weights and sections, each has been
assigned to some one branch line, consideration being given to the traffic
over that line. In relaying this sawed-end rail on branch lines, it is laid
with new bolts and bars. In resawing the rail. 15 inches is cut ofif each
end of the rail. After the rail is sawed it is 30 ft. 6 in. long and is re-
drilled. When this sawed-end rail is laid on branch lines, as above de-
tailed, the bad features of worn surface and line bent at ends andworn
angle bars, which were ahvays objectionable features to relaying rail, are
entirely eliminated.

"When the relay rail arrives at the saw loaded in cars, the cars are
placed on a siding back of the saw from which the rail is handled from
the cars by a stif¥ leg derrick onto the skids. As the cars are made empty
they are shifted to the siding in front of the saw, where they are loaded
with finished rail.

"After the rail is unloaded on the skids, it is handled by the stiff leg
derrick, above mentioned, with the assistance of four laborers, to the
saw table. The rail is then sawed by friction saw, one end at a time.
After both ends are sawed it is moved on rollers by hand to the double
drill presses, where it is drilled. In drilling, the ends of four rails are
drilled at one operation. The burrs are knocked off by the men handling
the rail from the saw to the drill presses and at the drill presses.

Conservation of Natural Resources. 929

"The organization used at the rail saw is as follows :
1 Foreman, in general charge of all work.
1 Engineer.
1 Fireman.

1 Sawman.

4 Laborers, handling rail from the skids to the saw. Of these
four laborers one runs the air hoist, one handles either end of
the rail, and the fourth handles the hooks.

2 Laborers, handling rail from the saw to the drill press skids.
4 Drill press men, handling drill presses.

4 Laborers, handling rail to drill press.

1 Laborer, straightening sawed rail in car.

Total, 19 men.

"During this calendar year there has been sawed a total of 499,137 feet
of the four different sections, namely 85 A.S.C.E.. 90 R.B., 100 R.B., 100
A.S.C.E. This represents the total number of feet of rail after it is
sawed and drilled and is equivalent to a tonnage of 7,192 tons.

"In the sawing of the rail there was about 8 per cent lost and will be
sold as scrap.

"The average cost «f sawing this rail during the present year is $1.27
per ton. This cost includes all labor for unloading the rail at the saw ;
the labor and other direct costs incident to the actual operation of sawing
the rail, and the labor cost of loading the rail into cars. This cost does
not include the labor costs of loading the rail for shipment to the saw or
the unloading of the sawed-end rail on the ground for laying. The loss
on account of sawing off the ends of the rail or its credit when sold as
scrap is not considered in the average cost previously given."

The Committee believes that the following report on welding cast
manganese crossings will be of interest to the members :

"The welding of cast manganese construction and the service obtained
under one year of traffic as demonstrated by the proposition warrants
a considerable more extensive test of welding manganese frogs and cross-
ings before they are worn to destruction. The damage to this crossing
was rather unusual and the grinding out of the holes were deep and
about 12 in. long. In actual maintenance, the wear on frogs and crossings
is on the points and throats and usually is not over Yi inch deep at its
maximum point. From the maximum near the points and throats the
wear is reduced to zero, extending over a distance of 2 to 3 feet. The
difficulty, therefore, of welding manganese is due to the manner of
wear under ordinary maintenance conditions and the necessity of build-
ing up OA^er a thin narrow surface which does not afford sufficient
depth for proper bond to the original metal. Since the original welding
as outlined in the report was done, experiments have been conducted on
a manganese insert frog and a cast manganese crossing of about 60
degrees. In both cases the weld was not successful and spalled off
after from 24 hours' to 7 days' service. It is felt, therefore, that while
the welding under the conditions as outlined in the attached report was
highly successful and maintained the crossing first for its normal life, it
should not follow that this welding would be successful in prolonging the
life of frogs and crossings of manganese construction which are worn
under ordinary traffic loads. Until some method is discovered, therefore,
which will permit a greater bond between the original metal and the weld,
it is not recommended that the welding of manganese material be under-
taken on a large scale. Experiments, however, will be conducted from
time to time with a view of discovering a method of welding manganese
which will be reasonably permanent."

Appendix B
(3) TREE PLANTING FROM RAILWAY STANDPOINT

But lew roads own land on which to carry out any experiments in
this Hne ; but many roads traverse tracts of country which are not
productive of any crop, and which, even where soil is unfit for agriculture,
that might support a fair forest growth.

In a generally wooded country the reason for present unproductive-
ness lies probably in past forest fires; where if the original growth
were heavy and furnished fuel for a strong fire, the soil has been
burned too badly to recuperate until some years have elapsed. Ycl
frequently in the first or second year a heavy crop of firewood will be
found, ■ and soon thereafter the seeds of trees will germinate in the
shallow la>er of humas resulting from decaying woods and brakes.

Thus in a lew years a new forest crop usually of alternate char-
acter will succeed the one which has been burnt off; for instance, a
coniferous growth is likely to succeed a decidous one, and vice versa.

There does not appear to be any better method of reforestation than
provided by nature. But it is possible to aid this method by protection,
and possibly by lihinning out the unlikely trees and encourage the best
ones to quicker growth.

It is probable that artificial seeding in burnt over areas may not
be entirely successful unless the natural humus has escaped destruction
or serious injury. If, however, this be so, it is unwise to wait for
natural results, but ;to seed the ground as soon as possible with the
varieties which will soonest become the most valuable commercially.

The above does not apply to prairie country where of course tree
planting is not handicapped by such destruction of soil by forest fires
as may be the case in wooded coiintry.

The impending shortage of timber with enhanced prices, and the
failure so far to find a substitute for it in many of its uses, constitute a
condition which at least demands serious consideration, and as railways
always will be large consumers of timber as long as timber exists, they
naturally view the situation with anxiety.

Railways are not only vitally interested in the timber supply for
their own maintenance, but also in a very great degree in the amount
of traffic which timber furnishes to them as carriers. It is fitting,
therefore, that they should encourage and originate all possible means
to maintain or increase forest growth.

In the majority of cases, however, railway companies have no
authority in forestry matters. It is time, and we are glad to know it
that the owners of wood lands are becoming more careful and more
enlightened as to conservation of their properties, yet the problem of
reforestation is scarcely getting the attention it deserves.

930

Conservation of Natu.ral Resources. 931

The problem of ©ur Committee probably is to create greater pub-
licity in this matter, and if there be found a degree of barkwardiies--
in the work or the plans necessary for reforestation to make such study
of the subject as will enable it to bring these conditions to public notice,
and create a sentiment favorable to the enforcement of intelligent and
efficient methods of reforestation of waste or burnt over areas.

Such work as we may do would probably better be done or, indeed,
can only be done, in co-ordination with the regular forestry organizations.

We give below in closing a quotation from a very valuable report of
the State Forester of Maine, in which he points out the solution of the
mainteenance of timber supply, viz., by Federal or State control of timber
lands, or by purchase of burnt or heavily cut over land, where the
necessary care is greater than private owners could give.

"When our forefathers lumbered they took only the very largest and
best, which left quantities of seed trees and smaller growth. They did
not do this with an idea of benefiting future generations, but lumber
was plenty and the smaller trees were not in demand. But now with
greatly increased demand for the smaller sizes, the pulp mills will even
accept a mark of logs that will hardly average forty for a thousand
feet, and portable mills, and even some permanent saw mills will not
refuse lumber that is hardly more than poles and out of which they
can saw but little more than a couple of laths between their slabs. Thus
we are cutting mtich of our timberland so clean, taking little and big,
crooked and seamed, everything no matter how small, that we are leaving
practically no small trees to grow up and no mature trees for seeding
and replenishing. And we are doing this not blindly but knowing full
well that we are approaching the end of our soft wood supply, and that
by our selfish and wasteful methods we will soon work great injury to
the chief industry of our State."

"Federal or State ownership of timberlands, particularly of cut-over
and neglected lands, is to be desired, and will in a great measure help
to insure a future supply. On public reserves such forestry methods and
regulations may be put into practice as it would not be practical for
private owners to follow out. Private ownership must generally concern
itself with some immediate return from timber investments. Interest
charges and a heavy tax burden have a tendency to force the cutting of
timberlands privately owned, while public ownership can defer the harvest
until the most opportune time. Private ownership is always subject to
change, while public ownership is permanent and a permanent forest
policy can be carried through."

Tree Planting and Reforestation

In regions where there is sufficient rainfall for proper tree growth,
the railways should plant on their waste grounds that are unsuitable
for other cultivation, Catalpas, Scotch Pine, or other comparatively
rapid-growing trees that are ordinarily free from insects and diseases.
This growth of timber would assist in replenishing the supply necessary
for ties, posts, poles, and other purposes of a similar nature. Experience
has shown that the best results will be obtained at less expense In-
planting seedlings instead of sowing seed. The plantings sliould be
done under the supervision of trained foresters.

932 Conservation of Natural Resources.

The railways, logelhcr with State and Federal governments, should
>irgc farmers and other land owners to utilize their waste, burnt over
and cut over lands by planting trees. Co-operation in this way would
furnish a large part of the timber required for buildings and roadway
maintenance, for car construction and repairs, for paper used in various
forms, and will materially aid in solving the fuel supply. Since they arc
such extensive users of forest products, the railways could well afford
to have a sufficient forestry staff to help in carrying out a comprehensive
planting program. The different states through their forestry officers
could be called upon to assist in this work. By a series of demonstration
k'cttircs, new'Spaper articles and other publications, the land owners could
be show'n the benefits of such an undertaking, and could be taught the
best methods of planting, growing and cutting timber and of protecting
it against fire, insects and diseases.

Rough lands where the timber has been removed are being denuded
of their soil by rainfall and their productiveness is being decreased.
This is of vital interest to the railways, for most of them derive their
incomes from the products along their lines. Many of the excessive
floods that have brought much damage to railway property in recent
years were aggravated by the lack of growing timber. Alost of the
trees that formerly grew along the streams and that checked the flow
of water before it reached the streams and prevented much of it from
getting to them at all, have been cut awa^^ Wherever possible, these
lands should be reforested to save the soil, to conserve the lainfall and
to eliminate some of the damage from the floods.

The railways .should plant trees along the right-of-way where there
is difficulty with drifting snow, to eliminate snow fenges. They should
encourage land owners to plant trees for shelter belts where it is ap-
parently not possible to get other plantings started at the present time.
This would demonstrate what could be done in raising timber and would
furnish for them a fuel supply.

The Lumber Situation

(From Circular of American Fore.stry Association.)

We are consuming lumber three times as fast as we are procuring it.

Experts predict our saw log lumber will be gone in fifty years.

The bulk of the original supplies of yellow pine in the South will be
gone in ten years and within seven years 3,000 manufacturing plants there
will go out of existence.

White pine in the lake states is nearing exhaustion and these stales
are paying $6,000,000 a year in freight bills to import timber.

New England, self-supporting in lumber twenty years ago, now has
to import one-third of the amount used. It has $300,000,000 invested in
wood and forest industries, employing over 90,000 wage-earners.

Fire destroys over $20,000,000 worth of timber every year and kills the
reproduction upon thousands of acres of forest lands.

Within fifty years our present timber shortage will have become a
blighting timber famine.

Conservation of Natural Resources. 933

Forests can be protected from tire, regrowth can be encouraged, con-
servative cutting can be practiced, reforestation can be accomplished — but
it takes from fifty to one hundred years to mature a timber crop.

Forest devastation must be stopped, lands now in forest must be kept
continuously productive, forest lands novi- devastated and idle must l)e
put to work.

Appendix C
(4) CONSERVATION OF HUMAN LIFE AND ENERGY

The suliject of Conservation of Human Life and Energ>- is a lengthy
one, and one in which the cmploj^ers of labor should be very much
interested. There could be volumes written on the subject, but as
employers of railroad labor, we are especially interested in the pre-
vention of sickness and accidents which result either in partial or per-
manent injury or death among our employees.

The quoting of statistics of man-hours lost through sickness and
injury is almost useless, as we are all too familiar with these losses.
You can, no doubt, recall instances of sickness which could probably
have been avoided if the employee had had proper instructions as to
the care of himself.

Several of the large railroad systems are now conducting a series
of instructions to their emplo3'ees in the proper ways of living and
caring for themselves and families, and especially in connection with the
prevention of malaria and typhoid fevers. They have also taken steps
toward improving the living conditions of their employees, by the con-
struction of more sanitarj' bunk houses and section quarters ; extending
and improving "the sewerage system about the camps ; providing better
water ?upply; screening the living quarters against the house-fly and
mosquito, and clearing and draining stagnant pools in the immediate
vicinity. This, together with instructions for the care of the sick, and
the necessity of cleanliness as a preventative, will show a decided gain
in man-hours for the employer.

The "Safety-First" move has done much toward the prevention of
injuries, both major and minor, and should be continuously advocated
instead of periodically. We, as individuals, should school ourselves
against the possible sickness and injury, and to remind our employees
to do likewise. Railroads should not be afraid to display too many
danger signs as remiriders in and near their grounds and shops, and
to impress upon all the necessity of prevention of injuries.

Foreword

An individual's life is his most precious asset, and cannot be meas-
ured in dollars; 82,000 lives were lost in 1919; 22,000 in industries and
60,000 in public accidents. Over 15,000 of these were children under
ten years of age, our future labor supply. Over four-fifths of all
accidents arc preventable ; 500,000 of the 38,000,000 wage earners in the
United States were so seriously injured by industrial accidents in one
year that they lost over four weeks of time, or were permanently
disabled. Thus, 1,665 Avage earners were seriously injured each one
of the 300 working days. Personal carelessness was responsible for
most of these calamities, and mania for high speed is the present plague.

934

Conservation of Natural Resources. 935

Thousands of children die each .year because parents do not proteot
them against colds or other diseases. Health department work is a
preventative, and its value cannot he shown in dollars.

Importance of Right Eating

The stomach and intestines are the seat of 95 per cent, of all sick-
ness, due to improper eating habits. Certain combinations of good
foods will not mix properly in the stomach, but act and react chemically
on each other, freeing quantities of gases and acids. Good foods rightly
combined are the best tonic. The stomach is the furn^e that converts
the food into energy, which is used to reproduce all the elements of
the body, keep its organs functioning properly, and cast off all its waste.
Digestion and assimilation reconstructs the cells of the body, causing
the reproduction of all its parts ; hence, study of foods, their properties,
and different effects upon the human system, will assist in developing
both vitality and physical endurance, also ability to sleep or rest well.

Teeth

Dr. Percy Howe, of Boston, proves that dental decay is due to the
lack of vitamines in one's diet, as the hard lime is partly removed from
the teeth, leaving the spongy organic material. His conclusions from
research work at the Forsythe Dental Infirmary, which cares for 90,000
school children unable to afford dental work done regularly and
thoroughly, are that if the organs of the body are functioning properly,
a blanched ration containing sufficient vitamines will keep the body in
trim and develop the parts normally, including the teeth, which are an
index to the general health. From 30 to 50 per cent, of the dental repair
work could be eliminated by proper preventive care from two years up.
He disproves the old theory that decay is caused by the fermentation
of sugars and starches on the surface of the teeth, or by the formation
of lactic acids. The deplorable dental conditions found in the schools
merit serious consideration, especially from the age two to six. Dr.
Harper, of Iowa, reports serious neglect of teeth among railroad men,
which impairs them and interferes with their work.

Grade Crossings

Seventy per cent, of those killed or injured at grade crossings in
a three-year period were motorists, and three times as many were killed
in 1917, 1918 and 1919 as were killed or injured during the Revolutionary
War; 6,600 casualties occurred in the principal battles, while 19,668 men,
women and children were killed or injured during the three-year period,
and 5,605 died within twenty-four hours after being hurt. In spite of
the combined efforts of railroad and highway officials and automobile
clubs, the total number of accidents continue annually at about the
same rate, while deaths and accidents to motorists are steadily increasing
each year.

For the six months ending June 30, 1920, 1,322 motorists were killed
at grade crossings. One of the large railroads has already spent
$66,000,000 in eliminating grade crossings, but it is estimated it will cost

936 Conservation of Natural Resources.

approximately $600,000,000 to wipe out the remaining 13,000 crossings.
There are, however, thousands of grade crossings which could be elimi-
nated by relocating the main highway and confining the bulk of the
traffic to one side of the railroad. Not only should these be eliminated,
but every possible effort should be made to protect the public from
•ccident on existing crossings, and impress on the drivers of motpr
vehicles the necessity of extreme caution. Thanks are due the American
Automobile Associations for their agitation on this subject.

Safety First *

"The world does not need to be taught so much as to be reminded."
Single solitary tragedies occur day after day with ceaseless regularity,
and from apparently trivial little things that could have been corrected
without any great effort on anyone's part. To prevent, observe and
correct the unsafe conditions ; report and take these up for correction
promptly, and before some one gets hurt. Watch for and correct the
fellow-emploj^ee who is seen in some specific unsafe act. Help create
an atmosphere of safety among the great rank and file by personal
effort — to do the latter thing they can correct and thereby obtain the
best total results. "Safety First" should be taught at the family altar,
in the public schools and in the churches. All of the important railway
systems are continuing the work of accident prevention since their
return to private operation. Some of the lines have actually enlarged
the plan already adopted, and are pushing more aggressively. There
is an apparent need to familiarize with the work of the 'National Safety
Council, which is both educational and inspirational. Individual responsi-
bility of officers and employees should be emphasized continually. Per-
sonal injuries and their causes should be investigated. Every road
should have a representative in safety work at the meetings, as these are
of the highest value.

Conclusion

In view of the transcendent importance to individual, family and
associates, your Committee urges on members continuous, careful study
of this entire subject, also faithful observance of all hygienic laws or
directions which keep "Safety First" as a rule of action, and the
indefinite prolongation of life as its great object. An able bodied person,
trained in any useful activity, of steady and industrious habits, becomes
the most valuable agent known for promoting the world's progress and
prosperity. The essentials of good health, long life and happiness cost
nothing.

Appendix D
(5) PROGRESS OF CONSERVATION IN CANADA

Lands

A Soil Fertility and Soil Fibre Conference was held at Winnipeg
last July in connection with the semi-annual meeting of" the Commission
of Conservation. The subjects discussed included the prevention of
soil drifting, the analysis and classification of soils, the maintenance of
soil fibre by crop rotations and growing of legumes, the retention of
moisture by suitable cultivation and the eradication of weeds. Many
noted soil experts were present and their papers and findings will be
embodied in a report which is now in press. An important "Dry
Farming Conference," under the auspices of the Saskatchewan govern-
ment, was held at Swift Current in June.

Sound precept is valuable, but practical demonstration is more con-
vincing. To prove what can be done, the Commission of Conservation
of Canada is carrying on illustration work in the county of Dundas, Ont.
Two or three new horticultural societies have been established, the
teaching of agriculture in the public schools has been encouraged, school
fairs organized and improved methods of tillage demonstrated in a
practical way on private farms run for profit,^ — not on experimental farms
owned by the Government. The results of this work have been grati-
fying and have resulted not merely in better farming methods but in a
better community spirit and a better appreciation of the worth of
rural life.

Forests

That the forest is a crop, not a mine, ought to be an axiom, yet it
is an idea that has only won very slow acceptance and even now is
more ignored than recognized in practice. But, now that the forests
of the United States, originally much vaster than those of Canada, have
reached a serious stage of depletion in the cast and south, the demand
upon the woods of eastern Canada has become particularly heavy and
the necessity for the practice of forestry is becoming more and more
apparent.

There are two things which it is imperative to know before forestry
can be established on a sound basis. These are: (1) the amount of
standing timber and (2) the rate of reproduction. The Commission of
Conservation of Canada has applied itself to collecting data on both
these subjects. In other words, its investigatory activities have been
applied to inventories and growth studies. A survey is now being made
of the forest resources of Ontario along the same Imes as the British
Columbia survey, recently completed. In connection with this work,
the co-operation of the Air Board has been obtained and seaplanes have
been successfully used in the mapping of forest areas. It has been

937

938 Conservation of Natural Resources.

found quite feasible to distinguish hardwood from coniferous forests
and to mark tracts of virgin forest, second growth, burned areas, swamps,
etc., from the air. An observer in a plane can thus in a few hours
gather preliminary data which it would take weeks of arduous travelling
to obtain upon the ground. Of course, (he results of aerial observation
must be supplemented by ground surveys. The function of the 'plane is
reconnaissance; by its aid a general classification of the various types
of country can be carried out. The cruisers can then go direct to the
timber and make their estimates of the density of the stands and
observe the percentage of the various species. Wherever cruises have
already been made, whether by private companies or by the Provincial
authorities, an endeavor is made to obtain the information available
and it is generally cheerfully given. Thus, the inventory of Ontario's
forest resources is partly a task of original observation, but largely —
and necessarily — a work of compiling data now very much scattered and
unavailable to the legislator and administrator.

The growth studies are being carried on chiefly in Ontario, Quebec
and New Brunswick, with the co-operation of various pulp and paper
companies. Sample plots have been established in one district on which
the position of every tree has been noted and marked on the maps. The
progress of each tree will be noted from year to year and thus the rate
of growth and the mortality due to fungous diseases, insect enemies,
etc., can be determined. By comparison with control plots, the effects
of various changes in conditions can be studied.

In another region, investigations were undertaken with a view to
organizing a tract of land for continuous production. The foresters
followed the logging operations and made growth and volume studies
on 2,500 spruce and balsam, as the trees were felled. By these stem
analyses the growth of the trees during every decade of their life was
ascertained. Using these data as a basis, volume tables can be con-
structed for timber estimates and for predictions of 3'ield. A careful
enumeration was also made of the young growth on logged-over areas.
It is too early as yet to publish definite results of this investigation, but
enough has been done to show the great value of young stands. Once
the small saplings are released from the shade of the larger trees, they
make very satisfactory growth and a second crop of merchantable timber
may confidently be looked for, provided fires can be kept out. This
applies particularly to purely coniferous stands; in mixed stands, the
hardwoods make quicker growth and kill out the young softwoods so
that a culled area of this type takes on the aspect of a purely hardwood
tract.

Power and Fuel Problems

There is now available in published form a complete inventory of
the water powers of Canada, giving their situation, head, stream flow
data, etc., being altogether a compilation of great value to engineers,
manufacturers, public authorities and others interested in hydro-electric

Conservation of Natural Resources. 939

developments. The latest report on the subject is "Waste Powers of
British Columbia," published by the Commission of Conservation in 1919.
Canada's vast resources of water power should not, however, blind
us to the importance of power developed from coal, natural gas and
other fuels. In a province like Alberta, for instance, these sources are
of prime importance, for the coal fields are convenient and of wide
extent, while water power is not particularly abundant. Mr. James
White, Deputy Head of the Commission of Conservation, has made a
special study of the power and fuel situation of the Prairie Provinces,
and the analysis of the situation has been published in two recent
pamphlets, "Power in Alberta" and "Fuels of Western Canada," in which
is emphasized the importance of the proper conservation of our re-
sources of coal, gas and oil. A pamphlet on "Pulverized Fuel" has also
been published in which it is shown how the low-grade lignites and
bituminous coals can be utilized by reducing them to a very fine dust
so that they can be burned in a manner very similar to a gas. Thus
coals which are too soft to stand transportation for ordinary use can
be made of service for power development.

Fire Waste

Notwithstanding the propaganda directed by the Dominion Fire
Prevention Committee, the Ontario Fire Prevention League, the Com-
mission of Conservation, the fire marshals or fire commissioners of the
different provinces and others interested against the appalling destruc-
tion by fire in Canada — the highest per capita losses in the world — this
form of waste shows no reduction and is, if anything, increasing. Yet
the situation should not be given up as hopeless, for this much too high
degree of loss is not inevitable. Better buildings, sane precautions and,
above all, greater care, will eventually reduce it to reasonable limits.
No effort should be slacked to bring this desirable result about.

Reclamation

The waste paper campaign is continuing with growing vigor. The
schools all over the country are awaking to the value of paper collections
and by this means are financing various schemes to buy libraries, sporting
equipment, etc. The Commission of Conservation has received numerous
inquiries as to the best means of marketing. The one drawback is the
high freight rates, which leave little profit if the point of collection is
far from the nearest paper mill.

Town Planning

For a new country, Canada has suffered severely and needlessly from
haphazard city growth and from failure to exercise foresight in the
control of areas in process of conversion from rural to urban uses. The
Town Planning Branch of the Commission of Conservation has recently
devoted serious study to this problem and a report on "Regional Plan-
ning" will probably be published some time in 1921.

(A)

940 Conservation of Natural Resources.

Several important cities are now taking advantage of the town-
planning acts enacted by the various provinces. Ottawa is the latest to
join the movement and will probably seek the co-operation of the
Dominion and Ontario Governments in establishing a zoning system
and a scheme to provide for the future orderly growth of the national
capital.

MONOGRAPHS

NOTE ON RAIL INCLINATION

STANDARDIZATION OF TRACK APPLIANCES ON RAIL-
WAYS OF FRANCE

By W. C. Gushing

Engineer of Standards, Pennsylvania System

For some years the railway engineers of the United States have given
consideration to the canting or inclination of rails in track in order to
furnish an axial bearing in conformity with the one in twenty inclination
of the wheel treads of rolling stock, but have not yet adopted the practice
on account of certain difficulties to be met, although some roads lay rail
in that way under certain conditions.

It has seemed to American engineers that canting of the rail should
be accomplished by an inclined surface of the tie plate, which would
require plates on every tie, a practice which is not general in the United
States, although it is becoming pretty nearly so on the large heavj^-traffic
systems and the practice is increasing owing to the greater necessity for
the use of cross-ties of inferior wood treated with preservative fluid.

Another principal difficulty in the way has been the inconvenience and
trouble of maintaining rail inclinations through turnouts and crossings
without adopting the make-shift plan of torsion in the rail before reaching
the turnouts and crossings so as to maintain the rails vertical through
them.

In order to ascertain how this latter problem was handled by the
European railways where rail inclination practice has been almost uni-
versal for many years, the writer addressed letters to the engineers of
several railways in England and France, and presents herewith a brief
memorandum of the practice showing that there is difference in taking
care of the problem by the several companies. The writer is much
indebted to these engineers for their careful answers to the questions,
accompanied by many drawings in detail of the appliances used by them.

In the reply from the Chief Engineer of Works and Inspection, Com-
pagnie du Chemins de Fer du Nord, I was quite surprised to read the
following :

"I add that the large railway systems of France have just reached an
agreement on new sections of rails which will be, for the future, placed
vertical contrary to present practice.

"It foBows that in the track appliances (switches, frogs and crossings)
the different elements of these appliances shown herewith (switches, rails
opposite switches, centers of frogs and points of crossings) will be placed
vertical likewise."

943

944

Note on Rail Inclination.

This information was so unexpected that I addressed another letter to
him asking if I was to understand from the latter part of his letter that
there was a movement on foot with the larger railway systems of France
to do away with the inclination of rails through turnouts, crossings, etc.,
and make them vertical instead, and if such was the case I would like to
know the reasons for the proposed action and whether the French engi-
neers were beginning to consider that the inclination of rails, one in
twenty, was unnecessary refinement. I received a prompt confirmation of
the former statements in the accompanying letter.

Inclination of Rail Through Turnouts and Crossovers
English and French Practice in 1920

Railroad

London &
North West-
ern Railway.

Running Rail
Type

Bull
Headed

Switches

Stock Rail inclined 1 :20.

Switch Raii, vertical
from point to separa-
tion, then twisted to
incline heel and 1:20.

Great

Eastern

Railway.

Bull
Headed

Stock Rail inclined 1:20.
Switch Rail inclined
1:20.

Lancashire
and

Yorkshire
Railway.

Bull
Headed

Stock 41ail inclined 1:20.
Switch Rail inclined
1:20.

Chemin de
fer de
Paris
a Orleans.

Bull
Headed

Stock R.\il inclined 1 :20.
Switch Rail inclined
1:20.

Chemin de

Not

fer de

Mentioned

Paris a

Lyon.

Chemins

"T" section

fer du

symmetrical

Nord.

"T" section

base

horizontal

and web

inclined 1:20.

Stock Rail inclined 1:20.

Switch Rail vertical.
Special material used
at heel to connect with
inclined running rail.

Stock Rail "T" section,
symmetrical, on plates
which provide an in-
clination of 1 :20. "T"
section with inclined
web placed on horizon-
tal plates.

Switch Rail in all cases
made from special sec-
tion with horizontal
base and web inclined
1:20.

Turnout Frogs and
Crossings

Single Frogs "V" raili
vertical from point to
separation, then twisted
to incline heel end
1:20. Wing Rails in-
clined 1:20.

Double Frogs wing and
tongue rails inclined
1 :20 — guard rail verti-
cal.

Single Frogs all rails
vertical from throat to
separation of "V" rails,
then twisted to incline
heel and toe rails 1 :20.

Single Frogs all rails
inclined 1:20 except
■ portion of "V" rail be-
tween notch and point,
which is vertical.

Single Frogs, bolted rail
construction — ^"V" rails
vertical from point to
separation, then twisted
to incline heel and
1:20, all other rails in-
clined 1:20. Cost con-
struction— solid castings
designed to provide
connection with run-
ning rail inclined 1 :20.

Single and D o u b l i
Frogs all rails vertical
through main body of
frogs and arms twisted
to incline 1:20.

Single and D o u b l i
Frogs made of rails,
"T" section, symmetri-
cal, with webs vertical
in assembled portion of
frog and twisted to in-
cline arm ends 1 :20.

Note on Rail Inclination. 945

Chemint de "T" section Stock Rail in all cases Singi.z Frogs "T" rail

fer du symmetrical inclined 1:20. and bull headed rail.

L'Etat. Bull Switch Rail "T" section, "V" rails vertical from

Headed vertical. The running point to separation,

rail back of heel of then twisted to incline

switch twisted to 1 :20. heel end 1 :20. All

Bull headed section other rails inclined

stock rail a special "T" 1:20. Double Fro »•

section switch rail with same as above,
base horizontal and
web inclined 1 :20 it
used.

(Translation of letter from Compagnie du Chemins de Fer du Nord, Paris, France-
September 22, 1920)

Mr. W. C. Gushing,

Engineer of Standards, Pennsylvania System,

Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, Pa.

Dear Sir;

In reply to your letter of July 28th, 1920, relative to the inclination of
rails, I have the honor of confirming the statements of my letter of July
13th last, informing you that for the future in the case of the large rail-
way systems of France, the rails, both of the running track and the track
appliances, will be placed vertical.

With the rails vertical, the vehicles are as easily brought to the axis of
the tracks as with the rails inclined, and on the other hand, the resistance
of fastening by screw spikes of the vertical rail on ties of hard wood is
also satisfactory.

The suppression of the inclination of one in twenty has been judged
so much the more desirable because from the point of view of maintenance,
there results greater facility for the performance of adzing in place of
worn cross-ties and for the boring of holes for screw spikes and because,
moreover, the construction of track appliances is rendered more simple by
this suppression ; finally the dapping to be obtained in the cross-ties being
smaller than in the case of one in twenty inclination, their resistance will
be increased. Yours truly,

L'Ingenieur on Chef

DES TrAVAUX ET de LA SuRVrai.LANCE.

Since then the final action in connection with this subject has been
given by the authorities and an abstract of the decision has been issued
in Revue Generale des Chemins de Fer et des Tramway's for November,
1920 — No. 11, in the form of a note on the Standardization of Track
Appliances for Railways of France — by M. Froebe, Engineer of Railway
Plant of the State Railways, of which the following is a translation:

"The unification or standardization of track appliances on the railways
of France was considered in July, 1917, in the course of a conference held
by the Minister of War, at which the Directors of the large systems
assisted.

"The Chief Engineers of the Permanent Way being consulted, decided
in their conference of August 18, 1917, to entrust the detailed study of the
question to a commission composed of the Engineers of Railway Plant;
this commission convened for its first meeting on the 18th of September
following.

946 Note on Rail Inclination.

"It considered at first the adoption of an American rail in its entirety,
but after examination this rail was laid aside as not conforming to our
type of laying, by reason of the small thickness of the extremities of the
base. In fact, in France the cross-tie is slightly dapped to receive the rail
and the shoulder of this dapping is counted on for the maintenance of the
track gage; it is a matter of interest, therefore, not to have a base with
cutting edges.

"In the American laying, the bases are supported laterally by large
driven spikes, giving more resistance than our screw spikes in the trans-
verse direction.

"After the study of numerous sections the Commission proposed to
adopt three types of rails.

A type of 36 kilograms (figure 1) for the normal tracks of

light traffic;

A type of 46 kilograms (figure 2) for the normal tracks of

heavy traffic;

A type of 26 kilograms (figure 3) for narrow-gage tracks.

"The three types accepted by the Chief Engineers of Permanent Way,
then by the Zone Committee, were presented to the Minister of War, who
by letter of August 6, 1918, agreed to the recommendations accepted by
the six large systems, and in a dispatch of the 19th of May, 1919, ratified
the agreement.'

"The three adopted types differ from the present rails by the inclina-
tion of the joint bearings, the thickness of the web and the dimensions of
the base.

"These differences are explained below :

Joint Bearings

"The old rails of iron had an inclination of one in one for t-he joint
bearings ; this inclination, advantageous so far as rolling was concerned,
offers inconvenience from the point of view of the work imposed upon the
joint bar bolts.

"In fact, upon the passage of trains, the head of the rail becomes a
wedge between the two joint bars and tends to spread them by a consid-
erable force, which has to be resisted by the bolts. The more the inclina-
tion of the joint bar bearing is lessened the smaller is the force resisted
by the bolts.

"When the manufacture of steel rails was commenced in France, the
inclination was reduced to one in two. In foreign countries it has generally
been placed at one to four.

"It is quite evident that with a slight inclination the rail is better
supported. On the contrary, the inevitable wear which is brought about
on the bearing surfaces of the joint brings the joint bars more nearly to
their final seat. After comparative examination the French systems have
adopted the inclination of one to four for the joint bar bearings.

Thickness of Web

"It has been the custom for some time in France to have a small web
thickness ; the metal there is harder and more brittle than in the head and
base, and the fractures accumulate frequently in the holes of the joint bars.

"In foreign countries certain systems have adopted an arched web,
thin in the portion next to the neutral axis, and thicker near the head and
base; it is this arrangement, facilitating the rolling, which has been
adopted for the French standard.

Dimensions of Base

"The old French rails have quite a narrow base. In the .American
rails, on the contrary, the width of the base is equal to the height of the

Note on Rail Inclination. 947

rail. It is certain that the wider the base the better is the seat for the
rail, but the rolling is more difficult.

"The French lines have adopted a mean between the two plans. It
is fitting besides to remark that with screw fastenings it is not necessary
to have as wide a base as with the spike, generally employed in the United
States, for screw spikes have greater resistance than driven spikes to
extraction.

"So far as the thickness of bases at their extremities is concerned, a
thickness of 10.55 millimeters for the rail of 46 kilograms has been
adopted and 10 millimeters for the rail of 36 kilograms, which results in
giving to the upper part of the extremity of the base a different inclination
from that of the bearing of the joint bars.

Tunnel Rails

"Independently of the three ordinary t^'pes of rails of 26 kilograms,
36 kilograms and 46 kilograms, the systems have likewise adopted a type
of rail of 55 kilograms (figure 4) reserved for tunnels.

"The rails placed in tunnels are in fact submitted to action of moisture
and of vapors and of gases which remain in these places, and they
deteriorate rapidly and their service is short.

"To remedy this difficulty a reinforced rail has been provided which
differs principally from the preceding tj-pes by a super-thickness of about
5 millimeters in the head and in the base. The web is straight and not
arched and its thickness is uniformly of 19 millimeters. The joint bars
of this rail will be the same as the joint bars of rails of 46 kilograms.

Position of Rcdls

"The standard rails will be laid vertically as is the practice in America
and Belgium in place of being laid with the inclination of one in twenty,
practiced in France to this day.

"It results from the information furnished by the American engi-
neers that this position offers no difficulty, besides it is advantageous for
the junctions with the appliances.

"The appliances (joint bars, bolts and screw spikes) corresponding
with the standard rail are described as follows :

Joint Bars

"Numerous types of joint bars have been successfully tried on the
different systems with the view of improving the old joint bars composed
of two simple flat plates adapted to the rails.

"There have been employed joint bars with the base fixed on the ties,
angle bars of different forms, and, for the rails with double head, sup-
ported joints with bars of large dimensions forming a chair and fixed on
the ties of the opposite joint, joint bars type P. O., whose long splices are
held in the chamber of the chairs by steel wedges.

"These different plans having offered but little advantage over the flat
bars, above all since the adoption of laying the cross-ties of the opposite
joint as close as possible, we have returned to the latter (figures 5 to 7)
in the course of the study of standardization.

"At the same time the customary thickness has been increased and a
distance of 0.420 meters, center to center, has been adopted for the spread
of the cross-ties of the opposite joint.

Bolts and Screw Spikes

"The bolts have been provided with diameters of 24, 22 and 20 railli-
. meters for the rails of 46, 36 and 26 kilograms, and the diameters of the
holes of the rails corresponding, are of 32. 30 and 26 in order to permit the
free movement of the rails.

948

Note on Rail Inclination.

"So far as the screw spikes are concerned, only two types have been
arranged for in order to simplify the arrangements:

"One of a diameter of 26 millimeters will be employed for laying rails
of 46 and 36 kilograms and the other a diameter of 23 millimeters for
laying rails of 26 kilograms."

FI6.2 -Type DE46k(i,
I, jj ^

Fig. 5 - Type DE 36 K6. Fig 6 - Type DE 26 Kg

Fig. 7- Type DEil6ET55K&.

■:-,;\.

ijo-jt 1- T-

■--r I

'"ci^

:.4.

<,.-—tr-

'"] 1

— 50-1-.

f 1

»■

— ^ ?■

i...

f- j

)i\

^*''**^.^^

c..i...i

SUPPLEMENTAL NOTE ON RAIL INCLINATION

AND

Standardization of Track Appliances on Railways of France

By W. C. CusHiNG
Engineer of Standards, Pennsylvania System

Since writing the note on page 943, the report of the Commission of
Engineers has been reviewed in Le Genie Civil (T LXXVIII — No. 21,
May 28, 1921, page 458), at the close of which quotations are given from a
very interesting letter from Mr. J. A. L. Waddell. In order to show the
connection clearly, the following translation has been made from the
article:

"On the subject of the position of the rails, M. Froebe thus states the
decision of the Commission :

" 'The Standard rails will be laid vertically, as is the practice in
America and Belgium in place of being laid with the inclination of one
in twenty, practiced in France to this day. It results from the information
furnished by the American engineers that this position offers no difficulty.
Besides, it is advantageous for the junctions with appliances.'

"The reasons which have led the French engineers to supersede this
arrangement, practiced, however, for a very long time, arc then relative
to the simplification of the laying. Notching the ties to form the seat for
the rail would be avoided, and, further, the junctions with the appliances,
frogs, switches, etc., should be easier.

"The necessity for notching the ties to form an oblique seat is evi-
dently a complication, while at the same time it weakens to a certain
degree the resistance of the pieces of wood from which the ties are made.
It involves a work called "adzing," that is the preparation of the seat for
the base of the rail, which is not negligible, above all under actual con-
ditions, for which besides special automatic machines, called adzing ma-
chinQs, have been invented, as already described in Le Genie Civil*

"One of the arguments on which the Commission relied for adopting
its decision is based on American practice, in which inclination of rails is
avoided, probably counting upon the reciprocal abrasion of the rail-head
and of the wheel-tread to form a rolling surface with maximum in-
clination.

"Now, it seems, according to the information which has reached us,
that this practice has been abandoned on numerous American lines, and
that many engineers of the United States see progress, on tlie contrary,
in the inclination of one in twenty, the general adoption of which is de-
sirable. In fact, we have received from Mr. J. A. L. Waddell, the well-
known American engineer, membre correspondant dc I'Academic des
Sciences, a letter with the object of calling the attention of the French
railway engineers to this question, the decision of tne Commission having
aroused a degree of astonishment among tlie .\mcrican railway engineers.

948-a

948-b Note on Rail Inclination.

Mr. VVaddell cites the authority of Mr. W. C. dishing, Engineer of Stand-
ard of the Pennsylvania System, on this sul)ject. That engineer published
in the Bulletin of the American Railway Engineering Association of last
March an article in which he comments upon the modification proposed
by the French Commission, which seems to him a renunciation of very
real progress.

"After having spoken in his letter of the facts which we have just
reviewed, Mr. Waddcll thus expresses himself: .

" 'It follows from what precedes that the French engineers admit that
the change from the scientific practice of the inclination of the rail is the
result of information furnished by American engineers. What American
engineers have furnished information the consequence of which leads to
the adoption of a backward step in the scientific practice of railway con-
struction? Have those engineers personally observed inclined rails, and
in what place? I have followed very closely the adoption of the inclined
rail in the United States and Canada, where more than 3,000 miles (4,828
Kilom.) have now been installed, the greater part in the last five years;
these rails afiford entire satisfaction from the point of view of wear, of
preservation of the ties, and of reduction in cost of maintenance of way.
This reduction is principally due to a new American method of prepara-
tion of the ties for receiving the supporting tie plates, b}- which the fiber
of the wood is not even lightly injured by the setting of the plates; these
plates maintain the gauge rigidly, being held by square spikes, the em-
ployment of screw-spikes ofifering no advantage in the case of such
plates.'

" 'It seems very strange that the French engineers accept the state-
ments of some American engineers on the question of vertical rail and
decide to return to a primitive method of placing rail, instead of defend-
ing their own scientific methods. If the French railway engineers should
desire to probe the statements of the American engineers in question,
they would doubtless find out that these statements arise from the fact
that those American engineers have not had any experience with the rail
inclined, and have only e.xtolled the employment of upright rail because
their fathers and their grandfathers have always employed this primitive
method of placing rails.'

" 'The summation of this question appears to be a real scientific
pleasantry : the French engineers are persuaded to abandon their scien-
tific method of placing the rail inclined, whilst in America, on the con-
trary, this practice is being extended very rapidly with the greatest satis-
faction.'

"It is beneficial to quote this authoritative opinion of an American
engineer well versed in the construction of railways in his country. Doubt-
less it should not be too late to study the question anew before renouncing
an arrangement which competent engineers in America consider as an
important improvement.

"Nevertheless, it is not unprofitable to remark that the alteration of
orientation of .American practice, which Mr. Waddell points out, is rela-

Note on Rail Inclination. 948-c

tively small; it affects scarcely more than 5,000 kilom. of tracks in a
total of 400,000 kilom. It must be admitted that the American practice
of wide extent has not indicated any grave inconvenience due to the
verticality of the rail ; however, the American engineers do not generally
use either the plate or the screw-spikes, which the French engineers con-
sider the best complements of the Vignole rail.

"Besides, it is probable that the French companies, as well as the
P.-L.-M. Company, which use the plate which inclines the rail, will con-
tinue to do so without change; the vertical rail will be used principally
on lines of light traffic having hardwood ties. The softwood ties, pine
or spruce, will probably be provided as yet with the plate or chair which
provides for the inclined rail." P. C.

•See Lc Gcnic Civil of 21st starch, Kin3 (t. XLII. No. 21, p. 321).

RAIL LAYING WITH LOCOMOTIVE CRANES AS PRAC-
TICED ON THE LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD

By W. C. Barrett, Trainmaster, Lehigh Valley Railroad

For several }'ears it has been the practice on the Lehigh Valley Rail-
road to lay all rail with locomotive cranes.

This method was developed by the Lehigh Valley Maintenance of
Way forces, and has proven a decided success, and economical both from
a labor standpoint, and also from the standpoint of transportation delays
incident to rail laying. By the use of locomotive cranes several track
miles of rail can be laid in one day and the total delay to trains will be
less than if several days were used for the same work and all trains
stopped and more or less delayed each day.

With the heavy sections of rail in use at the present time, the labor
required to handle it by hand is almost prohibitive. The locomotive crane
does the heavy lifting and thereby relieves the laborers for other lighter
work.

A typical outline of the organization used for rail laying with a loco-
motive crane is given below :

1 Supervisor of Track — in general charge.

1 Foreman — 20 men — pulling spikes.

1 Foreman — 10 men — adzing, driving tie plugs and placing tie plates.

1 Foreman — 6 men — throwing out old rail and lajung new rail with crane.

2 Foremen — 15 men — gaging and driving quarter spikes.

3 Foremen — 30 men — putting on joint bars.
3 Foremen — 30 men — driving spikes.

2 Foremen — 15 men— putting on anti-creepers and shimming where neces-
sary.
1 Foreman — 7 men — drilling for bond wires with pneumatic drills.
1 Signal Supervisor or Assistant in charge of signals and bonding.
1 Signal Maintainer and one helper renewing signal wires and connections.
1 Foreman — 4 Signalmen — bonding.
Total — 18 Foremen — 138 men.

This organization and number of men will keep the locomotive crane
working practically continuously, and will enable it to lay from 100 to 150
rails per hour. The crane can be worked with any number of men from
ten up, as it requires but six besides the operator to place the new rail.
Very good progress can be made with 50 men, and more rail can be laid
with this number of men, using the locomotive crane, than can be laid
by hand with the same force.

Referring to the photographs. Fig. 1 shows the crane throwing the
old rail out, ahead, and Figs. 2 and 3 show the method of placing the
new rail, one at a time, ahead of the crane. Fig. 4 shows the men fasten-
ing the rail with a spike at each end and one in the middle, and the crane
moving ahead so as to lay the next rail. Fig. 5 shows the bonding outfit,
consisting of pneumatic tie tamper and four pneumatic drilling machines
boring the holes for bonding. Seven men, including the tamper operator,

949

950 Rail Laying with Locomotive Cranes.

handle this outfit and distribute the bond wires. No. 6 shows the drilling
outfit moving ahead, after drilling four holes, or two joints, to the next
two joints.

It is desirable to have two cranes laying when there is any number
of miles of track to lay, having two organizations and each crane and
organization laying one rail — the second crane working far enough behind
the first so as not to interfere with each other. When only one crane is
used, one rail is laid and the crane backs up to the beginning point and
then lays the second rail in the same way as the first. The work of
placing joint bars, full spiking, lining, placing anti-creepers, bonding, etc.,
is done behind the crane. The organization outlined will keep this work
up so closely that in from 15 to 30 minutes after the crane has finished
laying the rail, the track is ready for service. On a busy single track,
main passenger line, of the Lehigh Valley, two cranes laid 565 rails in
two hours and thirty minutes, from the time the track was broken until
it was connected, and the automatic signals were in service again.

A recent development has been the use of pneumatic tie tampers to
operate pneumatic drilling machines for bonding. One tie tamper operates
four machines and one outfit will usually keep up with two locomotive
cranes. However, where the cranes have a good opportunity to lay rap-
idly, it is desirable to have two drilling outfits, so as to avoid the possi-
bility of delay when closing up at the end of the job.

By the use of the locomotive crane for laying and the pneumatic
drilling machines for bonding, the heavy work is taken off the men, and
rail laying is no longer the hard task it formerly was. The men like the
new scheme and it means better working conditions, better satisfied men,
and at the same time greater efficiency and decreased cost.

Since the foregoing article was written it has been found possible to
operate the air compressor continuously and at the same time move the
car under its own power from joint to joint, thereby eliminating the
necessity of pushing the car bA' hand.

R a i 1 L a \- i II g with L o c o m o t i a- e Cranes. 951

Fig. 1 — Crane Throwing Old Rail Out, Ahead.

Fig. 2 — ]\Iethod of Placing New Rail. One at a Time, Ahead of Crane.

952 Rail Layinp; wit h Locomotive Cranes

Fig. 3— Method of Placint, Xt:\v Rail.

Fig. 4 — Fas-jj..\jm. Kmi. \\mi Spike at Each End and Oxr. ix Middle;
Crane Moving Ahead to Lay Next Rail.

Rail Laying tv i t h Locomotive Cran

953

Fig. 5 — Boxding Outfit.

Fig. 6— Drillin-g Outfit Moving Ahel^d, After Drilling Four Holes,
Two Joints, to Xext Two Joints.

DISCUSSIONS

955 (A)

DISCUSSION ON SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING

(For report, see pp. 65-74.)

Mr. W. J. Eck (Southern Railway) : — The Committee on Signals
and Interlocking reports on subjects (1) Revision of the Manual; (8)
Automatic train control; (9) Methods of displaying signals for pro-
tection of track workers, and (13) Time release applied to signal or
switch apparatus.

The Committee reports progress on the remainder of the assignments.

Subject (1), Revision of the Manual, is shown on page 69 as Ap-
pendix A. I move that the changes in the Manual, Appendix A, be
approved and, if approved, substituted for the present recommendation
in the Manual.

(The motion was duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Eck: — Subject (8), Automatic train control. The Commit-
tee submits certain data as Appendix B, and I move that the matter
shown be received as information.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Eck : — The Committee submits a report on page 12 under
instruction (9) for the display of signals for the protection of track
workers, and recommends that the conclusions on the subject be ap-
proved and published in the Manual. I so move.

(Motion carried.)

Chairman Eck: — Subject (13), Time releases as applied to signal or
switch apparatus. The Committee submits the matter appearing on page
IZ, and I move that only the conclusions be approved and published in
the Manual.

(Motion carried.)

Mr. G. A. Mountain (Canadian Railway Commission) : — I ask what
regulates the speed of 30 miles?

Chairman Eck : — It was taken as an average figure, for average con-
ditions. A rule or section of this sort must be carefully considered, as
brought out in the last paragraph on page 68, as follows : "In interpret-
ing and applying this recommendation it should be distinctly understood
that it is only a guide and that the particular local conditions must, in the
final analysis, govern the determination of this interval."

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I have only a minor
suggestion. Does the Committee consider it essential to use the words
"in the final analysis" in the third line, page 68?

Chairman Eck: — I see no particular objection to cutting them out, al-
though they express the thought that in the "final analysis" local condi-
tions must be considered — they bring out clearly that the rule is for
average conditions, and that at any particular place the local conditions
govern.

The Committee has nothing further on the subject; it has covered
(9) and TIS) completely, and at the present time we have nothing further
to add.

956

DISCUSSION ON BALLAST

(For report, see pp. 75-106.)

Mr. H. L. Ripley (New York, New Haven & Hartford) :— The work
of the Ballast Committee for the past year has been largely in the nature
of a review of the tentative report presented a year ago. It has been re-
viewed and corrected by the members of the Sub-Committee havincf charge
of the particular section, and the work of the Sub-Committee in turn
reviewed by the General Committee at its meeting, so that I feel we
can say that the matter presented to you for adoption has had careful
consideration by all the members of the Committee, and has the support
of all the members of the Committee. It has been before you for a
year in substantially the form in which it is to be presented now, and the
matter now submitted was published and distributed in time so that (very
one who was interested has had an opportunity to read it, and the Chair-
man will assume whoever is interested has read it.

There are two or three points I would like to call your attention to
in particular in Appendix C. At the top of page 94 there are two notes
to be inserted. The second is simply a note to the editor of the Manual
and should have appeared at the end of the appendix instead of in this
place.

Appendix B on page 92, in two places the compound word "dress-l:p"
is used, and the Committee would like to substitute the word "dressing."
In Appendix D, on page 98, at the end of the Appendix on page 99, the
Committee would like to insert two captions at the head of paragraph 5
and paragraph 6. Paragraph 5 should have the caption "Inspection,"
paragraph 6 the caption "Measurements."

The work, as I say, has been done by the Sub-Committee, and it
was my hope that the report on each of these appendices could be pre-
sented by the Chairman of that Sub-Committee. Mr. Stimson is not here,
and with your permission the Chairman will endeavor to present his por-
tion of the report.

Instead of taking these appendices in order, I would like to leave
Appendix A, which covers revision in the Manual, until the last. The
Committee has rearranged the subject-matter in the Manual to a very
considerable extent. The work of the Committee has grown from time
to time, and the information has been put into the Manual perhaps more
in chronological order than in natural order. If agreeable, Mr. Baldiidge
will present the report of the Committee on "Instructions to Govern Bal-
lasting on an Operated Line." That could be presented in two ways, by
a general statement, followed by the reading of the captious of the para-
graphs— it does not seem necessary to read the report, as it is long — or
it could be simply presented, and if anyone has any comment or objection
to make about the general subjects he could make it after he has heard
the statement.

The President prefers that you read the paragraph captions, Mr.
Baldridge.

957

958 Ballast.

Mr. C. W. Baldridge (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : — As stated in
the opening paragraph of .A.ppendix B, these instructions were presented
to the Association last year as information, with the statement that they
would be presented this year for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.
Some few changes have been made since that time by the Committee and
we now present them as follows :

(Mr. Baldridge then read the headings of the various paragraphs and
said) :

These instructions are intended as a guide to anyone who ma^'■ care
to look up something in regard to recommended practice on ballasting or
re-ballasting of track.

Chairman Ripley: — I move the adoption of Appendix B, to be printed
in the Manual as recommended practice.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Ripley : — The next matter covered by the Committee is Ap-
pendix C, "Specifications for Stone Ballast Material." If agreeable to
the Association, we will handle it in the same way and simply read the
captions and wait for any comments.

In oflfering these specifications the Committee realizes fully that it is
not possible to write precise specifications for .stone for ballast, as can be
done with specifications for steel for instance, because the original ma-
terial is not capable of the same treatment and one is compelled to use
the raw material available. For that reason the Committee has presented
this report in the form of a general statement of the desirable attributes
and stated figures in a note to indicate what a good qualit\' of stone
should give in response to tests, the idea being that the road handling
the material would be obliged to obtain the material from the best quarry
available, and in writing its specification, write in its own figures, but
for preliminary work and the guidance of one who perhaps is not
familiar with the conditions, a note is put in, following each paragraph,
showing what good practice would be.

(Chairman Ripley then read the various captions of Appendi.x C.)

Chairman Ripley: — I move the adoption of this Appendix for in-
clusion in the Manual as recommended practict.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals Railway) : — I would like
to ask the Chairman to explain the meaning of a certain portion of
paragraph 3, on page %. It does not seem to read just right: "If in any

of these tests a compressive strength greater than " is that

what is meant?

Mr. Baldridge: — The paragraph mentioned refers to the tests for
cementing qualities, and it is desirable that stone for ballast purposes
have just as little cementing quality as possible, consequently in making a
test the cementing quality should be low instead of high.

Mr. Ambrose: — Would the Committee accept a suggestion to put in
the words "without cementing qualities," so that without going through it
carefully one can understand the meaning?

Discussion. 959

Chairman Ripley: — I think there can be no possible objection to
that. Possibly the implied criticism runs through the whole thing. Ihese
are set up under caption headings, and it would add very much to the
volume without adding anything to the value, if that was done in every
case. I have no objection to it in these paragraphs. Possibly ihe fact
that someone reads it and gets an idea it is wrong shows that it would
do no harm and they might look into it more carefully than otherwise.

The President: — Did you make that as a motion? .

Mr. Ambrose : — No ; I just offered it as a suggestion.

(Mr. Ripley's motion was dulj^ seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Ripley : — Appendix D refers to a matter not directly re-
ferred to the Committee, "Specifications for Washed Gravel Ballast," but
it seems so closely allied to the subject that was specifically given to the
Committee for consideration and is a matter which some members of the
Committee themselves found they were very much interested in at this
time; therefore the Committee has drafted this set of specifications, which
does not do violence to the other set just read, and the Committee feels
warranted in suggesting that these specifications, if they meet with your
approval, go into the Manual along with the others, although this is the
first time you have had the matter definitely presented to you. If there
is no objection, these will be read in the same way, or as they are new,
if anyone desires it, they can be read in full. However, the specification
is comparatively long.

(Chairman Ripley then read the headings of the specification.)

Mr. J. E. Willoughby (Atlantic Coast Line) : — In connection with
the first item of the specification, I notice it is proposed that the sand for
the washed gravel ballast shall not exceed 20 per cent. I believe it is
the more general custom where washed gravel ballast is used that the
sand may exceed 20 per cent. On the Atlantic Coast Line we use gravel
ballast with sand 25 per cent, and up to 33 per cent. We have a good
deal of rain and do not have any trouble from the amount of sand caus-
ing retention of the water. The soils on which the ballast is placed, how-
ever, are usually sandy soils. In our practice we remove all sand in the
working and remix the sand and gravel. The sand is the customary
sand which occurs in sand pits and will pass through a J^-inch screen.

Chairman Ripley: — There is perhaps no question. In the various
soils, and under the conditions found on the line of the Atlantic Coast
Line Railroad, that is perfectly permissible, and the suggestion of the
Committee would be that the Atlantic Coast Line would want to change
that percentage to 25 or possibly even 30 per cent. We anticipated that.
This is recommended, not as a standard, but recommended practice, to
carry us under normal conditions, and that point you have touched on
was debated by the Committee more than all the rest of the specifications
put together. We finally decided as recommended practice we would offer
it in this form, and the Committee would not oppose making that 25
per cent, if it seems good to the membership.

960 Ballast.

The Committee, however, is pretty thoroughly in accord, if not
unanimous, in suggesting the percentages named here, and would be,
frankly, more likely to reduce the 15 per cent, than to add to the 20
per cent., based on the experience of two members of the Committee who
have used washed gravel very extensively and lately have had added
experience with it. Mr. Stimson, the Chairman of the Sub-Committee,
and Mr. Rice, of the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad,
would reduce the sand content down very much below our minimum.

The President: — Did the Committee take into consideration the fact
that oftentimes a different specification might be required for washed
gravel sand proportion; for example, in the case of bank washed gravel,
as compared with river-bed washed gravel, the difference being largely
due to the fact that in the river bed material the larger particles are quite
smooth and round while with certain classes of bank gravel that is
washed the aggregate is rough.

Chairman Ripley: — Yes, Mr. President, that matter was considered
by the Committee, and possibly some of you are- familiar with the gravel
which comes from Massaponix" Pit ort the Richmond, Fredericksburg &
Potomac. That gravel, although it is bank gravel, is worn and is com-
paratively round gravel. It is in a bank but is not greatly different from
the gravel that you would ordinarily get out of the river bottom. An
experiment was made by Mr. Rice, taking out absolutely all the sand that
he could get out without actually drying the material; that is, taking all
that would not stick to the wet stone. Something less than 7 per cent, of
sand was retained in that gravel. He put down a trial section of that
track with "ball-bearing" gravel, as it is called, and it held its line, held
its grade, and there was no difficulty experienced.

Of course, the advantage in getting out the sand content is that if
you are going to that amount of trouble to wash your gravel, it is desir-
able to keep down the dust, and the more sand you have in there, the
worse the dust is going to be. This was perhaps a compromise on the
part of the Committee, and I anticipated considerable discussion. I have
no objection to lowering the minimum 5 per cent, or raising the maximum
5 per cent.

I believe, however, as a guide under normal conditions the percent-
ages named are better than would be the case if a change was made
either lowering or raising the limit of tolerance.

(Mr. Ripley's motion to adopt Appendix D carried.)

Chairman Ripley: — Appendix E, page 100, Standardization of Ballast
Tools. This matter has been before the convention for two years, and
the report will be made by the Chairman of the Sub-Committee, Mr.
McBride.

Mr. J. S. McBride (Chicago & Eastern Pilinois) : — The specifications
for ballast tools are shown on pp. 100 and 101 of Bulletin 230, and the
plans on pp. 102 to 105.

Discussion. 961

Chairman Riple}- : — Air. President, I move the adoption of Appendix
E, and that pp. 100 to 104, excluding page 105, be printed in the Manual
as recommended practice.

The President: — May I ask the Committee whether in the designs of
these tools there are any radical changes that will induce any manufac-
turing difficulties?

Chairman Ripley : — I think we can say positively, no ; although the
manufacturers have not responded to our request for criticism ; but these
tools were the composite result of a questionnaire sent out to different
carriers, and pretty well responded to.

You will notice on'e thing, that with regard to the tamping bars and
the forks particularly, a choice is given. These bars and forks represent
perhaps what after a review of the diagrams sent in by different rail-
roads, seemed to the Committee to represent the maximum and minimum
practice, or rather, perhaps, two different ideas of practice. The bar, for
instance on page 102, is shown with a straight end on the shaft. Then is
shown the chisel and the spear-end as an alternative.

Some carriers, among which is our own, find very considerable use
for the shovel end, the scoop end of some kind, and I think most car-
riers whose roads are largely ballasted with gravel will find that to their
advantage. Another carrier may not care for it at all.

The forks are shown as what might be called wide and narrow
forks. Neither one will do the work of the other under all conditions.
The Committee shows both as the two designs for forks that will ac-
complish every purpose, in place of perhaps 20.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Ripley : — The fifth item which was given to the Committee
covers the preparation of a general summary of previous reports made
by the Ballast Committee of the A.R.E.A. The Committee did not get
to this work at all. It feels that it is highly important, and in looking
over the Proceedings in past years it finds a wealth of material there
that was presented as a progress report, or presented for information,
and never included in the Manual, and properly so. But after discussion
your Committee feels that the work of the next year could not be devoted
to better purpose than a review of this previous work that has been
done, and presenting it in brief form, gathering the information available
for the use of the carriers into one volume in the Proceedings, so that
one looking for a particular subject could find it in one place instead
of having to look through twentj\

The only other matter offered is the revision of the Manual, and
there are one or two matters I want to call attention to in that connection.

On page 88 is shown the development of the ballast section. That
should precede the information on page 86, instead of being at the end —
I mean when it is set up in the Manual it shoula be set up in that order.
Mr. Coon, Chairman of that Sub-Committee, will present the report.

962 Ballast.

(Mr. C. J. Coon (New York Central), submitted Appendix A, re-
vision of Manual.)

Mr. Coon: — From page 78 to page 84 will be found the Committee's
compilation. No subject matter was changed. There may have been a
very few words that were changed in order to make the matter more
clear, but we endeavored simply to compile what the Association had
already approved and had placed in the Manual.

Chairman Ripley : — Mr. President, I do not know how to put this
motion. Perhaps it would be as well to put it in this form, unless there
is objection to it: We request permission to suggest to the man in
charge of the Manual that the matter be rearranged and worded as stated
in Appendix A. Possibly that work is left to the Secretary rather than
to any committee. If so, I will amend my motion to that extent.

Mr. Willoughby: — I take it that it was one of the duties of the Com-
mittee to ascertain if the existing specifications on which no change is
made fulfill what is now good practice, regardless of whether the con-
vention have heretofore adopted the definition. On page 78 there is a
definition for sub-ballast : "Any material of a character superior to that
in the adjacent cuts." Now, the material in the adjacent cuts is some-
times very good ballasting material. Sometimes it may be gravel; it is
possibly stone and it is frequently sand; all of which may be good bal-
last, not only as sub-ballast but as ballast. The purpose of the sub-
ballast is to cover the roadbed. The sub-ballast material ought to be
material which is better than the material underneath the roadbed.

Chairman Ripley: — Mr. Willoughby, taking the condition that you
have stated, isn't it an open question, whether it is ballast or not, or
whether you would handle it as ballast? If you went through a cut with
material of that nature you would take it out only to a certain depth. If
the adjacent fill was made with that material, you would make it up to a
certain depth. I wonder whether under such conditions material handled
out of that cut below a final ballast line would be considered and handled
as ballast at all. That is our condition in New England, in many cases
just exactly the condition that you have named; you might dig in some
cases 20 ft., and you could not tell where the ballast stopped and the
fill begins because they both came out of the same pit, and very likely
the borrow was made from the gravel pit in its entirety. Of course, that
is not a normal, general condition but it is by no means unique on the
contrary, is a condition that obtains not infrequently.

Mr. Willoughby: — There is a condition in certain parts of the country,
for instance, Florida, where the state is overlaid generally with a layer
of sand that is sometimes 20 ft. or more in depth. In the cutting you
may pass through sand, then sand will be in the adjacent cut. Sand will
make a good sub-ballast, although sand will not make good ballast on ac-
count of its lightness in blowing away. Now, the cut being sand itself,
you will not be entitled under the definition as proposed to call the sand
which you place on the roadbed sub-ballast.

Discussion. 963

Chairman Ripley : — I think 3our point is well taken. I did not get it
before. I think perhaps those are exceptional cases. It did not come to
the attention of the Chairman, and I don't believe it did to the attention
of the Sub-Committee. I wonder if that definition was made to read : "Any-
material of a superior character which is spread on the finished sub-grade
of the roadbed and below the top-ballast, to provide better drainage, pre-
vent upheaval by frost, and better distribute the load over the roadbed."

Mr. Willoughby: — Yes, sir.

Chairman Ripley: — Is there any objection on the part of the members
of the Committee here, to substituting that language? Is that satisfactory
to 5'ou, Mr. Willoughby?

Mr. Willoughby: — That is satisfactory to me.

The President: — In view of the fact that the Committee is in agree-
ment that that change should be made, it can be incorporated and it is
not necessary to make a separate motion.

Mr. H. Austin (Mobile & Ohio) : — At the bottom of page 78, screened,
the definition represents gravel in the pit that may be screened?

Chairman Ripley : — Perhaps I can explain what the Committee's intent
was. The caption itself is "Gravel" and these are really definitions of
different kinds of gravel. Is it your idea that "screened" should read,
"Worn fragments of rock, occurring in natural deposits, that have been
passed through a 2^/2 in. ring and retained upon a No. 10 screen?"

Mr. Austin : — Yes.

Chairman Ripley: — I think you are right. I think that that would
express the intent of the Committee better than the language used. Does
the Committee accept that? Paragraph (b), screened is changed so that
the paragraph reads : "Worn fragments of rock, occurring in natural de-
posits, that have been passed through a 2^^ in. ring" — that won't do. It
would be expensive gravel by the time you passed it all through that
2H in. ring. I wonder if there would be any confusion in anybody's mind
as to what that means? I do not know how to put the thing into words.
Won't you suggest the terminology for that paragraph? I am stuck.

Mr. Austin : — There isn't anything to indicate that it has been
screened, and the definition refers to gravel that is in the pit before it
has been screened.

Chairman Ripley: — Well, if it will pass through a lYz-m. ring and
will be retained upon a No. 10 screen, I think you can call it screened
gravel, whether it has finally and in fact gone through that process or not.

Mr. Austin : — It struck me it was misleading. The inference is it has
been screened. It is a definition for the Manual, it is not a 'specification.

Chairman Ripley: — I will admit that the language is wrong, but I do
not know how to put it right. If you can do it, I wish you would word
it, and if not, it will not destroy the report at all if that is simply omitted,
although I would rather see it go in as it is than to see it omitted entirely,
I do not believe anybody would be confused about what is meant.

Mr. Austin : — I do not think the definition is clear.

964 Ballast.

Chairman Ripley : — We will admit that, but I do not know how to
amend it.

The President : — Wasn't it the Committee's intention to apply this
as to the process — the treatment of the material — rather than to dif-
ferentiate all material that is used?

Chairman Ripley : — That was perhaps the thought the Committee had
in mind. The basic idea was to get a certain product, and that product
is one that has no stone in it that is larger than 2^ in. in diameter,
and has nothing smaller in it than will be held on a No. 10 screen.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I suggest that it be
made to read : "Worn fragments of rock occurring in natural deposits
that have been passed through a 2^-in. ring and been retained on a
No. 10 screen."

Mr. Ambrose : — How would it be if you were simplj^ to treat it as a
noun and cut off the letters "ed" and let it stand as it is?

Mr. J. A. Stocker (Toledo & Ohio Central) : — If the Committee has
in mind specifically gravel which has been screened I suggest: "Worn
fragments of rock, occurring in natural deposits, which have been
screened, so that they will pass through a 2^-in. ring."

Mr. C. W. Baldridge (Santa Fe) : — It seems to me that in defining
screened gravel the question of the size of the hole through which it has
passed is not material. It might be better and it seems to mc it would
be better to specify simply such ballast as is passed through a screening
mechanism for regulating the size, maximum and minimum, of the ma-
terial.

Mr. Porter : — How would it do to add to that clause, "whether screened
or natural."

Mr. W. M.- Camp (Railway Review) : — I think this comes pretty
close to another discussion on definitions. However, I think the wording
should stand just as the Committee has left it. As I understand it, the
Committee intended that if the gravel in its natural composition would
meet these screen specifications, it does not have to be run through a
machine if in its natural condition it is suitable. I think all that need
be changed is just the heading. How would the words, "screen-grade
gravel" suit the Committee?

Chairman Ripley: — I do not see any objection to that. I think that
Mr. Ambrose's suggestion to just leave off the "ed" and make it a noun
is sufficient, but I have no objection to the other.

The President : — As the matter now stands, the Committee has ac-
cepted the suggestion that the caption be "screen gravel" instead of
"screened gravel." The purposes of this definition is to define certain
classes of material which have been subjected to the ordinary method of
treatment and to regulate the size of it.

Mr. Campbell : — I think this definition is all right as it is. If the
gravel will pass through a 2y^-m. ring, it has been screened, by nature if
by no one else, and is screened gravel. I move that the definition for

Discussion. 965

screened gravel given on page 78 be changed to read : "Screened gravel
is gravel prepared for use as ballast by being passed through a screening
mechanism."

Chairman Ripley : — The Committee would want to discuss that mat-
ter at a meeting. I would not want to go on record as saying that two
materials exactly similar should not have the same definition, simply be-
cause one had been mechanically passed through a certain process and
the other had not, if the result is identically the same.

Mr. Baldridge: — We have already adopted specifications for screened
gravel, and in this case it is merely a definition of what constitutes
screened gravel. I see no reason for any defining term, and if there is
any other information wanted, our members can go to the specifications
we have already adopted.

Chairman Ripley: — I think that we are taking more time of the Asso-
ciation in discussing this matter than it is worth, and if it is the desire
of the Association to stop the discussion right here and refer the matter
back to the Committee, that will be agreeable to the Committee. I do
not think it is altogether right as it is. I agree with Mr. Campbell from
his point of view it is correct in terminology, but I would rather prefer
Mr. Ambrose's proposed amendment to leave off the "ed" ; I do not care
what is done, but we should bring the matter to a head.

Mr. Ambrose : — To bring the matter to a head I move that the "ed"
be deleted.

The President : — The motion is that the caption should read "screen
gravel" instead of "screened gravel."

(The motion was duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Ripley: — I make a motion that unless there is objection
this matter be referred to the Secretary as a guide to him in arranging
the matter in the Manual.

The President : — You have heard the motion that the text under re-
vision of the Manual be adopted, with the provision that some rearrange-
ment is necessary, which will be left with the Secretary.

Mr. C. R. ChevaHer (Portland Terminals) : — I notice on page 79,
where a list is given of the comparative merits of material for ballast,
there is no mention made of granite under the "stone" caption. I would
like to ask if the Committee has made an}' investigation which would
determine the proper place in that list for granite?

Chairman Ripley : — The Committee has not considered that, and this
is not new matter. It is not even a recaptioning — it is stated in the exact
words as the Manual now stands. The Committee made no change.

Mr. J. M. R. Fairbairn (Canadian Pacific) : — My understanding is
that the figures given on pages 86 and 87 form part of the matter we
are passing on for the Manual. Is there any special reason why in these
diagrams the crown of the sub-grade has been left off? It seems to me it
would be better to show the crown of the sub-grade as it is shown by the
Roadway Committee.

966 Ballast.

Chairman Ripley : — I will have to answer you as I did Mr. Chevalier.
There is no change in form or substance in this part of the Manual. I
know of no reason why the bottom should not be made to conform, but
it would require special action by the Association to do so. This is the
recommended practice of the Association at this time.

Mr. Fairbairn : — I make that in the form of a motion, that the sub-
grade be shown with a crown in these diagrams similar to that used in
the Roadway Committee report.

Mr. Campbell : — I think this matter should be handled in the reverse
order and that the Committee on Roadway should conform its section to
that of the Ballast Committee. I question the practicability of crowning
the roadbed under the ties.

The President : — Is the Committee on Roadway making any radical
change in the contour of the roadbed in its report this year?

Mr. Ambrose : — There is no change being recommended. I think this
should be coordinated with what is now being recommended in the Manual
by the Roadway Committee.

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — The Committee on Roadway
this year is presenting some diagrams of roadway sections with the sub-
grade crowned. It is my recollection our Manual now contains diagrams
with the sub-grade at the level and therefore this presentation of the
Committee on Roadway is a change in the Manual.

(Mr. Fairbairn's motion was then put to vote and carried.)

The President : — The effect of that motion is that these diagrams
will be revised by the Committee in cooperation with the Secretary before
printing.

Chairman Ripley : — I think I can speak for the Ballast Committee in
saying that it is the province of the Roadway Committee to show how
the bottom line shall be drawn, and unless there is objection on the part
of some member of the Committee, I am agreeable to leaving it just as
it stands; that the depths are to be preserved and the bottom line modified
to meet the line of the diagram to be presented by the Roadway Com-
mittee, because unless my memory is badly at fault there is no such thing
now.

The President : — Without taking further time of the convention it
follows that if, as the Chairman of the Committee fears, there is nothing
in the present Manual that shows the roadbed outline with the crown
contoured, then the effect of this motion is nil.

Mr. Fairbairn : — I would say the motion carries anyway, because it
does not matter what you adopt in the Roadway Committee's report, the
two should conform. All I am after is conformity between the two.

Chairman Ripley : — Then the only point the Ballast Committee cares
to make is that the ballagt depths as indicated in the figures should be
preserved and the contour so modified as to preserve the depth of ballast
under the tie.

DISCUSSION ON ELECTRICITY

(For report, see pp. 109-196.)

Mr. Edwin B. Katte (New York Central) : — I know you will not
expect me to apologize for the relatively small number of the members
of the Committee on Electricity who are here to present their report, but
the exigencies of the railroad situation has kept many of them away,
rather than any lack of interest in the work of the Committee.

The report represents the work of a large percentage of the members
of the Committee. Nine subjects were assigned to the Corpmittee by the
Board of Direction and one subject by the Committee on Standards.
One subject will be reported as definitions for the Manual, two merely
as progress reports, three specifications will be submitted and four sub-
committee reports are submitted as information.

The revisions in the Manual consist of three definitions, which will be
presented under the heading of Underground Conduit Construction.

Item 2, on page 110; no revision is recommended in the tables for
clearances for third rail and overhead working conductors this year; con-
siderable labor and cost is involved in this work, and it is thought that
if the tables are brought up to date, every two years, it will be sufficient.
The subject of electrolysis will be reported on as information. Item 4,
Maintenance Organization, has received some consideration on the part
of the sub-committee, but the report is deferred for another year. Item
No. 5, Water Power, we submit as information and we give some sta-
tistics in regard to the electrification of one of the alternating current
railroads. Last year j-ou will remember the data was given for a high-
tension, direct-current railroad.

The specification for insulated wires and cables, subject No. 6, has
been completed this year and will be submitted. Subject No. 7, elec-
trical interference, is presented as information, and subject No. 8, under-
ground conduit construction, will be presented in the form of a specifica-
tion for approval.

Item 9; the National Electrical Safety Code, which was prepared
by the United States Bureau of Standards, will be presented as informa-
tion. Under Standards will be submitted a specification or rather a sched-
ule for incandescent lamps.

The first sub-committee report is that on Electrolysis and Insulation,
to be found in Appendix A. Mr. Schreiber, the chairman of the sub-
committee, could not be present, so I will briefly report for him.

(Chairman Katte briefly abstracted Appendix A.)

Chairman Katte: — In the absence of Mr. G. W. Kittredge, Chairman
of the sub-committee on Water Power, the report will be presented by
Mr. W. L. Morse, Vice-Chairman.

(Mr. Morse abstracted the report.)

Chairman Katte : — In Appendix C is submitted the Specifications for
Insulated Wires and Cables.

967

968 Electricity.

(Chairman Kattc then abstracted Appendix C, during which he said) :

The American Engineering Standards Committee held a meeting on
February 8th, at which these specifications were considered.

(Mr. Katte then gave a list of the societies and associations which
were represented at the conference, and said) :

The representatives of these various organizations agreed that it was
desirable to unify the specifications and proposed to me the specification
which is now submitted to you to-day as a groundwork upon which to
build up, perhaps, a national specification. Your Board of Direction
yesterday authorized the Committee on Electricity to send a representa-
tive to further conferences on this subject, with a view of having our
specification used, so far as acceptable, or to discuss and agree upon
desirable changes.

Mr. W. H. Elliott, Signal Engineer of the New York Central Railroad,
wrote the Secretary on March 11th, regretting that he could not be present
at this meeting, and I extract from his letter as follows:

"The specifications on wires and cables submitted by the Committee
on Electricity should not be approved for signal purposes to take the
place or supersede the specifications adopted by the Railway Signal As-
sociation in 1912 and revised and adopted by the Signal Section of the
American Railway Association in 1920."

I have not had an opportunity to talk with Mr. Elliott, otherwise I
think perhaps I might have made clear the intent of tiiese specifications.
They were not written to supersede the signal specifications. You will
note that Mr. Law is a member of this sub-committee; also Mr. Lowry,
who is also the chairman of the Insulated Wire Committee of the Signal
Association. Mr. Vandersluis is on the Signals and Interlocking Com-
mittee, our Committee Number X. There has been very close co-opera-
tion with the Signal Section and the Signal Engineers, and there is noth-
ing in this specification which supersedes or takes the place of any of
the signal requirements. We hope in the course of a few years, or maybe
months, that there will be one specification applicable to all the various
uses of insulated wire. There will undoubtedly be clauses added to this
specification from time to time, which will be included the special kind
of insulation required by the Signal Departments and other railroad
departments. I think it unlikely that the Telephone and Telegraph Asso-
ciation will use this specification, because of the different character of
their cables.

The President has suggested that we briefly go over the specification
which you will find beginning on page 150.

(Mr. Katte then abstracted some of the sections and in connection
with Inspection said) :

These specifications have been used in a slightly diflferent form with
success for eight or ten years on various railroads.

I hardly think it necessary to go over all these various sections — they
run up to 112, and it would take some time to review all of them. The

Discjssion. 969

Committee recommends that the Railroad Specifications for Electric Wires
and Cables be approved and printed in the Manual as recommended prac-
tice.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Katte : — The next subject is "Underground Conduit Con-
struction, Appendix E, and I will ask Mr. Brumley, Chairman of the
sub-committee, to present the report.

(Mr. Brumley then abstracted Appendix E.)

Mr. D. J. Brumley (Illinois Central) : — The Committee first thought
of including these specifications as specifications for concrete, but since
that is covered by other specifications the Association has passed on, we
decided to omit it, although, in printing the report, there was reference
made to concrete specifications in Section 38, and we recommend striking
out the second sentence of Section 25.

Chairman Katte : — The Committee recommends for inclusion in the
Manual the additional electrical definitions given on page 140 for "Duct
or conduit," "Manhole," and "Mandrel."

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals) : — Why does the Com-
mittee call these "stone conduits?"

Chairman Katte: — ^The manufacturers of this type of ducts call them
"stone conduits." It seems immaterial whether we should call them stone
ducts or concrete conduits. Perhaps it would be better to call them
artificial stone conduits.

Mr. A. Chas. Irwin (Portland Cement Association) : — Speaking a
few words as to the terminology, it is a fact that this is a concrete con-
duit and that it should be called such. Artificial stone has no more place
in the definition of concrete conduits than any other sort of thing you
might think of. It really is concrete.

Chairman Katte: — In explanation I would say that stone conduit is
really a trade name. It is a conduit that has been used in Chicago more
extensively than anywhere else. The Edison companies make it them-
selves. Formerly there was a company, I understand, formed to make
this stone conduit, and they could not produce it fast enough for the
Edison Company's uses, so the Edison Company bought the rights and
make this stone conduit and use it whenever they can build it fast enough
for their own use. It has not been generally used; in fact I do not know
of its having been used anywhere except in Chicago, but it has been
used with such success here that the Committee felt the Association
ought to have the benefit of a full description.

Mr. Irwin : — May I ask the Chairman of the Committee if the process
of manufacture of this conduit is patented, and if not, I do not see why
there should be a trade name attached to it.

Chairman Katte : — I do not understand that the name is patented.
In construction it is nothing more than a pipe made of concrete, and I
do not think you can patent a concrete pipe any more than you can patent

970 Stresses in Track.

a tin pipe. If we want to call it a concrete conduit, I do not think any-
body will object.

(The definitions were approved as presented.)

Chairman Katte: — The Committee recommends that the Railroad
Specification for Underground Conduit Construction for power cables,
Appendix E, be approved and printed in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to a vote and carried.)

Chairman Katte : — I inadvertently passed Appendix D, which you will
find on page 125, Electrical Interference. In the absence of the Chairman
of the sub-committee, Mr. Vandersluis, the Vice-Chairman, will present
the report.

(Mr. Vandersluis then abstracted the report.)

Chairman Katte: — The Committee recommends that the report on
Electrical Interference, Appendix D, be accepted for information, pub-
lished in the Proceedings and the subject continued.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

(Chairman Katte submitted Appendix F, Item (9), cooperation with
the Bureau of Standards, and said) :

This is merely submitted for information and we ask that the object
be continued and that we further cooperate with the Bureau of Standards.

(Chairman Katte abstracted Appendix G, page 144, and said:)

I would move, Mr. Chairman, that the Railroad Specifications for
Incandescent Lamps be approved and printed in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

DISCUSSION ON STRESSES IN TRACK

(For report, see page 107.)

Prof. A. N. Talbot (University of Illinois) : — Since the report was
written considerable progress has been made in reducing the data. At-
tention may be called to the finding of large bending stresses in the inner
rail under the fourth driver or the third driver (according to the type
of locomotive). The bending stresses in this inner rail decreased with
an increase of speed. For the outer rail there is considerable lateral
bending under the front truck and first driver, and under the last driver
and trailer, and this bending increases with increase of speed.

Measurements were made of the lateral bending of the rail section
on itself (tilting) and also of the straightening and bending developed
in the rail in a 6 ft. length, as would be produced as the engine passed
at low speed. The slipping of drivers and wheels on curves was meas-
ured. Photographic track depression determinations under speed were
made. Depression of track under static load to determine the constants
of the track was also measured.

High stresses were found in the rail under wheels having flat spots.
The method used for determining this is considered a practicable method

Discussion. 971

and the results, so far as worked up, seem to encourage taking up further
work in this line.

Tests in the laboratory are being carried on to learn how the splice
bar and rails act at a joint and how the stresses are transmitted from
rail to bar, as well as the amount of stress developed. Further tests on
■ballast are being conducted.

It may be said that we have still a large amount of work to do be-
fore the results of data already secured will be ready for presentation,
or even for discussion. The Committee, however, is quite desirous that
members of the Association will bring to the attention of the Committee
any matters which they think should have consideration. The Committee
feels, however, that the amount of work which it has on its hands is so
large that not many new matters can be taken up. We should like, how-
ever, to have suggestions and discussioH and criticisms by members of the
Association at any time.

The President : — This submission is open for general discussion.
There are no conclusions to be presented or action required of a formal
nature, but I would like to supplement what the Chairman has said by
a statement that I believe this is one of the most important pieces of work
ever undertaken by a committee of this Association and it is important
enough in its relation, not only to questions of track design, but loco-
motive design as to warrant the careful attention of every member.
That support to the committee-work is wanted and the Committee espe-
cially desires suggestions as to the method of conducting tests, and of
particular items that require investigation, and it would be to our in-
terest to give special attention to this particular feature of the work. Have
you any discussion from the floor? Any questions to be asked while the
Committee is before us?

DISCUSSION ON TRACK

(For report, see pp. 649-694.)

Mr. W. P. Wiltsee (Norfolk & Western) : — There were nine sub-
jects assigned to the Track Committee this j^ear. It has reported on six
of them. On the first subject, the revision of the Manual, there are sev-
eral revisions proposed. On the second subject, report on typical plans of
turnouts, crossovers, etc., they have presented plans for quite a number
of frogs and switches and also crossings. On the subject of gages and
flanges for curved track, I will say that subject has been bothering the
Committee for several years, and this year the Chairman of the Com-
mittee took it upon himself to appoint a Sub-Committee on that subject
for report.

On the subject of plans and specifications for switchstands, switch
lamps, etc., the Committee submits a progress report, and that is also
true in the case of specifications for tie plates, derailers, etc.

972 Track.

Regarding the study and report on specifications and piece work
schedules for contracting track maintenance work, we have made some
investigations and have a progress report to make.

The subject of the reduction of taper of tread of wheel 1 in 38, and
on canting the rail inward, is one which has been before this Committee
for many years. The Committee has collected considerable data on the
subject, but was unable to reach any conclusions this year.

Tests of tie plates subject to brine drippings is not ready for report
as the Committee discarded the original tests and they have been for the
past 18 months trying to collect material suitable for the rail used on
the Chicago Junction Ry., where the tests are to be made and the different
kinds of materials to be used in the test.

In regard to plans and specifications for track tools, the Committee
has done considerable work on that subject, but did not consider it to be
in, such shape as to warrant its presentation to the Association.

As to the study and report on the limit of wear on frogs, including,
if possible, rules for determining when frogs are sufficiently worn to war-
rant removal from track, the Committee has given considerable thought
to the subject, but it is a difficult subject to handle and I doubt if the
Committee will be able to reach any conclusions.

The matter relating to the revision of the Manual is shown in Ap-
pendix A.

(Mr. Wiltsee then abstracted Appendix A.)

I therefore move, Mr. President, the adoption of this spike, both
the 5/8 and the 9/16 spike, for printing in the Manual as recommended
practice.

Mr. A. W.. Newton (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) : — A question
came to me in looking over the Bulletin the other day, what prompted
such a change in the head of the spike from the type that is being used
by all the railroads at this time, and being manufactured at all the mills.
I refer to the design of the head of the spike only, and I wonder why such
a change is recommended, whether it was for economical distribution of
metal or what.

Chairman Wiltsee : — The spike proposed increases the metal in the
neck of the spike more particularly than any other place. That is the
particular difference between this spike and most others. This spike was
adopted by the Association, so far as that feature is concerned, in 1918.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

The next item is specifications for switches, frogs, crossings and
guard rails. The Committee recommends that we omit pages 168 to 186
inclusive, of the 1915 Manual, commencing with article on "Length of
switches" and ending with an including article on "Crossovers," and sub-
stitute the matter shown on page 654 of the Bulletin.

(Chairman Wiltsee then abstracted item two of Appendix A, down to
and including "Inspection" on page 659, and said) :

Discussion. 973

I move }'ou, Mr. President, that these specifications be adopted as
recommended practice and substituted for those now in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Wiltsee : — In Frog Designs, pages 660 to 671 inclusive,
considerable detail is given to show how the Committee designed their
frogs, which will enable anyone to design any other nurpber than that for
which the Committee had prepared plans. These take the place of the de-
signs that are now in the Manual, and agree with the plans that we have
already prepared. Therefore I move, Mr. President, their adoption as
recommended practice and for printing in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Wiltsee : — The tables of turnout leads shown on pages 672
and 673 are simply a revision of those tables now in the Manual to agree
with the different frog lengths that have been approved by the Associa-
tion. Therefore I move their adoption.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Wiltsee: — The next item in Revision of Manual is on
switch-stands, but as that is so closely connected with the part of our
report on that subject, we will pass over it for the time being.

Mr. Neubert, Chairman of the Sub-Committee on typical plans of
turnouts, cross-overs and slip switches, is liot present; therefore I will
present the report shown in Appendix B.

(Chairman Wiltsee then abstracted Appendix B and said) :

I move that these plans be adopted and published in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Wiltsee: — The plans showing diagrams of preferred names
of parts were published as information in Supplement to Bulletin 221
and in Volume 21 of the Proceedings, and are now offered supplementary
to the definitions printed on pages 115, 116 and 117 in the 1915 Manual.

Therefore I move their adoption and printing in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

(Mr. Wiltsee then read the matter on page 67 relating to plan 501,
and said) :

In other words, as long as the standard frog has a flangeway of 1^4
in., this does not mean anything diff^erent, but in case of necessity of
widening the flangeway, the Committee thinks that the gage which shotild
be maintained is from the back of the guardrail to the frog point.

(Mr. Wiltsee then read the matter relating to plan 502 and said) :

These plans were not reprinted, as they were adopted last year. The
Committee wishes to make these two changes, and I therefore move their
adoption.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals Railway) : — I will ask
the Committee how they arrive at the distance 4 ft. 6^ in.; in other words,
how do they justify the flangeway of 1^4 in.?

Mr. Wiltsee: — The flangeway of 1^ in. was adopted years ago as
the flangeway required. I do not know how far that Committee investi-

974 Track.

gated the subject. This Committee has not gone back to verify whether
or not that is the correct flangeway, but the question has come up,
especially in connection with the crossings, as to the widening of the
flangeway.

Air. Ambrose: — With a flangeway of l-)4 in. a pair of wheels cannot
trail through without some shift in their position. From the various
wheels I have measured I find that with a 2 in. flangewa}', if one wheel
is tight to the rail it will allow it to go through without any lateral move-
ment, and I was wondering if you had any information regarding the
distance between the inside of one flange to the outside of the other, if
you know what that standard is.

Mr. Wiltsee : — My recollection is that it is definitely fixed at 4 ft.
5 in. back to back of the wheel flange. I cannot saj- offhand what toler-
ance is allowed.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

(Mr. Wiltsee then abstracted the matter on pp. 677 and 678.)

Mr. C. W. F. Felt (Santa Fe) : — I move that plans 331 to 335, being
the plans just referred to, with the clamp frog, be published in the Manual.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — I compliment the
Committee for the excellent designs of frogs which it has submitted from
time to time in which the design for the clamped frog is included. The
subject of clamped frogs was assigned to the Committee about three
years ago for the purpose of having designs therefor submitted to the
Association for inclusion in the Manual if found satisfactory. These
plans were submitted last year. The Committee then desired further time
in which to reconsider the plans and revise them if revisions were found
necessary. The Committee now reports back these plans without change,
saying it found changes unnecessary. The plans are submitted without
recommendation, from which, I understand that it will be agreeable to
the Committee to have them included as information in the Proceedings or
as recommended practice in the Manual.

Speaking from an experience of 15 years with the clamped frog, I
consider the designs therefor submitted by this Committtee second to no
other design I have ever seen. I believe they will produce a clamped
frog second to no other manufactured to any other design.

It is not the purpose of this Association unnecessarily to limit its
recommended practice. If there is a choice between good articles or
practice, the members of the Association should have freedom of choice.
It rests with the individual members as to the choice that will be made.
The Committee in submitting designs for frogs, is not submitting recom-
mendations as to the use of frogs. It is merely recommending to the
Association that if you desire this type of frog it will be good practice to
construct it according to this design. That is all that is involved in the
inclusion of the design of the clamped frog in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Discussion. 975

Chairman Wiltsee : — The next subject is "Gages and Flangevvays for
Curved Crossings," which will be presented by Mr. Victor Angerer, Chair-
man of the Special Committee.

Mr. V. Angerer (William Wharton, Jr. & Co.) : — This is a progress
report for information and criticism only. During the preparation of the
plans for crossings, the question arose as to the proper gage and width
of fiangewaj's in curved crossings and curves in general. There seemed
to be no authoritative data available to determine this. The practice varied
considerably, and the Chairman of this Committee appointed this Special
Committee to investigate the matter. Former committees of the Associa-
tion, dealing with the widening of the lead on curves, did not go very far
into the matter of width of flangewa^-s, which in crossings is important.
Some roads have made investigations of their own on this subject which
were naturall}' confined to some extent to the conditions existing on
their roads. The Committee gathered information as to the practice of a
number of railroads and also crossing manufacturers. The tabulation
thereof is given in connection with our report on page 681, which al-
though it is not complete, is sufficient to show the great diversity in prac-
tice in the width of gages and fiangeways on curved crossings.

The Committee then decided to make a study as to how the different
factors which affected the gage and width of flangeway would work out
theoretically. Of course, the main factor is the locomotive. Car trucks,
even six-wheel trucks, do not require any widening of the gage. The
factors, which j'ou all know are the determining points, the wheel base,
the number of flanged wheels in rigid or semi-rigid connection and the
diameter of the wheels. From these the Committee has worked out the
formula and tables given in the inserts of the report. It was a compara-
tively easy job and took only the application of some mathematics ; but
the problem to discover how it would work out when applied to the various
locomotives, that part of the work was more difficult. The Committee
gathered data as to various locomotives in more general use, and found
nearly 100, to be exact 96, locomotives in quite general use, not including
the Mallet or articulated types, which differed in some respects in regard
to the factors which have an influence upon these determinations. These
were grouped into a number of divisions of the principal classes of loco-
motives and the results are given in the tables on pages 682, 683, 684 and
685.

I might say that the swing of the locomotive trucks given in these
tabulations is the swing that would be necessary to allow the locomotive
to take the curve, which the driver arrangement will permit, but is really
in itself excessive, in some cases, and it may not alwa}'s be practicable to
give that much swing on the locomotive.

There are some factors which cannot be determined theoretically.
One is the flexibility in the frame of the locomotive and its parts ; also
the flexibility of the tracks or the crossing, which, however, as we build
them now, are not very flexible.

976 Track.

The Committee realizes that this study will only have practical value
if, from it, in conjunction with tests and observation of experiences in
the track, some concrete rules can be formulated for ready use of the
Engineer in the field or the Engineer in the ofiice, and if this study is
continued it will be the task of the Committee to see if it cannot bring it
down to some such concrete rules. For that purpose the Committee will
appreciate very much the help of all of you who. are in a position to make
practical tests or observations, or who have made investigations, and
would kindly communicate their experience to the Committee.

Mr. T. E. Rust (Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern) :— If I am not
very much mistaken this Association adopted in about 1917 standard
flangeways for both straight and curved track. Committee IX made
the recommendation and it was adopted. Committee IX this year is
recommending that that portion of its work relating to flangeways be
transferred to the Committee on Track, where I think it very properly be-
longs ; but nevertheless I am under the impression that those standards
have been adopted and are now in efifect.

Mr. G. A. Mountain (Canadian Railway Commission) : — I would like
to know if this question is ever taken into consideration. Apparently it
has been some years preceding. The question of curved crossings is cer-
tainly bad practice. Who would put in a curved crossing that could pos-
sibly be avoided? I have recommended to my Board a great many cross-
ings of railroads, but I do not think I have ever passed one crossing on a
curve. I do not think it is good practice.

Chairman Wiltsee: — The Committee realizes all that Mr. Camp says,
and has fully considered this question. They expect to consult the locomo-
tive builders, and the motive power departments of the railroads. The
question was taken up with the Master Car Builders in 1908, and adopted,
and it is printed in the 1915 Manual.

Mr. Rust : — You are referring to gages. I was referring to flange-
ways, which were adopted, I think, in 1917.

Mr. C. J. Coon (New York Central) : — It might be of interest to the
Association to know that in the Grand Central Terminal we use 4 ft. 9 in.
gage. We have turnouts on as high as 18 degree curves under regular
traflfic. Where the gage is 4 ft. 9 in., the flangeway of the frogs is 1^ in.
The distance the guard rail is set from the wing rail of the frog is 4 ft.
4% in., and we have never had any derailment which was attributed to
this gage or to the setting of these guard rails, using these distances. We
have had a few derailments, but they were caused by condition of equip-
ment.

We have one rather unique proposition, namely, multiple unit
electric equipment which has standard trucks and we operate on 42 deg.
and 40 min. curves with a 4 ft. 9 in. gage, and a flangeway in the frog of
2% in., without derailment. We have never had a derailment on the
42 deg. and 40 min. curves. If the motive power people give us equipment
that will go around those sharp curves, we will not have any trouble in

Discussion. 977

operating them. There is an element that enters into it that may have
some effect on operation, viz. : This track, owing to the fact that it is
operated by electricity, is level. The third rail shoes are in such position
that we are not able to elevate curves and all tracks are level.

The President : — The Supplement to the Manual in 1918 provides for
an inch and three-quarter width flange, or with provision for an increase
of 1/16 of an inch for every 2 degrees of curvature. On that recom-
mendation that is the practice now, as reflected by the Manual.

Chairman Wiltsee : — The next portion of the report is Appendix D.
Mr. Macomb will present the report.

(Mr. Macomb read Appendix D, page 686, and also abstracted pp. 674
and 675, being item 3, Appendix D.)

Chairman Wiltsee : — Mr. President, it is the recommendation of the
Committee that the matter printed on pp. 674 and 675 be adopted as
recommended practice, and printed in the Manual. I therefore so move
you.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Wiltsee : — Plans and specifications for tie plates, derailers
and anti-creepers in Appendix E, page 687, of the report is simply a
progress report, and no conclusions have been reached. Mr. H. T. Porter,
Chairman of the Sub-Committee, will present the report.

Mr. H. T. Porter (Bessemer & Lake Erie) : — We made some search
to see what was published in railroad literature on the subject of tie
plates, and did not succeed in locating very many articles on this matter.
We thought that there might be some rule by which we could get the rela-
tion of the length of the tie plate outside of the base of the rail to the
length of the tie plate inside of the base of the rail.

The report of the Special Committee on Stresses in Track gave us
a start in this direction. Of course, we did not go very far or very deep
into their investigation, but we find that there is an angle here of ten
degrees that we can use in comparing with what has been done on the
various railroads, and this table was worked up. After we had made
the table on pp. 692 and 693, we discovered that we ought to have gone to
the base of the tie plate instead of the top of the tie plate, but it did not
make a great deal of variation in the distance, and we did not take the.
time to revise the tables. We simply call attention to it in this paragraph,
so that you would know that we had discovered it.

(Mr. Porter read the first paragraph on page 688.)

That word "standard" there is probably not the right word. It is
pretty hard to tell what is standard on your own road, let alone what is
standard on somebody else's road.

This table was made up from a lot of letters that were written in
answer to a series of questions, and anyone who has had personal ex-
perience in that kind of work will find that it is pretty hard to make the
information agree and to make the report complete. I am inclined to
think that we have probably made some statements in this table that do

978 Rail.

not look just exactly right to the Engineers on the railroads represented.
What we were after particularly was two columns, the difference between
outside and inside in inches, that is, in projection, and then to see how the
computed difference compared with the difference that had been followed
by the various railroads.

This is simply, of course, submitted for what it is worth, with the idea
that next year we will get some information from those who have given
this matter individual study.

In the second paragraph on page 688 we use the word "standard,"
and I will try to suggest some way of eliminating it without changing the
meaning of the paragraph.

(Mr. Porter here read the balance of page 688, following the first
paragraph.)

Chairman Wiltsee: — What we desire particularly is criticism on this
subject during the coming year.

The President : — This report is offered as information, with the re-
quest for constructive criticism during the coming 3'ear, this subject
being continued, but the matter is open for discussion, if there is anything
to be offered now.

Chairman Wiltsee : — The next sub-division is "Study and Report on
Specifications and Piece Work Schedules for Contracting Track !Main-
tenance Work." This part of the report will be presented by Mr. E. T.
Howson.

Mr. E. T. Howson (Railway Age) : — Owing to the abnormal condi-
tions with which we are all familiar which have prevailed during the past
year in getting work done by contract or by any other means, it was very
difficult for your Committee to find any clean-cut examples of contract
work. The standard track work system which had been in effect for
several years on the Baltimore & Ohio and for a shorter time on the
Pennsylvania, prior to Federal control, and which was abandoned during
that control, have not yet been re-established. Therefore, the Committee
was unable to get any up-to-date information on which to base any report.

While a good many roads resorted to the cost-plus form of contract
in one form or another last year, the Committee did not consider that
that was the kind of contract the Board of Direction had in mind in
assigning this subject to our Committee, the cost-plus form of contract be-
ing in most cases little more than paying the contractor a percentage on
the cost of his work for recruiting the force. Therefore the Committee
can only report progress, and comparatively little progress this year.

, DISCUSSION ON RAIL

(For report, see pp. 197-234.)

(In the absence of both the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Rail
Committee, the report was presented by Mr. J. M. R. Fairbairn.)

Mr. J. M. R. Fairbairn (Canadian Pacific) : — Mr. President, our
Chairman has written a letter in presentation of this report addressed to

Discussion. 979

yourself, which I think it is in order to read, as I think it is the unanimous
feeling of the Committee on this subject.

(Mr. Fairbairn then read the following letter from Mr. G. J. Ray,
Chairman of the Committee) :

Hoboken, N. J., March 10, 1921.
To the Chairuian and Members of the American Raihvay Engineering

Association:

"I regret very much indeed that I will not be present at the con-
vention. I am especially sorry that I will not be on hand to present the
Rail Committee report. Business matters over which I have no control
will prevent me from being in Chicago during the week of the convention.

"Those not familiar with the activities of the Rail Committee during
the past year may conclude from the Rail Committee's report that the
Committee as a whole did not have a very busy year. I wish to assure
}'ou that the past year has been one of the most active in the history of
the Rail Committee. Unfortunatel}^ we can only report progress with
most of the subjects assigned.

"The Board of Direction has, from time to time, instructed the com-
mittees to endeavor to complete at least one or two subjects each year.
We submit for j-our approval revised rail record forms. We have no
other conclusions to present to the Association. We hope to be able to
present a more substantial report another year. As Chairman of the Rail
Committee I feel that I should make a somewhat more complete state-
ment concerning the Rail Committee work than the report submitted in
Bulletin 231. What I present to you represents my own thought and has
not been submitted to the Rail Committee for approval.

"In the spring of 1919 the Rail Committee submitted to the Associa-
tion revised rail specifications with the request that these tentative specifi-
cations be carefully considered by all concerned for a period of a year,
when they would again be presented to the Association for final adoption.
In presenting the report in question the chairman invited written criticism
and also advised the representatives of the manufacturers that they would
be given a fair opportunity to present their recommendations. During
that j'ear and up until the next convention not one written discussion was
submitted to the Committee by a member of the Association not connected
with the Rail Committee. The Rail Committee met with the manu-
facturers and as you well know the specifications, somewhat revised, were
adopted by the Association in 1920.

"So far as we are aware no rail has been rolled under the new
specification. This is not at all surprising, considering the attitude of the
manufacturers.

"On September 14th, last, the Rail Committee again met with the Rail
Committee of the manufacturers. All phases of the specifications were
freely discussed. Prior to and since the above meeting the chairman has
conferred and corresponded with the Manufacturers' Committee.

980 Rail.

"The manufacturers, as represented by their Rail Committee, have
stated that they will not agree to roll rail of any weight under a contract
requiring full compliance witli all features of the 1920 Specifications.
They have stated that they will roll rail up to 110 lb. per yard under the
1920 Specifications slightly modified so as to eliminate a few of the so-
called objectionable paragraphs on manufacture or mill practice. This
modified specification will take an extra price estimated at approximately
$13.00 per ton for a base price of $57.00, or something in excess of $9.00
on a base price of $47.00. The Manufacturers' Committee have further
stated that they will not meet the 1920 Specifications at all for rail 111 lb.
per yard and over. The big extra demanded by the manufacturers has
practically killed the new specification. Naturally, no railroad manage-
ment will pa3^ so large an extra for a standard .specification until it has
been proven beyond a doubt that rail manufactured under such specifica-
tions is sufficiently superior to warrant the extra price.

"The manufacturers contend that their recommendations and sug-
gestions have not received the serious consideration the}- deserve and
further contend that the new specifications would be an unnecessary bur-
den to the manufacturer and that less severe specifications will meet the
needs of the railroads.

"As a matter of fact the Rail Committee has had but little assistance
from the manufacturers in the work of improving the specifications.
Their suggestions to the Rail Committee have been confined, primarily, to
reasons why the changes in the 1915 Specifications cannot be made with-
out increased cost. They have not as yet oflFered any constructive criti-
cism. They have frequently stated that they do not know what to do to
improve the quality of the rail as now manufactured. They are only sure
that our present specifications will prove costly without improving the
quality of the rail.

"The manufacturers have, and I believe with just cause, criticized
the Rail Committee's method of tabulating rail failures. The Committee
now has under consideration a revised method of reporting rail failures,
due consideration to be given to the tonnage carried.

"I am convinced that the manufacturers believe that the consumers
as a whole are not sufficiently interested in pifrchasing a better wearing
or safer rail to pay the extra cost of production. Their belief is founded
on good ground, as many of the roads claim that the 1915 Specifications
or the Manufacturers' Specifications with slight modifications produce
quite satisfactory rail. Therefore, why should they have to pay more
money for some other specification?

"On the other hand, many of the roadj with excessively heavy traffic
are not at all satisfied with the 1915 Specifications. Excessive wear and
undue breakage have made it advisable to look for a better wearing and
safer rail, even to the extent of paying a material premium for such rail.

"All concerned agree that part of the rail as rolled under the 1915
Specifications is entirely satisfactory, both from the standpoint of wear

Discussion. 981

and breakage. Many roads have had trouble from breakage, the worst
type of failure being the transverse fissure, and often part of the rails
are soft and wear badly or flow rapidly under traffic.

"In the 1920 Report of the Committee on Safety of Railroad Opera-
tion to the National Association of Railway and Utility Commissioners
3-ou will find the following statement concerning rails : "The published
annual statistics on rail failures signify that the margin in strength is in
many cases exhausted by the conditions which now prevail in the track.
It is obvious that increased durability and safety in rails must be attained
in one or both of two ways, either the physical properties of the steel
must be raised or the working stresses lowered." I am not an advocate
of heavy wheel loads, but it is obvious that we cannot, consistent with
economic or satisfactorj-- operation, reduce the present average of the
freight car axle load. The old light cars are gradually being replaced
with heavier ones so that the average wheel load is constantly on the
increase. Since the flow of metal either on the surface of the rail or at
some distance below the surface is primarily caused by the heavier car
wheel loads it is evident that the wear of the rail will be faster and the
flow greater, unless some improvement is made in the physical properties
of the steel. The working stresses in the rail can be lowered by the use
of heavier rail, but increasing the rail section will not reduce the tendency
of the metal to abrade or flow under wheel loads. A few years ago the
manufacturers were strongly contending that excessive breakage and poor
results with rail were due to the failure on the part of the roads to use
a sufficiently heavy rail to take care of the heavy wheel loads and other
requirements. The quite general use of much heavier rail in recent years
has proven beyond a doubt that the use of heavier rail has not eliminated
the difficulties. In fact, the heavier rail has in many cases proven to be
fully as troublesome from a breakage standpoint as the lighter rail. In
connection with this, it is interesting to note that since some of the roads
have started to use a heavier section than 110 lb. per yard, the manu-
facturers now claim that these heavy sections cannot be rolled under as
rigid a specification as the lighter sections. They are not willing to guar-
antee as good elongation for the heavy sections under the drop hammer.

"If all the rail rolled under the 1915 Specifications had equally as
good physical qualities as the best 50 per cent, of the rail, there would be
little cause for complaint and there would be little or no reason for a
statement like that quoted above.

"The Rail Committee is at present somewhat confused as to what
to do under the prevailing conditions. Those reasonably well satisfied
with the quality of rail now being received are opposed to changing the
specifications if by so doing the price of rail will be increased. They are
also opposed to two standard specifications, one for a higher quality of
rail to require an extra price. Naturally they do not wish to be placed
in the position of purchasing an inferior brand of rail.

982 Rail.

"With the present attitude of the rail manufacturers there is little
that can be done by the Rail Committee to improve the 191.S Specifications
without creating extra expense on the part of the purchaser.

"It is a fact that many of the mills are rolling rail under modified
specifications and the rail manufacturers freely admit that they are willing
to roll rail for individual roads under specifications containing many of
the objectionable features of the 1920 Specifications. Some such specifica-
tions take a slight extra, in other cases no ex.tra is charged. The Rail
Committee has sought a reason from the manufacturers for their willing-
ness to roll rail without extra charge under private specifications wbe-i
they are not willing to have the special features of the private specifica-
tions included in the "A.R.E.A." Specifications. In answer the manu-
facturers give what appears to be a more or less reasonable explanation.
Where the manufacturer and the individual road agree on a special
specification, consideration is given to all features of the specification and
the method of inspection together with the judgment and fairness of the
inspector, or those responsible for the inspection. Where both the phy-
sical and chemical properties of the finished rail are limited as in the
A.R.E.A. 1920 Specifications, a strict compliance with the specifications
as to chemistry might be the cause of discarding more or less perfectly
good rail, but where the railroad officials are inclined to be fair and
reasonable, some of the manufacturers are willing to' try out the specifica-
tions, although such specifications may vary materially from the standard.
They are not willing to take chances with inspectors at large and claim
that the general use of such a specification as the A.R.E.A. 1920 would
cost the manufacturers a material amount of money, and in their opinion
such refinement is not needed with the greater portion of the tonnage
used throughout the country.

"There is undoubtedly some merit to the manufacturers' contention
that the purchaser should not specify the method of manufacture and
also place a limit on both the chemical and physical requirements of the
finished rail. On the other hand, the consumer is anxious to have suf-
ficient control over the mill practice and to place such limits on the
physical and chemical properties of the finished rail as to insure the
elimination of both the dangerous and poor wearing rail.

"It has been my experience that some rail manufacturers are more
willing than others to assist In working out a new specification. I have
personally been responsible for the acceptance of a material amount of
rail on a strictly physical test without regard to chemistry, except as to
the limit of phosphorus. I am frank to say that the manufacturers did
their utmost to produce a high quality rail and the outcome was that very
satisfactory results were secured.

"Speaking on behalf of the Rail Committee, the Chairman invites full
discussion either on the floor of the convention or In writing In order that
the Rail Committee shall have the benefit of your views on the subject.

Discussion. 983

"The Rail Committee will endeavor to reach a conclusion during the
coming year — First : Should the Association adopt two specifications, one
to be the best possible, without running into extra price ; the other to be
the 1920 Specification, possibly revised, but requiring an extra price. Sec-
ond : Should we have one specification without extra cost over the manu-
facturer's base price, the Association to be given a list of specific refine-
ments in the order of their importance (considering the probable cost)
so that roads requiring a higher grade of rail will have the benefit of the
Association's judgment on the most valuable of such refinements. i

"Anything 3'ou can do to assist the Committee to work out this im-
portant problem will be appreciated."

Mr. Fairbairn : — I think Mr. Ray has so thoroughly covered the
ground in presenting the report, that there is really nothing further to be
said on the subject, except to proceed with the report itself, which the
Committee respectfully submits to the twenty-second annual convention.
The subjects assigned to the Committee are detailed in the Bulletin, and
I presume it is not necessary to read these, or the accounts of the meeting,
so subject (1), revision of the Manual, we can proceed to at once and
I- will ask Mr. A. W. Newton, Chairman of the Sub-Committee, to present
that part of the report.

Mr. A. W. Newton (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) : — In announcing
his Sub-Committees last year Chairman Ray assigned to our Committee
the question of revision that should be made in that portion of the Manual
which would be considered as under the jurisdiction of the Rail Com-
mittee. After a meeting of that Committee this conclusion was reached—
that probably the best results would come from efforts to make a revision
of the forms that had been so long printed in the Manual covering the
production of rail and the records of rail failures and rail wear in track.

In order to ascertain the views of railroads respecting the use of these
forms, a circular letter was sent out and replies were received from 49
different roads, which were tabulated and which show that of the 49
roads reporting there are practically only two of the forms that were
generally used. One is the failed rail report, as it is commonly known, and
that is made out by the section foreman and approved by the Roadmaster,
and the other is the summarization of those reports that are submitted an-
nually to the Rail Committee, an analysis of which is made generally un-
der Mr. Wickhorst's direction, and with which you arc all familiar.

Of the other IS forms, out of 49 roads it appeared that only four or
five of the roads were making any use of same. Only one or two roads
made any attempt to use all of the forms as printed.

One thing that the Committee wishes brought to the attention of
the convention is that probably much more valuable information would be
available if all the roads interested would take a more active part in the
compilation of data regarding rails, not only of the manufacture of rails,
but of the service results obtained from rails in the past.

984 Rail.

Referring to the revision of forms, there is little that needs to be
said respecting the changes. Various members of the Rail Committee sub-
mitted suggestions to us, and these were, as a rule, included in the revised
form. The changes that were made were such as would make it possible
to give a little more detail in some respects and make it possible to apply
the specifications of 1920 to record the results of any rail production under
those specifications.

After the issuance of the Bulletin it was thought that probably we
would receive criticisms as to the revised form. Up to this date there
has been only one criticism submitted outside of the Rail Committee
itself, and that suggested the addition of one column on one of the forms
to make it possible to segregate a record which it was intended should
be included in another column that had been provided in that report. I
do not think it necessary to read anything regarding the changes that have
been submitted.

Acting Chairman Fairbairn : — You have heard Mr. Newton's presenta-
tion of the conclusions with regard to subject (1). The forms about
which he has been talking to you are now before you, and I move that
the Association adopt these for inclusion in the Manual to replace the
present forms.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) : — In the report
to be used by the section foreman the Committee show the gage side in
plan, but do not provide for showing it in the section.

The President : — The Committee states that that suggestion will be
incorporated in the drawing.

Mr. C. W. Baldridge (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : — In checking
over the rail failure reports under the form shown on page 208, I found
the term "Rail section" gives the section foreman more trouble than most
of the other matters in it, and I prepared a form for our own road, some
two or three years ago, in which we proposed to do away with what is
shown here as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8, the lines under these numbers, and
substituted one line clear across the page, just under the heavy line at
the top, showing the brand of rail, and placed under that a little note
to the foreman saying, "Show once on this line all letters and figures
appearing in raised form on the rail." If that were done, it would do
away with the foreman guessing what is meant. We know what is meant,
but the foremen do not. If we can get the foreman to show everything
that appears in raised form, all the questions are answered.

A second line can be made to serve for Nos. 5, 6 and 7 by showing
a little note underneath, "Show once all letters and figures that appear
stamped into the rail," and I believe we will get more accurate replies if
we provide a blank in that form, and I would suggest to the Rail Com-
mittee that they consider such a change.

Mr. Newton : — That subject was considered, and I think it has been
tried by other roads also. We tried it once, and when the reports came
in it happened that there were three sets of numbers on the rail that

Discussion. 985

failed. We started at one end and went to the other end, and we got
all the figures. It is not a bad suggestion.

However, our Committee in giving study to that felt that the Road-
master who has to approve these reports should certainly be conversant
enough with the subject to have proper reports made by the section fore-
man, and before they receive his approval he undoubtedly would make
correction of any misinformation of that sort the foreman might have
put on the form. If it is the desire of the Association that that change
be inserted, we are perfectly willing to abide by that.

Mr. Baldridge: — I realize that a good many foremen, if you simply
leave it to them to show the brand without any instructions, or the heat
number without any instructions, would repeat it, but by putting the
note, "Show once all letters and figures appearing in raised form on the
rail," I think we would get a pretty accurate report.

I have this to say in regard to the checking up of these reports by
the Roadmasters — fully 50 per cent, of these reports come in without the
Roadmaster seeing them. The clerks check them up, and a new clerk
has to be broken in just about so often, and about half of these reports
have to be sent back for correction, in our present form, and. I think
the form proposed is a big improvement over what we have at present.

Mr. A. L. Davis (Illinois Central) : — On the Illinois Central we tried
the same plan about two years ago, cutting out a lot of the questions and
substituting one line across the top of the form. We found it does not
work out at all, but that by having the separate questions, as the Com-
mittee has recommended, we get better results.

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — It is obvious that this form
is the most important form we have for our rail data, because upon it is
based all the information we get as to the actual failure of the rail in
the track.

There is one class of failures which is unfortunatel}' becoming more
prevalent in our track, and that is transverse fissures. I find that many of
our section foremen — and I presume other roads have had the same
experience — have not been educated to the point to know what a trans-
verse fissure is, at any rate, not in all cases.

I think this form would be improved if a note was inserted on page
209, bringing out the fact that a transverse fissure, before it penetrates
to the edge of the rail, is always white, and after it reaches the outside
air is almost invariably black or dark in color. If you luring that out more
strongly, a foreman will be more apt to report these breaks for what
they really are, that is, transverse fissures.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — A good plan would
be for the railroad company to provide the foremen with a photograph
of a typical transverse fissure. That will give him an ocular illustration
of what it looks like. It is not difificult to photograph this kind of failure
so that it shows clearly, and it can be plainly blueprinted from the negative.

Acting Chairman Fairbairn : — On the Canadian Pacific we have in-
serted in our maintenance of way rule book a few pages on the subject

986 Rail.

of rail failures. They are really instructions to section foremen and Road-
masters as to the use of these forms. They illustrate and elucidate what
is required for each of the numbered questions on the forms. They give
an illustration of our own scheme of marking, showing from the location
and character of the marking — what is the ingot number, what is the
rail letter, what is the weight, etc. The sectionmen are given instructions
on the whole thing and told what should be reported.

We give further an illustration by photographs of what a transverse
fissure is, and we try to educate the foreman to such an extent that he
can intelligently fill in these forms, and I believe if that system of advis-
ing the trackmen was generally practiced, the form as it now exists is
in about as good shape as it can be put.

(Motion was dul)^ seconded, put to vote and carried.)
Acting Chairman Fairbairn : — The next subject is report on rail fail-
ures, present statistics and conclusions as to causes, and submit suggestions
for improvements in rail steel; continue special investigation of rail steel.
Mr. Wickhorst will present that part of the report.

Mr. M. H. Wickhorst:— I am asked to talk on the two subjects, rail
failures and investigations. I might dispose of number 3, the subject of
investigations, by briefly calling your attention to the work along the line
of transverse fissures. The work of the last few years has shown that
fissures occur in steel that has been shattered interiorly, that is, the in-
terior of the head contains numerous small cracks which are apparently
in the rail at the time it is put into the track ; at any rate there is a po-
tential condition leading to shattering and a fissure is a development of
one of the small shattering cracks. In other words, the interior of the
rail head may have a shattered condition and exhibit millions of cracks
from one end to the other, and some of these cracks develop in service
and continually grow until they reach the surface of the rail and the rail
breaks.

Referring to the paper in Appendix B on the Relation of Shattered
Steel in Fissured Rails to the Mill End of the Rail. It has been known
that the shattered condition does not extend to the surface, either at the
top or the side, but remains about a half inch away, and this particular
investigation shows that that shattered condition does not extend clear
to the end of the rail as it was hot sawed. It terminates about a half inch
away from the end ; in other words, it is a purely interior condition, prob-
ably due to shrinkage checking.

Dr. Dudley has also presented the results of some of his work cov-
ering tests of a great many rails that have failed from fissures. The
rails were drop tested and the results have given some very interesting
information. One point is that fissures of the type called "coalescent,"
where there is a horizontal fissure extending lengthwise of the rail, occur
largely in the A-rail. The point of origin or point of growth is from
a longitudinal streak in the interior, apparently in most cases a streak
of slag, or other non-metallic inclusion.

Discussion. 987

The type of simple transverse fissure occurs mostly in the B and C
rails.

Dr. Dudley has also shown that such rails tested head down generally
break without showing ductilitj^, but frequently they may show very good
ductility. In other words, these rails after they have been in service in
the track may show ductile metal in the top of the head. Our belief has
been that after a rail has been in service for a while, the top becomes so
brittle that if the rail were to be bent with the head down it would
break. It has been thought that service would always render the top
metal brittle ; but the Doctor has shown that the metal may be about
as ductile as it was when it was originally laid.

As regards rail failure statistics, you will notice from the figures that
when the record first started there were about 400 failures per 100 track
miles for five years' service. Coming down to the last year covered by
the five years' service, the failures got down to 74 failures per 100 track
miles. That is a reduction of over 80 per cent, and a study of the detailed
figures that have been given out indicates that it is probable that a fur-
ther reduction of perhaps 80 per cent, can be made. This is the goal
for us to aim at for the next six or eight or ten years, perhaps, although
the rails made during the war period promise to give a bad record.

To bring about this further reduction of rail failures is the part of
everyone having anything to do with the rail. It starts with the Engineer,
who is responsible for the design. Some years ago when thin base
sections were used largely, there were large numbers of broken bases
or broken rails where the origin was a seam in the base, but that type of
break has been largely overcome by the thickening of the base. I would
suggest to those roads that are still using A.S.C.E. or other thin base rails,
where the rails are in heavy service, that it would pay them to adopt
sections with heavy bases.

Then the designer of the specifications has to take a part. The
specifications should be so designed as to require good ductility and
strength in the metal in the rail. Next the fellow who makes the steel
has to take a part. The mill practice, and the methods of manufacture
in general should be such as to eliminate such conditions as segregation
in the ingot and inclusions of slag. Good practice is required from the
making of the steel in the furnace to the cooling and straightening of the
rails. Then we get down further to the inspection of the rail. The in-
spector has an important part. The specifications sometimes permit the
inspector to test the rail with either head or base in tension, that is, with
the head or base down. The early work of the Rail Committee showed
that the results when the rail is tested with the head in tension, correlate
pretty well with the interior condition of the ingot; that is, segregation
of carbon and phosphorus and large amounts of slag inclusion. With the
base in tension, however, the correlation is not so very good. The Bureau
of Standards a short time ago came out with a valuable and interesting
report, comparing Hadfield sink-head ingots with ordinary ingots and

(A)

988 Rail. ,

the drop test results also illustrated this non-correlation. The comparison
as regards analyses and tensile tests showed in favor of the sink-head
ingots, but the drop tests made with base in tension were not. It is safe
to say from work of the Rail Committee that if the drop tests had been
made with the head in tension, they would have paralleled the other tests.
Finally we get down to the fellow who uses the rail and maintains
the track. On some roads the failures at or near the joint are con-
siderable, and it is very probable that that is very largely a condition of
rail laying and maintenance.

Acting Chairman Fairbairn : — The last four or five subjects in the
report are subjects on which no conclusions have been reached, and we
simply offer them as information.

Mr. C. W. Gennet, Jr.: — As one who is continually brought into
very close contact with the rolling of steel rails, and frequently with
their later use, I feel that some observations of the past year's work may
be opportune. In general, the year's work at the various mills has not
shown any marked variation from the customary practice employed for
several years. Production was low, one mill rolling no rails at all, four
others contributing only a small tonnage, and the remaining eight of the
United States and Canada rolling at a rate much reduced from normal.
Such operations do not, in my judgment, bespeak for the best of quality,
for slow operation generally means intermittent rolling with much idle
time and gives, therefore, opportunity for the workmen to get out of
condition and perhaps become careless, while the effect of interruptions
on some of the processes and machinery may easily result in bad quality.
As a rule, the best results may be expected when the mills are rolling
steadily, with the various details running smoothly with clock-like pre-
cision.

Perhaps the most curious fact apparent at the mills is their loathness
to adopt any special means aiming toward the casting of sounder ingots.
It is practically agreed that the segregated and physically unsound steel
occurring in the top part of the ingots is the direct cause of virtually half
of the troubles occurring .with rails in service, for split, crushed, flowed,
and mashed heads are mostly confined to "A" or top rails from ingots.
The number of "A" rails constitute, roughly, fifteen per cent, of all that
are rolled and, while they all bear a mark of suspicion, still their price is
the same as for the less doubtful rails. It required about 2,500,000 tons
of ingots last year to produce the 2,000,000 tons of rails rolled. Roughly
speaking, ten per cent, of the difference represents the loss due to top
discard, a loss having scrap value only and amounting to something like
?750,000. If, by as simple a means as casting ingots with their big ends
up, the top discard could have been reduced from ten per cent, to seven
per cent., there would have been 15,000 tons more ingot metal available
for other purposes and a saving of some $200,000 made in the loss due to
top discard. Apparently, therefore, an increased yield to the mills of about
$700,000, or nearly 30 cents per ton of ingot metal, would have followed

Discussion. 989

the adoption of such a plan and been available to pay for the alterations
necessar}^ while at the same time the quality of the "A" rails would have
been greatly enhanced. Casting ingots with their large ends up has been
successfully practiced on a small scale and it is surprising that the process
is not extended and made common use of with so important a product
as rails.

Several mills have recently widened the distance between the sup-
ports in the cold straightening presses and as much as 60 inches, instead
of 42 inches, is now being used. Needless to say, the results are favorable
and it is to be hoped that the practice will be adopted at all the mills and
the punishment of the rails in the damaging process of straightening thus
reduced.

A continued source of difficulty at most mills is the inability to make
every heat of open-hearth steel analyze within the limits of the chemical
composition specified for the particular order being worked. Frequently
whole heats in the form of ingots or blooms have to be temporarily set
aside to be later reheated and rolled on orders which their composition
fits. Such cases invariably give rise to an increased number of flawed
rails and the practice is manifestly unsatisfactory. Carbon is one of the
chief causes of this trouble, and it would be extremely desirable to agree
on a common standard to cover the carbon content of all rail steel and
thus assist in eliminating a constant annoyance, the cause of which is of
more detriment than benefit to the railroads.

It is w^orth noting that the Bureau of Standards, with a committee of
the American Society for Testing Materials, is hard at work on a report
covering conditions with respect to ladle test ingots. This important mat-
ter has been allowed to drag too long and the final adoption of a stand-
ardized ladle test ingot, with the insistance that the prescribed methods
for conducting the chemical analysis must be followed, will assist ma-
terially in assuring that the steel from one mill is entirely comparable in
composition with that from another.

It is difficult to say what specifications for rails are the most com-
monly used. Definite figures would probably show that the Manufacturer's
Standard had been used on the largest tonnage ; and following then would
come the A.R.E.A. of 1915, often with modifications making it virtually
that of the A.S.T.M. ; and finally several others of the individual rail-
roads. Practically all these specifications contain the clause governing
ductility which requires that the drop test pieces show at least five per
cent, elongation in two inches, or six per cent, in one inch. It is interest-
ing to note that our records for the year show only four heats out of
something like 600,000 tons that failed to comply with this seemingly
important specification requirement. The measurements for ductility are
obtained in a slow, inaccurate and expensive manner; reporting the results
is equally laborious and expensive, and it is perfectly evident that no par-
ticular good comes from the requirement as it exists. The amount that
the test piece deflects under the impact of the tup is sufficiently significant

990 Standardization

of certain physical properties to justify respecting it in place of the
doubtful ductility requirements.

The question of interior defects showing at the drop test is important.
The rejections at one mill due to interior defects were approximately ten
times those at another. Such a diversity of results of course indicates a
diversity of practice, and naturally raises again not only the question of
making sound ingots, but also the desirability of treating each ingot as a
unit and testing it accordingly, as was repeatedly, done in war times with
shell steel, and is easily accomplished at the Canadian mills on rails for
that country.

Much of importance could be said with respect to the year's happen-
ings with rails in track. According to the record, head defects constituted
51 per cent, of the total defects, while the report for 1913 showed that
head defects were only about 35 per cent, of the total. No doubt, the in-
creased traffic in the last few years is responsible for the marked increase,
but the fact remains, as previously mentioned, that insufficient pains is
taken to make, first, good sound ingots and, secondly, to thoroughly and
convincingly test them. Internal fisswres in rails — transverse, horizontal,
and compound — constitute to-day the most serious hazard to which rails
are subject. Head defects can be easily detected and such rails removed
from track when desired, and it is well established now that the develop-
ment of certain types of fissures can be detected by careful and painstak-
ing inspection. The known existence of a horizontal fissure is apparently
just suspicion for the presence in the same rail of transverse fissures, the
danger from which is certainly very great. The investigation of sporadic
cases and the experiences of individual roads with fissures has not been
productive of information as to the definite cause of fissures. That re-
mains an open question, as is also the railroad man's problem of how
best to combat them, and these questions, I believe, will remain open until
some positive eflfort is made to collect and coordinate all existing data
covering known cases.

I am not unmindful that a prophet is not without honor save in his
own country, nevertheless I dare to venture the statement that good steel
cast into sound ingots of proper composition, followed by careful treatment
in the soaking pits and rolling mills, may be expected to result in rails
of such quality as to safely withstand, when laid on a roadbed of good
ballast and ties, the heavy wheel loads of traffic for years to come.

DISCUSSION ON STANDARDIZATION

(For report, see pp. 243-246.)

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — The report this year is rather
short; it has been before the members of the convention for some time
and it does not seem to me necessary to read it. Your Committee has no
conclusions to report this year, as its work has not progressed to a point

Discussion, 991

where conclusions could be drawn. It hopes in its next year's work to
be able to formulate some conclusions to present before you at the next
meeting. This report is shown in Bulletin 231, on page 243, and is pre-
sented simply as information, but your attention is called to Exhibit A,
which presents a list of various items which the Committee has suggested
to the Committee on Outline of Work as fit subjects for standardization
by the appropriate committee.

^Ir. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — It would be of as-
sistance to the Committee on Outline of Work and the Board of Direction
if there was some discussion bj^ the Committee itself as to what the work
of the Committee on Standardization should be and how it ought to be
done.

Chairman Frink : — Mr. Yates, I would like to hear from you on this
subject, please.

Mr. J. J. Yates (Central Railroad of New Jersey) : — I have in mind
the necessity of standardizing some articles. I have principally in mind
one subject that is coming up, that has been up before our Association,
that is, membership in the American Engineering Standards Committee.
It is a very important committee for this Society to be represented on,
as there are innumerable questions coming up that will interest the rail-
roads. At the present time we have some voice in that committee, but not
as an Association. Our Standardization Committee has suggested that this
Association become a member so as to have representation in the stand-
ardization of articles that interest railroads.

Chairman Frink: — Mr. Fairbairn, I would like to hear from you.

Mr. J. M. R. Fairbairn (Canadian Pacific) : — I had not expected to
say anything on the subject of standardization to-day at all, but I think
that one of the most important things before the Association to-day is
the question as to whether we are to continue as we have in the past to
recommend practice, or whether we are to establish standards. Unless we
do establish standards and give them all the kudos that they can have,
I doubt if we will ever get the railroads of America to adopt our recom-
mended practice to the same extent that they would if we establish stand-
ards. Further than that, I believe that we should keep ahead of the rail-
roads. We are the people who are experimenting and trying out the vari-
ous devices and articles used in ordinary railway maintenance, consequently
we ought to be the people that have the best experience on the subject, and
we, if anybody, ought to be able to keep ahead of the railroads and estab-
lish standards which can be arrived at if we adopt a spirit of compromise,
not insisting upon what one railroad wants, but compromising upon what
all roads can feel is right. If we can get together and establish standards
on this basis, we are going to have "standards which each railroad, when it
comes to make changes, will adopt. If we do not keep ahead of the
railroads in this matter, we will have to follow some one railroad and
use what it has adopted and is having manufactured for it.

Chairman Frink : — Mr. Katte, may we have a few remarks from you ?

992 Standardization

Mr. Edwin B. Katte (New York Central): — I, too, would speak in
behalf of this Association taking membership in the American Engineer-
ing Standards Committee. That committee is now formed of but four or
five of the National Societies, and it is very desirable that the railroad
interests and railroad engineers should also be represented.

The matter was first brought to attention of our Board of Direction
a year ago, and met with favor at that time, but we have not yet taken
out a membership. A committee of three, I understand, will be appointed
by the President to look further into the matter, and I am sure that after
they have familiarized themselves with the objects and aims of the Ameri-
can Engineering Standards Committee, that our Association will ask to
be represented. Its sole purpose is to unify the requirements of all the
various interests that use jointly one specific object or one specific ma-
terial.

Chairman Frink : — We would like to call on Mr. Ambrose.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals) : — I believe there should
be at least one Bolshevik on the Committee, and I am afraid I am that
one. I do not agree with Mr. Katte at all. I think our Association is
strong enough and able enough to stand upon its own feet.

Surely we know at least as much (or should know as much) about
railroad work as some standardization committee made up of various
members from all .branches of the technical world, and I think this Asso-
ciation should handle and look after its own standards. I feel that the
time has arrived when we should have standards, but it seems to me, the
fact that this Association prepares a standard does not necessarily mean
it will be used by the various roads ; but if the Association could work
in conjunction with the American Railway Association, and have the stamp
of their approval on any standard we pass, it would seem then that it
would be imperative that the standard be used. We all know that the
standardization of any article in railroad service spells economy and that
economy is the object we all want to attain.

Mr. Katte : — Mr. Ambrose has paid me the compliment of disagreeing
with me, so perhaps I may be permitted to speak a little further. I think
that the American Engineering Standards Committee wants this Associa-
tion to join with them, because it is the recognized authority for all Rail-
road Standards. I do not think that there would be a dissenting voice,
nor do I think any other members of the Standards Committee would
care to criticize the specifications of this Association for rails, track
.spikes or other purely railway materials, but there are other articles which
we employ largely, and which arc also employed to an even greater extent
by the other interests. For instance, the specification which we adopted
yesterday for insulated wires and cables. The railroads of the country
use a great many thousand dollars' worth of insulated wires and cables
in a year, but that is only a very small part of the insulated wires and
cables used throughout the country by the Edison companies and local
lighting companies, traction companies, and for miscellaneous electrical

Discussion. 993

installations. Now, if we can standardize on a half a dozen different
kinds of insulated wires and cables, the cost to the railroads and to the
Edison companies and to the other companies will be materially reduced.

DISCUSSION ON UNIFORM GENERAL CONTRACT

FORMS

(For report, see pp. 247-266.)

(Vice-President Campbell in the Chair.)

(In the absence of the Chairman, Mr. W. D. Faucette, the Vice-Chair-
man, Mr. C. A. Wilson, presented the report.)

Vice-Chairman Wilson: — There were three subjects assigned to the
Committee for attention this year. The first is "Make thorough examina-
tion of the subject-matter in the Manual and submit definite recommenda-
tions for changes." This subject was handled by a sub-committee, of
which Mr. Clark Dillenbeck is chairman, and Mr. Dillenbeck will present
this to the Convention.

Mr. Clark Dillenbeck (Philadelphia & Reading) :— The Committee
has carefully gone over the Manual and made recommendations for cer-
tain changes as here shown. The first is "Construction Contract Forms."
We propose that the heading be changed to "Form of Construction Con-
tract." In going over the Manual we noticed that the headings varied
very much and it was the thought of the Committee it would be well to
make them uniform.

With reference to Form of Proposal, page 655, it is recommended
that this be placed to precede "(A) Agreement." It appeared to the
Committee that this one page in the form is out of place and should be
placed preceding the "(A) Agreement."

The next suggestion is Section 30, page 661, change heading and
the first paragraph. It is proposed to change the heading to read "Land
of Company, Use of, by Contractor." And there is a new proposed form
under this heading.

Section 32, page 662, has reference to the annulment of contract and
the present reading of it is that the contractor shall be paid for the work
annulled. We simply change the reading of the last three lines and say
that "payments shall be made for work done on such portion so aban-
doned, as provided in Section 38 of this contract."

Section 34, page 663, it is simply suggested to omit the words "30
days" from the second and third lines. Under the present reading after
a contract has been annulled, the contractor would be permitted to con-
tinue the work for 30 days, and it is the thought of the Committee that
it is frequently the case when contracts are annulled, work must be
stopped at once.

• On page 666, change the heading "Bond" to "Form of Bond."

In Bulletin 189 no change is recommended.

994 Uniform General Contract Forms.

In Bulletin 207, "Industrial Track Agreement," pp. 103 to 107, change
the heading to read "Form of Industry Track Agreement." The Com-
mittee realizes that changes are necessary in the form and regrets that
definite recommendations must be postponed to a later date. The prin-
cipal reason for this is that the matter was under consideration by the
Corporate Engineers. I believe they had reported to the executives, and
their report had not been approved, and also the Freight Traffic Depart-
ment were expecting an order from the I.C.C. With these things staring
us in the face, we did not see that we could properly go ahead and correct
this agreement.

On pages 109 to 115, Agreement for Interlocking Plant, change the
heading to read : "Form of Agreement for Interlocking Plant," and omit
the whole of Section 9, Wage Rates, page 113.

Owing to the present rules of the Labor Board we thought that it was
not compatible with present practice.

In Bulletin 217, Agreement for Grade Crossings, change the heading
to read : "Form of Agreement for Crossing of Railroads at Grade." The
present heading simply reads : "Agreement for Grade Crossings," and
grade crossings are generally spoken of as highway crossings, and it was
the thought of the Committee we had better change it as noted. We
also suggest omitting the first note which refers to federal control, and
change the words "Grade Crossing" to "Railroad Crossing at Grade" in
second note under "Whereas," second line, and in Section 3, page 42, under
"Construction," second line.

The Committee recommends that the above changes in the Manual
be approved and that when the Manual is reprinted the changes be in-
corporated therein.

(Motion was duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Vice-Chairman Wilson: — The second subject is "(2) Report on forms
of agreement embodying rules governing the construction of undercross-
ing of railways with electrical conductors, conduits, pipe lines and drains,
conferring with Committee on Roadway and Electricity." This will be
presented by Mr. J. C. Irwin.

Mr. J. C. Irwin (Boston & Albany) : — The suli-committee on the prep-
aration of this form collected a large number of agreements used by
American railroads and of course found a great diversity of practice in
the majority of these cases. The specification formed part of the license
for wires, pipes, conduits and drains on railroad property, but in some
there are other forms of license which seem to better apply to this par-
ticular case, and the Committee proceeded on that basis. At the same
time we also bore in mind that a paper of this character could be used
to advantage for all conduits and wires and pipes on the railroad property,
whether they passed under the railroad or not, and the proposed license,
as we call it, which was prepared would cover such cases as well as tlie
cases of lines crossing under the railroad.

Discussion. 995

This suggested agreement is found on pages 254 and 255 of Bulletin
22>2, and it is presented in tentative form. This is the first time it has
been brought before the convention, and while we believe it is approxi-
mately correct, it is submitted for discussion — merely as information,
with the request that it be laid over until next year for final action.

Vice-President Campbell: — If there are no objections, this subject
will be left with the Committee for further study and report. The Com-
mittee invites written criticism by the membership during the year.

(Vice-Chairman Wilson read (3) Lease Agreement for Industrial
Site, page 248 and 249, and (3) on page 249 under "Conclusions.")

Vice-Chairman Wilson : — I move this recommendation be adopted.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Vice-Chairman Wilson : — The recommendations for further work
are of course merely tentative, and contain probably more suggestion than
will be adopted by the Committee of the Board of Direction, but it was
intended, I suppose, largely for their assistance, and to pick out what they
want us to do in the future.

At the request of the Chairman of the Standardization Committee,
the Chairman sent a questionnaire relative to the work that has been
done, and as to its being satisfactory^, and those answers are shown in
Appendix D.

That closes the report of the Committee to the convention.

DISCUSSION ON SIGNS, FENCES AND CROSSINGS

(For report, see pp. 267-314.)

Mr. Arthur Crumpton (Grand Trunk) : — The report of the Com-
mittee will be found in Bulletin 232, on page 267, and the reports upon the
subjects assigned by the Association will be presented by the Chairmen
of the sub-committees which conducted the studies and prepared the
reports.

The first subject assigned to the Committee was Revision of the
Manual. In Appendix A the Committee submits proposed changes in the
Manual, together with the reasons therefor, and I will ask Mr. Rust, Chair-
man, to present the report.

Mr. T. E. Rust (Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern) :— Your Com-
mittee, somewhat against its inclination, has recommended quite a number
of changes in the Manual.

We hesitated to do this, but after carefully studying the matter we
felt it was necessary. We did not pay any attention to the subject of
signs, which was being handled by another sub-committee, but we left it
to them to suggest what changes they thought proper in the Manual as far
as signs were concerned.

(Mr. Rust submitted Appendix A, abstracting pages 269, 270 and
271, and said) :

996 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

All reference to concrete line posts covered by paragraphs 10, 11, 12
and 13, of the specification now appearing in the Manual, we recommend
should be omitted, because the specifications for these concrete line posts
were largely amended by the conclusions adopted by the Association in
1918. We also felt that a fence with concrete line posts would require
entirely different specifications, and that all reference to concrete posts
should be left out of this specification for fence with wooden posts.

The Committee recommends that the two paragraphs on page 303
of the Manual headed "Galvanized Wire Fencing" be omitted.

In the first place, they are rather conflicting. In- one case they say
that an electrically welded fence should be regalvanized after fabrication,
and in the second place they say it should be galvanized after fabrica-
tion. The second paragraph also says that only wire of the specification
of the Association should be used in the fences. That part of it, it seems
to me, is entirely unnecessary. The adoption of the specification carries
with it the recommendation that it should be used.

As to the regalvanizing of woven wire fencing, it is felt that this is
impractical. We have received communications from some of the prin-
cipal manufacturers of woven wire fencing, and they state a number of
excellent reasons why this specification cannot be followed. In the first
place, when the wire is to be coated with spelter, it is drawn through the
bath at such a speed that it will acquire the temperature of the spelter
before it leaves the bath. If that is done, obviously the spelter which
is first put on the wire will be melted off during its second progress
through the bath, and no more spelter will remain on the wire than
remained after the first immersion. In the second place, metal which has
been exposed to the atmosphere even for a few moments slightly oxidizes,
and in order to be properly coated with zinc, it is necessary that it should
be chemically clean. There is no known method of chemically cleaning
wire after it has been once zinc-coated so that it will take a second zinc
coat.

As to galvanizing after fabrication, I think that if the members will
consider what the results would be, even if such a process were practical,
they would not desire to have a fence that had been galvanized after
fabrication. Large knots of spelter would unquestionably accumulate at
the junction of the wires, and when the fence was unrolled for stretching,
they would break off, and portions of the original metal would be exposed.
At the present time there are no facilities in the United States for gal-
vanizing woven wire fencing, so far as this Committee has been able to
discover; the principal manufacturers say that they have no machinery
for doing it.

Unless the Association has some criticisms or comments to the cut-
ting out of these two paragraphs, I will pass on to some of the other
recommendations of the Committee.

(Mr. Rust read (4) and (5), page 272.)

We had a good illustration of that yesterday when the Committee on
Track was making its report. They had a sub-committee, which was

Discussion. 997

studying flangeways for straight and curved track on crossings, and they
were apparently entirely unaware that these dimensions for flangeways
had already been adopted by the Association.

I believe that that closes the work of this Sub-Committee.

Chairman Crumpton : — I may say in connection with this subject, that
the changes, which are rather drastic, call for the elimination of some of
the articles and a revision of the specifications for Standard Right-of-Way
Fences in order to harmonize the material appearing in the Manual. With
that in view I move the adoption of the Committee's conclusions.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

(Chairman Crumpton read subject (2), Signs, page 267.)

Chairman Crumpton : — The report of the Committee will be found
in Appendix B, and I will ask Mr. Batchellor to present it. Mr. Edmond-
son is Chairman of the Sub-Committee, but he was unavoidably prevented
from being present.

(Mr. Batchellor submitted Appendix B.)

Chairman Crumpton: — I may say in connection with this subject that
the question of signs has been up for quite a number of years, and the
Committee from time to time has recommended individual signs. This
year they attempted to cover the whole field, and feel that the signs that
have been referred to this morning, together with those that have been
recommended by this Committee before, and also those that were recom-
mended by the Signal Committee and adopted, will practically .cover the
field of roadway signs. You probably will notice that some signs are
missing. It was felt that any that are omitted were of minor importance,
and could be dealt with better by each road individually. The Committee
has endeavored to provide standards for all the signs which it felt would
be necessary in the operation of a railway.

The Committee moves the adoption of its recommendation in connec-
tion with this subject, which will be found on page 268.

Mr. G. A. Mountain (Canadian Railway Commission) : — I would like
to ask the Committee why they omit the private crossing signs? My ex-
perience is that they are very important.

Chairman Crumpton : — One of the reasons that sign was omitted is
that we found the practice on the different roads in the country, both in the
United States and Canada, varied so much that we thought it was prac-
tically impossible to get anything that would meet the conditions. On
some roads they hang up a small sign on the crossing gate and on others
a sign similar to the large highway crossing sign is used. Between these
two extremes there are all kinds of signs used and on many roads private
crossings are not marked by a sign at all. We felt it was a matter that
involved considerable expense to the railroads, not, of course, that the
expense should be considered unduly, and inasmuch as most of the roads
seem to get along without these signs, and those that did use them used
them of all kinds, the conclusion of the Committee was that we had bet-
ter leave the matter alone and let each road do as it chose.

998 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

Mr. Hadley Baldwin (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : —
I notice that the Committee recommends a sign for the beginning and
end of the double track similar to the sign for the end of a block. The
signal is different, and I wonder why they recommend the same kind of
sign. They should be distinct, it seems to me.

Chairman Crumpton : — Some time ago the question of signs was
brought up and they were divided into two classes — one for the guidance
of the enginemen and those having to do with the operation of the road,
and the other class for the information of the employees. Those used in
connection with the operation of the road were considered the more im-
portant and they were dealt with by the Signal Committee, which adopted
very distinctive designs, as you will remember. There was a very distinctive
design for each kind — the stop sign had the arm horizontal, while the arm
of the caution sign was thrown up at an angle. This Committee was of
the opinion that these signs should be given great prominence, but that
the balance of the signs, those used for conveying information, should be
comparatively inconspicuous, and one form of small sign was adopted
for information purposes. This sign was used as much as possible with-
out any variation, the idea being to save expense and throw into promi-
nence the signs having to do with the movement of trains.

Mr. John V. Hanna (Kansas City Terminals) : — As to the use of the
2^/2 in. wrought-iron rod provided in some of these signs, I ask whether
the Committee has tried to work out a concrete rod for that purpose, and
if so, what difficulties they found?

Chairman Crumpton : — As to the question of the 25/2-in. pipes, all rail-
roaders learn to use the thing that comes to hand, and on every railroad
there are a great many old boiler tubes on hand. In getting up the stand-
ard for information signs it was found that a great many roads used
pipes, and as they were as cheap and handy to get as anything else, the
Committee carried on that idea, and it was approved by the Association
some years ago. The matter was gone into pretty thoroughly at the time,
and the conclusion reached by the Committee dealing with it, after taking
everything into account, that the old boiler tubes and in some cases pos-
sibly new boiler tubes were as good as anything that could be used.

Mr. John B. Hunley (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : —
I note that the valuation section sign is a cast-iron sign, and the section
post and the sub-division section post, which are practically the same, are
of steel plates. I am wondering why that difference was made. Of
course, the section posts will be moved more frequently than the valuation
section signs, and may be considered as of a less permanent nature, but,
on the other hand, when they are moved they will be used again, and used
until they are worn out. A cast-iron sign would be more expensive, and
I did not understand the significance of the use of different materials.

Mr. F. D. Batchellor (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I have not anything spe-
cial to say on that, other than that we took into consideration that the val-
uation sign was more permanent and not so frequently used as a section

Discussion. 999

sign. On a great many railroads there would be very few valuation signs,
and a lot of section signs, and a valuation sign was of a more permanent
nature to cover those roads which might want to establish that practice.

Mr. Hunley: — That is true, but on the other hand the section signs,
even if they are moved, will undoubtedly be used until they are worn out.
The only reason for it that I can see is that with the cast letters it is
absolutely permanent and fixed. I wondered what the idea of the Com-
mittee was in recommending this?

Chairman Crumpton : — The Chairman of the Sub-Committee is not
here, and that is a detail I do not know about. I know that the Committee
felt these valuation signs were permanent, and therefore should be put
up once for all ; this applies also to the section signs.

Mr. Hadley Baldwin : — Is it part of the recommendation of the Com-
mittee that mileposts carry the numbers in both directions?

Chairman Crumpton : — The Committee discussed that matter and got
information as to how mileposts should be numbered, and this is given
merely as an illustration. It seemed to the Committee that question should
be settled, that is, roads should number from one terminal right through,
and omit the double number. At a matter of fact since the question of
valuation has come into prominence this double numbering is leading to
trouble, and I know of one railroad on which they have done away with
it and changed from the double numbering, returning to the single number-
ing, to meet the valuation conditions and save confusion.

The Committee considered the matter, but so many roads have differ-
ent practices, it was practically dropped, as far as this report is concerned,
and we showed the mileposts following the ordinary practice. The designs
are therefore merely illustrative and not mandatory.

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — I ask if the Committee has
developed any way of permanently marking the concrete posts and con-
crete signs?

Chairman Crumpton: — You mean in the way of coloring it black?
An indentation is made; the letters are indented.

Mr. Frink : — The ordinary wooden post has to be painted periodically.
Has the Committee developed any permanent marking for the concrete
posts that will not have to be renewed?

Chairman Crumpton: — It is indented and the indentation blackened;
it lasts a long time, but in the course of years it will have to be touched
up, that is all. It lasts quite a long time, because it is more or less pro-
tected, being indented.

The third assignment to the Committee was "on Grade Crossings,
Crossing Gates, Crossing Signal Bells, Warning Signals." This matter
was assigned to a Sub-Committee, of which Mr. Maro Johnson is Chair-
man.

Mr. Maro Johnson (Illinois Central) : — A summary of the require-
ments and of practice of the various states and Canada pertaining to
width of roadway, grade of approach, etc., so far as the Committee has

1000 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

been able to obtain them, is given beginning on page 288. This matter
should have been printed following the specifications on p^ge 287, and
preceding the subject of Crossing Gates. The Committee is responsible
for the misarrangement.

For highways where the requirements arc not stipulated by law, the
following specifications, which it is believed will provide an adequate
crossing, are presented as information with a view to their consideration
at a later date for insertion in the Manual. These specifications are
presented with the idea of bringing out the views of the members, and
the Committee will welcome suggestions, either oral or written.

The Committee wishes to call attention to the opportunity for re-
ducing the number of grade crossings by judicious cooperation with state
authorities in the re-location of existing highways, and especially at this
time in which the improvement of highways has taken hold of the entire
country.

In correspondence with highway officials, this matter was brought out
several times. As illustrating this feeling, I would like to read two or
three paragraphs of a letter received from one State Highway Depart-
ment :

"The Department, as far as possible, is eliminating grade crossings,
and, as an example, on one proposed project the old traveled road now has
six grade crossings within 24 miles, and the new location will have but
one, which it is impossible to cut out, as the railroad travels the state
north and south, while the highways run east and west.

"If you will permit the suggestion, I think a little closer cooperation
of the railroad authorities and the highway officials would tend to much
greater good in the location of highways, and where grade crossings are
eliminated possibly at an increased cost to the construction of the road,
the company in my opinion should be willing to show some favor to the
county or state in return. For instance, on one of our projects where
two grade crossings were cut out, it was found that in another place our
roadbed extended some ten feet over on the railroad right-of-way. The
right-of-way was not marked and the encroachment was not intentional
on the part of the Department. The roadbed was completed, and upon
taking the matter up with the Superintendent, he recommended to the
headquarters that an easement should be granted, but headquarters re-
fused, resulting in the Department having to relocate and regrade about
1,000 feet of roadbed.

"I am giving this just as an instance, and while I know that the
elimination of even one grade crossings may save many lives, and is
primarily to the interest of those traveling the highway, yet it is of vast
importance to railroad companies, and there will be numerous cases where
the companies can well af?ord to contribute a few feet of unused right-of-
way in return for the elimination of one or more grade crossings."

The Committee is not informed as to the merits of this particular
case, and presents it as an example. I might say that the State of Wis-
consin has already given consideration to this feature and empowered
the Public Service Commission to assess railroad companies for benefits,
where grade crossings are eliminated by relocation of the highways.

The matter pertaining to crossing gates, warning signals and bells is.
given on page 287. It is quite general in its nature and is presented as

Discussion. 1001

information. The Committee has not made definite recommendations on
this subject.

The information presented at the 1918 convention pertaining to the
laws of the various states affecting grade separation and the apportion-
ment of cost of such projects has been revised and is printed beginning on
page 291. A bibliography on this subject, prepared by the Engineering
Societies Library, appears on page 303.

Mr. C. E. Johnston (Kansas City Southern) : — It seems to me that
part of the report just read is a very important one, and something in
which the members of this Association can accomplish a great deal if or-
ganized in some manner to investigate new road projects and ascertain
in advance where grade crossings might be ehminated.

Taking our own section, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Louisiana and
Texas, they are very active in road building, and while we have not ar-
ranged to meet the Commissions in each of the districts, we have been
able to find cases where we can bring about grade separation at very low
costs, in some cases probably as cheaply as^ in the crossing of the old
route.

If in many cases the management of these lines were advised of
points where the roads might be changed, even with little additional cost
to the railroads, it would mean saving to the lines. As far as we are con-
cerned, it has put an idea into my mind to canvas the entire territory
to see where we can eliminate grade crossings.

Mr. Mountain : — Is it meant, in connection with the matter on page
287, that where a flagman is on duty, bells should not be installed? Our
experience is, where we have a fairly heavily traveled route, somewhat
dangerous, more particularly traveled in the daytime, we have found it
advantageous to put a watchman on and also install a bell. The bell is
cut out during the daytime and it is cut in by the watchman for use at
night, when the travel is not so heavy as in the daytime. I wonder if the
Committee has given that consideration. It has worked all right in our
case.

Mr. Maro Johnson : — I think that is the situation the Committee has
in mind. Mr. Mountain states the bell is cut out when the flagman is on
duty, and that corresponds with our view of the matter — that the bell and
the flagman should not be there at the same time.

Mr. Mountain : — The wording says that the bell should not be in-
stalled.

Mr. Maro Johnson : — That conveys the wrong idea.

Mr. Mountain : — In connection with page 288, paragraph 2, it says :
"On double track lines operation of warning devices is usually in the
normal direction only." I would like to ask the Committee if they will
give consideration to that. Our view of it is that for wigwags and bells
the bonding should be in both directions against the current of traflic, and
there you are in a very dangerous position. You are operating a bell in
the direction of traffic. You are operating against the traffic and there

1002 Signs, Fences and Crossings.

is no warning there at all. It seems to me if anybody is injured under
those circumstances, you are absolutely out of court.

Mr. Maro Johnson : — The Committee found this was the practice on a
number of railroads and followed that suggestion with the assumption
that traffic in opposite directions is protected by a flag.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) : — I desire to
congratulate the Committee, especially on that part of the report, Ap-
pendix C, which contains an abstract of recent legislation with reference
to grade crossing elimination, and more especially to the reference per-
taining to the apportioning of the cost between municipalities, states and
railroads. I recently had occasion to read into the records of a committee
hearing of one of our state legislatures, portions of this report, which
showed the trend of recent legislation in respect to the apportionment of
the cost of grade separation between the public and the railroads. The
trend of recent legislation in requiring a portion of these costs to be as-
sumed by the public is very clearly brought out in the Committee's sum-
mary, and is very gratifying.

The Chairman has referred to a recent law in Wisconsin. I assume
that he referred to that law which provides that whenever a highway is
relocated so as to divert the travel from a railroad grade crossing, or
where the grade crossing is ehminated by the separation of grades, that
the Railroad Commission may apportion to the railroad such proportion of
the cost of the improvement as would represent the capitalization of the
protection which the railroad might be required to provide. That law has,
in some cases, worked out very unfairly to the railroads, in that it has
placed on them the entire cost of a highway improvement, and has left
the highway authorities with a very much improved highway at little or
no cost. The fair and equitable apportionment of the cost of highway
grade separation between the railroads and the public, as represented by
the town, county, municipality or state, one or more, is one of very great
importance and one that the railroads should keep in close touch with.
A spirit of fairness in dividing the costs of improvements of this nature
results not only in a larger number of grade crossings being eliminated,
but in the improvements being much more satisfactorily made, especially
from the standpoint of the public.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) :— In the matter of
cooperation between the railroad and the community on the question of
cost of grade separation, the members of this Association can render
a useful and just service in their several communities, where this subject
is under consideration, by a presentation of the mutual interest and joint
obligation existing between the railway and the community.

As a rule, the railway alone is not responsible for the grade separation
problem. Generally the communities have built up around the railways
after the latter were built, thereby creating the major part of the problem.
It is quite proper that the community should assume its part of the re-
sponsibility. The railway property should not bear the total cost.

Discussion. 1003

Every member here doubtless has in mind communities along the line
of his railway where the growth of the community around the railway
has created a multiplicity of grade crossings that did not exist when the
railway was constructed.

I believe that eventually the community will understand its responsi-
bility and obligation and will to a considerable extent participate in an
equitable distribution of cost, provided it is made to comprehend the
mutual interest and obligation existing.

DISCUSSION ON TIES

(For report, see pp. 315-374.)

Mr. F. R. Layng (Bessemer & Lake Erie) : — The report will be found
in Bulletin 232, starting with page 315. The first subject to be presented
will be the revision of the Manual, which will be presented by Mr. Foley,
Chairman of the Sub-Committee.

Mr. John Foley (Pennsylvania System) : — On pages 317 to 319 are
the recommendations of the Committee on Ties for the revision of the
definitions in the Manual ; mostly additions, but several corrections, and
some omissions.

Chairman Layng: — I move, Mr. President, that that portion of the
revision of Manual, shown under Appendix A, on pages 317, 318 and 319,
down to "Specifications" be adopted for printing in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Mr. Foley : — On pages 320 to 323 is summarized the material gathered
by the Committee on Ties in its consideration of a specification for cross-
ties. The recommendations based on a study of past and present stand-
ards and of the present and prospective requirements are on pages 328
to 332. This specification for cross-ties is in the standard form prescribed
by the Board of Direction, and the consequent slight rearrangement of
its matter makes the specification seem somewhat unfamiliar at first
glance.

(Mr. Foley then read the chapter and paragraph headings, pausing
after each long enough for comments or queries to be made, and said
in reference to "Inspection") :

This whole chapter is a departure in a specification for cross-ties,
but it is the judgment of the Committee on Ties that it is a development
which improves the specification very much. It brings to the manufactur-
ers as well as to the railroad the standard practices which have been
evolved to govern tie inspectors and which have been successfully tried
out during recent years.

The Committee on Ties desires to substitute for the last and the
fourth last paragraph under "Inspection" the following:

"The lengths, thicknesses, and widths specified are minimum dimen-
sions. Ties over 1 in. and under 2 in. more in tnickness than the maxi-

1004 Ties.

mum specified will be accepted as one grade below the largest tie speci-
fied. Those 2 in. to 3 in. more in thickness than the maximum specified
will be accepted as two grades below the largest tie specified. Those over
3 in. more in thickness or width or over 2 in. more in length than the
maximum specified will be rejected. Ties will be graded up by their
smaller ends and graded down by their larger ends. The dimensions
of the tie will not be averaged."

The combining and recasting of these paragraphs do not alter the
effect of the specification as it was printed. The change not only expresses
our meaning more clearly; but makes it possible to apply the degrading
rules to ties purchased by a railroad which objects to sizes larger than
Grade 3. As the rules were printed originallj^ a railroad that desired
ties no larger than Grade 3 or Grade 4, could not apply them without
alterations.

On page 331 is the chapter covering "Delivery;" on page 332 that
covering "Shipment."

Mr. F, J. Angier (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I would like to ask the Com-
mittee if they have any objection to changing some ties from group T-c
to group T-d? I ask this because we classify gum with the softer ties.

Mr. Foley : — Are you speaking for the Committee on Wood Preserva-
tion? Have they considered the matter and do they recommend a change?

Mr. Angier : — I do not know that they have considered it, but from
our treating standpoint it would be a very good change to make.

Mi^. Foley : — The Committee on Ties thinks that if changes are needed
in the groups of ties which have been standard for several years, the
Committee on Wood Preservation would have studied the subject and
acquainted us with their opinions. Since they have not done so, we believe
the groups which have prevailed should continue.

Mr. W. G. Arn (Illinois Central) : — In the paragraph on resistance
to wear, I would like to ask what we are to do in the case where a rail-
road uses loblolly and woods of that kind — where they are used quite
extensively.

Mr. Foley: — The specification does not bar the acceptance of any tie
that any railroad might believe it can use for some purpose, whether un-
sound, small, sappy, or of coarse wood. It provides a designation for
each character and size of tie. Ties of coarse wood are identified and
distinguished for the benefit of the railroads which desire to use them
as much as for the benefit of those wishing to use ties of compact wood
only. In restricted localities a railroad may have to order ties of coarse
wood to get a sufficient local supply, which is not to the discredit of
either the forest or the railroad, but as a general proposition there is no
justification for fear that the requirement for resistance to wear will
curtail the supply. Ties otherwise fit for acceptance which do not meet
the revised rule for compact wood are not common throughout the coun-
try.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) : — Under the
heading "Kinds of Wood," it would seem to answer the same purpose

^___ Discussion. 1005

as the present wording and to make the specifications much more definite
and exphcit if for the first two fines the following were substituted:
"Cross-ties of the following kinds of wood will be accepted." Each par-
ticular railroad would tlien include the kinds of wood it would accept
for ties.

Mr. Foley: — The Committee on Ties regard its recommended sperifica-
tion for cross-ties as a general one of universal application which will be
widely circulated. 'While each railroad will list in its issue of The stand-
ard specification only the kind or kinds of wood it will purchase in ties,
some railroads buy over extensive territory, often in several sections
producing similar ties, but each used by a given railroad for its supply of
only one kind of wood. The manufacturer of ties who know only that
a certain railroad uses ties of woods that he can cut might begin the
production of them and end by finding some of his trees are not saleable
when converted into ties because the railroad he had in mind gets a full
supply elsewhere. Our aim in the expressions with which the chapters
"Kinds of Wood" and "Dimensions" are opened is to have makers of
ties first find out from railroads what the latter desire in individual cases,
and thus avoid disappointment and dissatisfaction.

Mr. E. A. Erink (Seaboard Air Line) : — Mr. President, I would like
to call to the attention of the Committee that we have this year presented
to us three specifications for ties ; this present one ; Committee on
Wooden Bridges and Trestles (on page 527 of Bulletin 233), Bridge Ties,
and on page 513, Sawn Ties and Guard Rails. It seems to me that these
specifications should be made to harmonize before they are presented.

Chairrr^n Layng : — The Committee felt it was certainly not the
province of the Committee on Wooden Bridges to present specifications
for either cross-ties or switch-ties. We feel that it is the duty of the Tie
Committee to handle that, and if they have presented a specification, we
feel that they should withdraw it.

Mr. Eoley : — On pages 332 to 335 is summarized the material gathered
by the Committee on Ties in its consideration of a specification for switch-
ties.

Since switch-ties are used as are cross-ties, we believe the specifica-
tion for one should correspond with that for the other as far as possible.
This principle prevailed in the adoption of the existing standard in 1916.
The revision we recommend follows the standard form for a .specification
prescribed by the Board of Direction.

(Mr. Eoley then read the chapter and paragraph headings, pausing
after each long enough for comments or queries to be made, and said in
reference to "Design") :

The bills of material for sets of switch-ties are omitted this year
because the Committee desires more time to consider the variations in
length which prevail under present practices. A study of the data in
Table 2 and of the standard plans for frogs and switches by the Com-

1006 Iron and Steel Structures.

mittee on Track which were adopted last year should make possible ac-
ceptable standard bills of material for switch-ties.

Chairman Layng: — Mr. President, I move the adoption of the specifi-
cation for cross-ties and the specification for switch-ties for printing in
the Manual.

(The motion was duly seconded, put to a vote and carried.)

Chairman Layng: — The next subject assigned to the Committee on
which to report this year is shown in Appendix B, page 336, and will be
presented by Mr. W. A. Clark, Chairman of the Sub-Committee.

Mr. W. A. Clark (Duluth & Iron Range) : — A year ago the Associa-
tion approved of the test section method of collecting data on the life
of cross-ties. This Committee was asked to report on methods of install-
ing and keeping records of test sections. It developed from the informa-
tion received by the Committee that while many roads have installed test
sections, there is no uniform method adopted for installing or keeping
the records. With a view of promoting uniformity, the Committee had
formulated the recommendations found on pages 337 and 338. The Com-
mittee would be glad to have recommendations and criticisms of these
forms with the idea in mind that if desired they could be revised and
presented next year for printing in the Manual.

Mr. Angier : — I would like to suggest that in Form No. 1, page 339,
they leave a line for the average annual rainfall. It seems to me this is
a factor that should be considered in any test tie section.

The President : — The Committee say they will take that suggestion
under consideration.

Chairman Layng: — Appendix C, page 341, in the absence of Mr. Bur-
ton, Chairman of this Sub-Committee, will be presented by Mr. Palmer.

(Appendix C was abstracted by Mr. Palmer.)

Chairman Layng: — Appendix D will be presented by Mr. Riegler,
Chairman of the Sub-Committee.

Mr. L. J. Riegler (Pennsylvania System) : — This report is the usual
one on the experience of the railways with substitute ties under
tests. Following the policy adopted by the Tie Committee some years ago,
this does not disclose new inventions of ties, but is limited entirely to the
ties under test on the different railroads. It is presented as a matter of
information.

DISCUSSION ON IRON AND STEEL STRUCTURES

(For report, see pp. 375-404.)
Mr. O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : —
(Mr. Selby presented (1) Revision of the Manual on page 376.) You
will recognize the distinction between rating existing bridges and the
classification. Rating is figuring the unit stresses and deciding the capacity
of the bridge. The classification is the assembling of the bridges on a
railroad or on a division, together with the classification of the locomo-

Discussion. 1007

tives to be operated, and putting the information in the hands of the
Transportation Department, so that it may be available in assigning loco-
motives to the division, and for operating locomotives and other loads in
emergency. The conclusion on this subject will be taken up later at the
proper point.

(Mr. Selby read (2), (3) and (4) on page 376, and said) :

I want to emphasize this last sentence. It is the biggest subject
and possibl}' the most important after the specifications for steel bridges
that the Committee has ever undertaken. We expect to devote most of
our time this coming year to it, and if we get the right kind of cooperation
from the members of the Association, we hope to be able to make a final
report.

I might say with regret that the loss of our member, Mr. W. H.
Moore, who was Chairman of this Sub-Committee, has also operated to
delay work on this subject.

(Mr. Selby read (6), (7) and (8) on page Zll , and referring to (8)
said) :

On this subject we expect to cooperate with and receive considerable
assistance from the committee of the American Society of Civil En-
gineers appointed recently to prepare specifications for bridges. The duty
of that committee covers the entire subject of bridges. This Committee
is represented on the American Society's committee by three able mem-
bers, and the spirit of cooperation between the associations has been very
gratifying.

Air. Selby read (9) on page Zll , and said) :

This is a new subject, and the Committee is working in cooperation
with the Committee on Electricity. The subject was assigned by the Board
of Direction.

(Mr. Selby read Conclusion (1) on page Zll , and said:)

Before moving the adoption of this conclusion, I want to read some
changes which the Committee agreed at its last meeting to offer at this
convention :

Page 379, Article 3, fourth line, the word "unusual" before "eccentric"
should be moved to a position before the word "secondary."

On page 380, the top of the page, at the end of Article 6, add the
sentence: "Where maximum live load stress is produced by heavy cars
or electric locomotives, impact stresses shall be taken as one-half of those
given by the formula above."

At the bottom of page 380, in the definition of the small letter "1,"
the words "in inches" should be inserted after "length."

The next to the last line on page 380 should read : "b equals flange
width in inches."

On page 381, Article 11, has two insertions. I will read the whole
article as it should read: "In members subject to stresses produced by a
combination of dead load, live load, impact, cenlrifug^d force, and eccentric
application of dead and live load, with lateral forces or bending due to

1008 Iron and Steel Structures.

lateral action, unit stresses 25 per cent, greater than those given in
Article 10 may be followed ; but, in such cases, the unit stresses due wholly
to dead load, live load, impact, centrifugal force, and eccentric application
of dead and live load, shall not exceed those given therein."

At the end of Article 14 add: "When these limits are closely ap-
proached, or when the physical condition of the .structure is not good, it
shall be kept under close inspection as long as it is continued in service."

The purpose of this last addition is to emphasize the fact that it is
not the intention to keep indefinitely in service structures in which these
unit stresses are closely approached. With these changes I move the
adoption of Conclusion No. 1.

Mr. John B. Hunley (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : —
I was particularly sorry that there was not more discussion given after
Bulletin 228 was sent out. To my mind this is really more important than
the specification for designing. There are a good many good specifications
for designing new structures in circulation, but there seem to be varied
ideas as to the rating of old structures.

The rating stresses and designing stresses are not consistent, for in-
stance, for open-hearth steel the designing stress is 16,000, rating stress
26,000, an increase of 62^ per cent. Tension extreme fiber of beams, de-
signing stress 16,000, rating stress 24,000, or 50 per cent, increase. Com-
pression in flange of girders and I beams, rating stress is 87 per cent.

L
higher for a small ratio of — such as 6 and is 100 per cent, higher for

B
L
ratio — = 20. For shear in webs .the rating stress is 80 per cent, higher

B
than the designing stress, jetc. In other words, if we were to design a
bridge for E-60 under our new specifications and rate it to-morrow, we
would find one portion of the span would rate E-90 while the other por-
tions would rate E-120.

It seems to me the permitted stresses are quite high, considering that
even with the best inspection we cannot always find out the true con-
dition of the bridge. We are permitting under this proposed rating
method stresses of 22,000 lb. for axial tension, net section, that is, for
wrought-iron or Bessemer steel.

A good many tests have been made and some that were made at the
Watertown Arsenal, I think in 1888, or at some time when wrought-iron
was in common use, gave the true elastic limit on }i-in. sections as 32,000
lb. and the apparent elastic limit 40,000 lb., and I find that on the 2-in.
sections the elastic limit dropped, as the weight of the section increased,
to 16,500 lb. true elastic limit, and 23,000 lb. apparent elastic limit.

I think we are going pretty far in recommending such high stresses,
particularly in old bridges of wrought-iron and Bessemer steel. It is, to
my mind, practically impossible to determine all the defects of a bridge by
any inspection which will ordinarily be made, and I hope before these are
finally adopted we will have a rather broad discussion of the subject.

Discussion. 1009

Chairman Selby: — I will answer Mr. Hunley's first point in which
he called attention to the inconsistency between the stresses by saying
that in this case the designing stress is the one that is inconsistent and
the proposed rating stress is correct. I will have to admit that the design-
ing stress in Article 48 of the Specifications is too low and is unduly
conservative.

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — This subject the Committee
has handled is possibly the most important one that ever comes before
a Bridge Engineer of a railroad that has any old bridges. It is a sub-
ject that has been discussed by Engineers, not only before this conven-
tion, but among themselves a great many years. It probably calls for the
exercise of more judgment than almost anything else connected with
bridges. Now, these values that the Committee has put forward, as I
read them, seem to me to be about in line with practice of Bridge Engi-
neers whom I have learned to look up to as the heads of their profession,
as men who know better, perhaps, than anyone else what a bridge can
carry. In other words, they are values that have been proven by ex-
perience, by actual use, to be safe and conservative.

At first sight it looks as though a stress of 20,000 lb. on ordinary
iron is too large, but there are a number of factors that come into play
in figuring the safety of carrying capacity of an existing bridge, which
we cannot put down on paper, for which we can find no definite alge-
braic expression. In every structure that is at all well designed, every
part will help out — almost every part will help out another part. We
have all of us seen instances where bridges have carried traffic safely
with a part entirely gone. In. my own experience I have seen a bridge
with the end post broken in two still carry traffic. I will not say that it
carried ordinary traffic, but it carried traffic. I have seen bridges with
the first main diagonal broken in two and still carry traffic. Of course,
we can only explain that by saying that the adjacent parts really carried
the load, but they carried it, and I should be very sorry to see the Com-
mittee reduce these stresses. I think the stresses as the Committee has
put them up are very easily defensible.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) : — I am in
accord with the expressions of the first speaker in this discussion and
do not agree with the remarks which have just been made. The older
bridges with which railroad engineers have to deal with were, in many
cases, not well designed and frequently the material in them is more or
less uncertain in quality. Bridge material was not as good 20 and 30 years
ago as it is to-day, and probably was not as thoroughly inspected and
tested; in some cases there is no record, or at best but a poor record,
of the character of the workmanship and the quality of the material, such
as it was.

In my own practice, I have on occasions found it necessary to carry
in service old structures with unit stresses fully as high, or perhaps higher,
than those recommended by this Committee. Where this has been done, it

1010 Iron and Steel Structures.

has followed careful inspection of the structures and investigations as to
the loads which could safely be imposed, and precautions have been taken
to see that these loads were not exceeded. Such structures have been in-
spected much more frequently and thoroughly than is generally the prac-
tice, and the fact that structures of that character were in service was not
allowed to be overlooked, and preparations were made for the replace-
ment of such structures as quickly as could be.

However, it is not always possible to promptly replace structures
which are overstressed ; it may even be necessary at times to carry them
longer than intended on account of other improvements which may be
pending, such as second track, change of grade or other changes which
would affect the design of the new structure. In our own practice we
have had to guard against a tendency to assume that the structure was
and would continue to render proper service so long as restrictions of
speed and weight of traffic over it were not exceeded. Such a position
would, of course, be wrong, but in a large organization where there might
be many structures in this class, the tendency in this direction is possible
and must be guarded against. For all of these reasons it would seem de-
sirable not to go to the high unit stresses referred to in the Committee's
report, but to specify them somewhat lower so that the structures to
which they apply will not come in the category which should be imme-
diately strengthened or replaced. I realize that the corrections or modifi-
cations that the Committee has just made were with the view of making
it clear that the specifications were not intended to apply to bridges to be
carried indefinitely in service. It seems to me that these do not place
sufficient emphasis on the fact that structures with such high stresses,
notwithstanding additional supervision and inspection, will not be desir-
able structures to retain in service.

Chairman Selby: — It seems to me that Mr. Loweth has answered
himself. The addition to Article 14, which I read, and which Mr. Loweth
called attention to, I think covers the case precisely.

(Mr. Selby read Article 14, page 389.)

If it is admitted, as Mr. Loweth seems to admit, that these stresses
are safe under close inspection and watching, I do not see why we should
not say so and go on record.

Mr. Hunley: — That is one of the points I have in mind. We have
practically gone the limit on stresses and at the same time depend on
each and every instruction here given being followed out. We all know
that is not always the case. I think we should allow a little leeway for
some such oversight as that.

Mr. Loweth : — Perhaps the Committee would be willing to lower the
proposed unit stresses, changing the limit of 26,000 lb. to 24,000 lb. and
other stresses proportionately, and add a clause to the effect that there
would not infrequently be occasions which for various reasons would
justify the continuance in service of structures exceeding the unit stresses
given up to a maximum of 26,000 lb. for axial tension on steel, and other

Discussion. 1011

stresses proportionately, providing all such structures were in line for
prompt replacement, and meanwhile were supervised and inspected with
more than the usual thoroughness. If the specifications were so modified,
it would allow a larger margin of time for renewals or strengthening and
would place a greater emphasis upon the responsibility for maintaining a
structure with high unit stresses.

Mr. G. H. Tinker (New York, Chicago & St. Louis) :— I think it
would be a mistake to adopt a lower unit in the specifications and then
remove that limit by a permissive clause. In that case we have no
standard whatever, simply the judgment of the man. When his successor
or someone else looks at the question his judgment may be different. We
would thus have no standard guide, and be worse off than with no
specification whatever. I think the better procedure is to adopt a top
limit beyond which we should not go, and to use units somewhat lower
in particular cases, rather than to adopt a limit beyond which we may
go under certain conditions. In line with that I feel that paragraph 110
is a mistake and should be omitted. Let the unit stress be fixed at a
limit beyond which we may not go, and omit all provisions for a per-
missive stretching of those limits which this paragraph evidently does.

I am aware that the combination of stresses which is indicated, does
not apply upon every application of the load, but it is applied with more
or less frequency, and when so applied we are stressing the material be-
j'ond the limit which we considered safe. We do not know just how far
beyond that limit the stress might go in a particular instance. I think to
adopt such a practice would be unsafe.

Mr. John V. Hanna (Kansas City Terminal) : — The suggestion of the
last speaker is very good. I know that it would be helpful to some of us,
who do not specialize in bridge work, if there could be an ultimate limit
beyond which we should not go in continuing an old bridge in service.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals Railway) : — May we have
a statement of the practice on the Canadian Pacific, by Mr. Motley? That
may be helpful.

Mr. P. B. Motley (Canadian Pacific) : — The units suggested by the
Committee, I think, are about correct as general practice, but as has
been mentioned on other occasions, no set of rules, however good, is in-
tended to take the place of a qualified Engineer. In addition to technical
specifications, common-sense must be brought to bear, and I am almost
inclined to believe that after all much reliance should be placed on the
extensometer, which should be used freely, as computations are not neces-
sarily a true criterion of existing conditions. We have adopted, on the
Canadian Pacific, stresses generally in accordance with these recommenda-
tions for the systematic classification of old structures, for over twenty
years. I think, however, that structures, which have been subjected to
physical injury should receive special consideration, and in such cases
only the judgment of the Engineer can decide what variation should be
made for the overload, which would otherwise be permissible. This brings

1012 Iron and Steel Structures.

up the question of the responsibility belonging the man whose duty
it is to call a halt to the continued retention of overloaded spans in service,
and it requires personality of considerable weight to bring home to the
management of a large railway corporation, especially in these times
when the idea of spending considerable large sums of money is not rel-
ished, the view that the continued overstress of steel structures beyond
the limits for which they were designed is not intended to be permanent.
I think this fact cannot be too prominently kept in mind.

Mr. O. B. Robbins (Interstate Commerce Commission) : — I find my-
self in close agreement with the last speaker in regard to the use of the
extensometer in determining stresses. Some years ago when I was con-
nected with the Great Northern Railway, we tested the spans in the
Columbia River bridge in the state of Washington. We found our com-
putations on the truss members checked closely with the extensometer
tests, but there were other members where we found stresses far greater
than we had anticipated, especially in the end floor-beams of the long
spans. There was one 250-foot span and one 416-foot span in the bridge.
We found by the extensometer compression stresses and also tension
stresses, in the end floor-beams as high as 29,000 lb., while there were
only 21,000 or 22,000 lb. in the truss members.

Any Bridge Engineer will recognize that this condition was due to
the secondary stress developed by the extension of the lower chord under
stress, with the lack of proper provision for slip joints in the stringers;
but it illustrates the fact that the computations do not take into account
within several thousand pounds to the square inch the stresses that may
be developed in floor-beams.

There is one question I want to ask in regard to these specifications.
It seems to me that no provision is made for carrying structures by re-
ducing the speed limit of trains over the bridge, which could be done by
reducing the impact stress by an arbitrary limit of speed. Has that matter
been considered?

Chairman Selby: — Article 7 provides for limiting the speed.

Mr. Robbins : — That covers the point.

Mr. Loweth : — The report refers to absolute control of speeds. Does
the Committee think there is such a thing as an absolute control?

Chairman Selby: — The Committee thinks there is, in the sense used
here. There are places where physical conditions at the site limit the
speed, and there are other conditions where an operating control that is
practically certain may be secured. We do not want to go on record as
advocating a reduction in impact in cases where the speed is not con-
trolled by anything better than a train order.

Mr. Loweth : — The point is, I think, that we carry certain bridges be-
cause we minimize the effect of the load upon the structure by arbitrarily
restricting the speed of trains. Sometimes these speed restrictions, be-
cause of location, grade or other conditions, are easily enforced, but in
many cases the restriction is purely arbitrary and is difficult of enforce-

Discussion. 1013

ment with certainty. If these speed restrictions are not adhered to, the
unit stresses may be very largelj^ increased, and the Committee's recom-
mendations do not provide a sufficient margin for contingencies of this
kind.

One of the last speakers said he thought it was desirable to have
definite unit stresses which could be considered safe, because there were
many railroad engineers, not bridge engineers, who might have to deter-
mine the question of continuing old structures in service, and would be
glad to know just how far they could go in matters of that kind. This, I
think, is the danger of the situation — that the specifications in question
will lead to the belief that they can be used with impunity. I do not
think that is the case. The tendency with a specification of this kind will
be that in many cases the determination of the safe carrying capacity of
an old structure will be put up to the drawing room, and men perfectly
competent to compute stresses, but without experiences as to the practical
effect as to the action of overstressed structures, will determine the ques-
tion perfunctorily on the basis of whether the specified unit stresses are or
are not exceeded by any given load, and there is danger that his decision
may be perfunctorily accepted. I think there may be many cases where
the Bridge Engineer ought not to be required to assume the entire re-
sponsibility of carrying a structure stressed as high as these specifications
permit; that the responsibility in such cases should be shared with the
Chief Engineer, and possibly with the management. If low unit stresses
are fixed in these specifications, what would happen? Not necessarily
that when a bridge is stressed to exceed these limits, that it is thrown out
of service, but that it had the special consideration of the Bridge Engineer
and others, and it was so hedged about with such precautions as would in-
sure its proper attention. This, would seem to be simple justice to the
Bridge Engineer, his immediate superiors, to the railroad they serve, and
to the public.

Chairman Selby: — If anyone puts these rules in the drafting room
and leaves them there without any other responsibility he is doing a very
unwise thing and certainly it is not the intention of the Committee that
the rules should be so abused. Mr. Motley calls attention to the fact
that no set of rules can take the place of the personal responsibility of the
Engineer.

Article 1 certainly cannot be complied with in the drafting room. "In
fixing the carrying capacity of any bridge for traffic, its location, design,
material, workmanship, behavior and physical condition must be taken
into account." No one can tell in the drafting room what the behavior of
the bridge is.

Prof. W. M. Wilson (University of Illinois) :— The discussion of the
rating of old bridges has centered to a considerable extent, at least in the
written discussion, on the life of the bridge under high stresses. We
seem to be pretty much in accord that for a comparatively short time a
steel structure can be subjected to stresses of 24,000 to 26,000 lb. per

1014 Iron and Steel Structures.

sq. in. without danger of failure. The question in which we are interested
is, how long will the bridge continue serviceable under these excessive
stresses. Our work on fatigue of metals has demonstrated that as far
as the phj'sical properties of the material itself is concerned, we have very
little reason to fear that the material will deteriorate. A stress of 24,000
to 26,000 lb. for steel in tension is below the stress which will cause failure
due to a large number of repetitions.

Furthermore, I think" it is our experience that where a bridge shows
signs of weakening it is not because of the deterioration of the metal, but
because of the workijig loose of the parts that are connected. In other
words, it is the joints which make us expect trouble, as the bridge is sub-
jected to continuous service at these high stresses.

Tests of riveted joints have demonstrated that as the stresses in-
crease, the members that are connected slip relative to each other at a
stress below the stress that is used in design. This deformation is the
slipping of one piece upon another and is not an elastic strain.

We would naturally expect, then, that if this slip is repeated a large
number of times that some wear will take place and the joint become
loose, for we know the joint holds not by virtue of the strength of the
rivet in shear, but by virtue of the friction between the plates induced by
the tension in the rivet.

The Experiment Station of the University of Illinois has tried to de-
termine the effect of repeated stresses upon riveted connections. While
we do not feel that these tests have been carried far enough to prove any-
thing definitely, I would like to present to the Association some of the
indications of our tests.

For one thing we find that repeated stresses, in which the stress is
only one-half as great as the A.R.E.A. specifications permit us to use in
design, will work the rivets loose if the stress is repeated a sufficient num-
ber of times. This result was obtained with a reversal from 3,000 lb.
per sq. in. in one direction to 3,000 lb. per sq. in. in the other direction, will
loosen the rivet.

In the new specifications for old bridges it is proposed to increase the
allowable stress on rivets approximately 80 per cent. The tests which we
have made indicate that such a stress will loosen a rivet, not in two or
three reversals, but in a few hundred reversals, so that the passing of the
trains for a period of one or two or three years will cause the rivets to
work loose. Therefore, in the rating of the old bridges I think we should
focus our attention upon the effect of the overstresses upon the rivets
rather than upon the material itself. Because tests have demonstrated
that the stress imposed will not injure the material itself, but the stresses
proposed will loosen the joint. So it seems to me the point we should
study is the effect of the overstresses on the riveted joints, and the pos-
sibilities of strengthening the joints without necessarily replacing the
members.

Mr. Albert Reichmann (American Bridge Company) : — There were
several good points which were brought out in the discussion of these

Discussion. • 1015

specifications. I don't agree with Mr. Loweth's statement that it is unde-
sirable to fix an upper limit for refiguring old bridges. In case the Chief
or Bridge Engineer does not feel warranted in having his subordinates
pass on bridges which are figured to the upper limit, he could inaugurate
a rule in his office whereb}^ any bridge which figured within, say 10 or 15
per cent of the upper limit — should be referred to him for special con-
sideration and investigation.

The question was raised this morning regarding very thick eyebars.
Where exceptionally heavy material is used, the unit stresses must neces-
sarily be reduced in proportion. In going beyond two inches in thickness
in steel eyebars, the strength of the material decreases very rapidly. I am
not in favor of using too heavy material and I think the point well taken.
In other respects, I believe the specifications conform to modern prac-
tice for refiguring old structures.

Mr. F. E. Schall (Lehigh Valley) :— I desire to support Mr. Loweth's
contention. If I remember correctly, Mr. Loweth, several years ago. pre-
pared a table of permissible unit stresses for existing bridges; I believe
these unit stresses were about the same limit as those presented by the
Committee. Evidently Mr. Loweth has experienced some difficulties in
the use of such unit stresses and now feels that we should be more con-
servative.

I feel that the permissible stresses proposed by the Committee are
higher than the organization should support, indicating thereby that it is
perfectly safe to use bridges to the extent proposed by the Committee. It
is not always possible to find the weakest point in a bridge by careful
inspection.

Wrought-iron, as generally used for bridges, has an elastic limit of
from 26,000 to 28,000 lb. per sq. in.

I think it was demonstrated by Woehler that the elastic limit need not
fully be reached to cause failure by a great number of applications of
loads causing stresses near the elastic limit, and, considering all the fea-
tures of present day operation, I think we ought to be more conservative
in the rating of structures built of wrought iron during the early eighties,
when the details were not what to-day is considered good design.

Chairman Selby: — These rules are not intended to be put out for in-
discriminate use by inexperienced men. They are intended only as a guide
for an experienced Bridge Engineer to use in passing on the safety of
the bridge, and the necessity for keeping it in service. If articles 1, 2
and 14 of the rules are not strong enough on that point, it might be well
to make them stronger^ but it should be kept in mind all the time that
there is a great deal in passing on the capacity of an old bridge besides the
figuring. The figures are only one of the means used to arrive at the
capacity of the bridge. The other things are the physical condition, the
design, details, material and the general knowledge and judgment of the
Bridge Engineer. I think it might be well to add to these rules some-
thing stronger to that effect.

1016 Iron apd Steel Structures.

The Committee has just received a written discussion from Mr. Hans
Ibsen, of the Michigan Central Railroad, which I will not take the time to
read, but Mr. Ibsen thinks the unit stresses in wrought-iron are too high.

One more change has been suggested by a member of the Committee
and if there is no objection from members of the Committee I will offer it
as an additional change in the rules as printed.

On page 380, Article 10 reads : "Tension in extreme fibers of rolled
shapes (except rolled beams) ;" the suggestion is to add to the exception
"channels" so that it will read: "(except rolled beams and channels),"
and similarly in the following line, "Tension in extreme fibers of rolled
beams and channels." The unit stresses penalize rolled beams as against
other rolled shapes, and the desire is to include channels in that penaliza-
tion.

Mr. H. Ibsen (Michigan Central — by letter) : — I think the unit stresses
specified by the Committee are too high, especially those applying to trusses
and in particular those applying to iron truss members. I have in our
records a report of full-sized tests of iron eye-bars, for a bridge built
about 40 years ago, and the ultimate tensile strength of these bars is only
41,280 lb. and the clastic limit is only 24,200 lb. per sq. in.

The specimen tests for part of the structural shapes used in impor-
tant members have an elastic limit of only 26,200 lb. For this particular
structure I have also some strain gage readings on eye-bars and built-up
members, which in some cases show a variation of 20 per cent, for some
eye-bars, above the average unit stress of all the eye-bars of the same
member of the bridge, and the same variation for various parts of built-up
members. These members are not subject to marked secondary effects
and there is no apparent reason for the difference in unit stresses, it is
simply caused by accidental variations in material and workmanship such
as one must expect in the ordinary run of work and which can not be
detected by inspection, after the bridge is built.

I believe that there are still in existence a good many bridges built 30
or 40 years ago in which the same conditions mentioned above exist.
With a unit stress of 22,000 lb. in the bars to start with and 20 per cent,
added for uneven distribution the bars referred to above would be
stressed to the elastic limit which is evidently too high. I realize that
the stresses proposed by the Committee are the same as those already
given, for "Classification of Bridges as to Safe Carrying Capacity," in the
Manual. As stated there, however, attention is clearly called to the fact
that these high stresses cannot be imposed on a structure with impunity,
(note: line 3, article 1, and line 5, article 2, on page 506 of the Manual),
while the rules and unit stresses as given in Bulletin 232 are more in the
form of a specification and do not give one the impression that the
stresses there proposed are out of the ordinary at all.

I think that in most cases a straight, unreserved statement is the
best, but in this case I do not think that it is safe to give it with the high
unit stresses proposed by the Committee. It also seems to me that there

Discussion. 1017

is some inconsistency between the unit stresses proposed for rating exist-
ing bridges and those given for designing new bridges. If it is safe to
run, unrestricted and for an unlimited length of time, a loading over our
old bridges that will produce the unit stresses given in Bulletin 232, it
certainly looks as if the unit stresses used for designing new bridges are
too low.

I would like to see the unit stresses for axial tension reduced to
24,000 lb. per sq. in. for steel and 20,000 lb. per sq. in. for iron and those
for compression members and other truss members reduced in proportion.
The stresses for girders are higher than I would like to see them, but
girders will stand overstrain and give more warning than truss bridges
so that for this reason I have less objection to the unit stresses proposed
for them.

I think that attention should be called to the fact that bridges operated
under these high unit stresses need frequent inspection and that their
life will be shortened.

Mr. B. R. Leffler (New York Central) : — The criticism has been made
that these unit stresses are too high. In connection with that I think it
might be well to call attention to the secondary stresses, which usually or
quite often are not included in the calculation of stresses in bridges. The
Committee in recommending these unit stresses had in mind that every
legitimate or possible stress was to be calculated. I think that in the past
many of the bridges have been rated on what is known as the axial stress,
that is, the primary stresses were calculated and then a rating based on
them, but in view of the fact that the Committee has distinctly stated
that all stresses of whatever character are to be included, it seems to me
that the so-called high unit stresses are justifiable. I think v/e should
remember that these recommendations are not to be thrown into the draft-
ing room and stresses calculated and a ruling given on that perfunctory
operation. The specifications distinctly call for an exercise of judgment,
and it is not intended that the Bridge Engineers will simply take these
rules and pay no further attention to the structures. They are supposed
to watch the structure in the light of what they have found in the field as
well as in the ofifice. I notice that while these stresses have been criti-
cized as being too high, no one has suggested lower stresses. We should
have constructive criticism as well as destructive criticism.

Mr. Reichmann : — ^These specifications are drafted for well designed
structures. At present there are many structures which were designed
for lighter loading than at present, which, however, were well designed.
As the loading increases, we will continue to have a number of well de-
signed structures to rcfigure for heavier loading. It is, therefore, desirable
to have the maximum unit stresses to apply to bridges which are well
designed. In cases where the structures are not well designed, the unit
stress must be reduced to take care of the imperfections in the design.

Mr. Leffler : — I think it is impossible to recommend limiting stresses
for poor design. If a design is so poor that the defective details, such

1018 Iron and Steel Structures.

as eccentric connections and unsymmetrical spacing of rivets, cannot be
calculated, you must rely on your judgment anyhow.

Mr. Tinker : — I think stress should be laid on the interpretation of the
specification and the physical condition of the structure. Its behavior
under traffic should be considered of primarily greater importance than
the stresses which may be computed.

As to the matter of the repetition of stresses which has been men-
tioned, where there is a reversal of stress. The majority of the members
in a structure will not have reversal of stress, and those that have will
have been designed with that fact in mind. I believe it is true that it
will require a great many more repetitions to produce failures where the
stress is in one direction, and that the upper limit may approach consider-
ably closer to the elastic limit than when there is reversal.

I have in mind a wrought iron structure which is a plate girder via-
duct. That bridge has been carrying a load 75 per cent, greater than it
was designed for, for a number of years, and it shows no loosening of
the riveted joints at any point.

I do not feel that the stresses given here are too high if they are read
in connection with the remaining paragraphs of the specification which I
believe are fully as important as the unit stresses.

I wish to refer once more to paragraph 11 and ask the Committee if
they will not agree to remove the paragraph, because it does open the way
for a large and more or less indefinite increase over the unit stresses in
the table. It permits a man to carry those stresses to a point which might
be unsafe.

Mr. I.- L. Simmons (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — In regard to
paragraph 11, it seems to me that it should remain. It states definitely
what loads are to be considered, and establishes the limits of the unit
stresses produced by those loads. The latter part of the paragraph states
that the unit stresses due to dead load, live load, impact, and centrifugal
forces alone shall not exceed those given as allowable unit stresses. It is
only when the stresses due to these loads are combined with the stresses
due to the wind that we are allowed to increase the allowable unit stress.
While it is possible, it is quite improb.able that we will get a maximum
live load, dead load, impact, centrifugal force, and a maximum wind at
the same time. This paragraph was written to prevent a computer from
allowing an increase in the unit stresses for any load except the wind
load.

Mr. Tinker : — I do not agree with the member that we are not likely
to get all the stresses at one time. If you do get the wind load when
there is a live load on the bridge we may get the secondary stresses as well.
Suppose the unit stress, omitting the windload, is 22,000 lb. per sq. in.
Twenty-five per cent, of that is 4,500 lb. That condition will be repeated
at intervals. The specification would not save us should there be a failure
under these extreme conditions.

Discussion. 1019

Mr. Simmons.: — I will agree that these maximum loads might possibly
occur at the same time, but considering any railroad system where vari-
ous types of locomotives are used, it is highly improbable that they would
occur, but should they occasionally occur, I do not believe that in such
isolated cases the bridge will feel the unit stresses given above.

Mr. Leffler : — I think we should remember that in proposing this, we
are not exceeding the elastic limit of the material, and we all know that
one application of the stress up to the elastic limit, maybe once a month,
will do no harm. I seems to me that unusual combinations such as are
covered in paragraph 11 with occasional stresses up to 28,000 or 30,000
lb. will do no harm.

Mr. Hunley : — I cannot agree that a stress of that sort will not exceed
the elastic limit. There are all sorts of reports and tests which go to
show that the elastic limit of wrought iron is considerably less than
22,000, even as low as 16,000 lb.

Chairman Selb}' : — Referring to Appendix C, on page 395, I will say
these principles were published a year ago, -submitted as information, and
are now without substantial change offered as a conclusion.

On behalf of the Committee, I move the adoption of conclusion No. 2.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Selby: — I want to call attention to an error in the discus-
sion printed on page 388; 100 at the beginning of the last line should be
400.

The Committee has no further conclusions to offer.

DISCUSSION ON WATER SERVICE

(For report, see pp. 405-441.)

Mr. A. F. Dorley (Missouri Pacific) : — The report of the Committee
on Water Service will be found in Bulletin 232. The subjects assigned to
the Committee for study and report, eight in number, are given on page
405 of the Bulletin.

The first subject is the revision of the Manual. Last year the Com-
mittee recommended an entire rearrangement of the subject-matter in the
section of the Manual given over to Water Service. They also recom-
mended certain changes in the recommended practice pertaining to water
supply and water purification ; the Committee has no changes to submit
this year.

The second subject. Supply of Drinking Water on Trains and Premises
of Railroads, has been in the hands of a special committee, of which Mr.
Bardwell is Chairman. The Committee has kept in touch with the de-
velopment of the regulations of the federal and .state authorities, and the
report of the Sub-Committee will be found in Appendix A on page 408.
I will call attention to the fact that the work of this Sub-Committee is being
closely followed by the health authorities at Washington, a representative

(A)

1020 Water Service.

of the office of the Surgeon-General having attended one^meeting of this
Sub-Committee last June. This report is offered as information, but I
would like to call attention to the recommendations of the Sub-Committee.

(Chairman Dorley read the recommendations in Appendix A.)

It is not an uncommon sight in railroad terminals to see employees
dragging the hose, through which water is passed from the hydrant into
car-containers, along the ground and into the accumulation of filth that is
generally around tracks at terminals, and it is not difficult to imagine that
the chances of polluting an otherwise pure drinking water are very great
by permitting a practice of this kind. One large mid-western railroad
has made an effort to prevent such pollution by using a protection for
the hose, illustrated on pages 410 and 411. This has only recently been
devised and put into service, and it is offered with the suggestion that
other railroads try either this or some similar device.

The third subject is, "Making final report, if practicable, on plans
and specifications for typical water station layouts." The views of the
Committee on this subject will be found in a brief report. Appendix B,
page 412.

The Committee feels that this subject should more properly come
within the scope of the committee that has in hand the design of yard
terminals, and that the work of the Water Service Committee be confined
to devising facilities to supply water to locomotives and for other uses.

Subject (4) is, "The Extent and Effect of Incrustation in Pipe Lines
and Methods of Cleaning."

The Sub-Committee that had this subject in hand, of which Mr.
LaBach is Chairman, offers the report given in Appendix C, on page 413.
This report is very largely, almost entirely, in fact, the work of Mr.
LaBach; h,e reviews the subject, beginning with the causes leading up to
incrustation, the operating costs affected, the methods for cleaning, sug-
gestions for prevention, as well as the condition under which the cleaning
of pipes is economical. In this connection I would like to call attention
to the report given by Mr. Yeaton, which appears on page 421, which illus-
trates the experience with the cleaning of one particular pipe line on the
Chicago & Northwestern.

I wish also to call attention to a monograph by Dr. C. H. Koyl, which
is given on page 419, on the subject of after-precipitation from treated
water, its cause and prevention. This monograph is made part of the
report on the incrustation of pipe lines.

Subject (5), "Disposition of Waste Water at Water Stations and
Keeping Track Free from Ice," is covered by the report appearing in
Appendix D, on page 427. We believe the lesson to be drawn from this
study is that railroads should, as far as possible, eliminate the wasting of
water. There are several railroads, particularly the Illinois Central, that
have had under way for several years ^a campaign to eliminate water
waste, and the results in the saving of money have been astonishing.
Water is too frequently looked upon as free as air. It may be as free

Discussion. 1021

as air while it is going by in a river, but it takes money to put water into
a tank or to put it under pressure in a pipe line. Railroad officials who sign
vouchers in payment of water purchased from city or water companies
realize that waste of water means real money flowing into sewers or into
drainage ditches.

Subject (6), "Specifications for Contracting Water Service Work."
The Committee reports progress..

Subject (7) is the "Effect of Local Deposits on Pollution of Surface
or Shallow Well- Water Supplies." The report on this subject will be found
in Appendix E, page 429, the work of the Sub-Committee, of which Mr.
Holmes is Chairman. I would like to call particular attention to the sec-
tion on page 430, which makes reference to the pollution of well water and
surface supplies from the storage of coal and cinder deposits. This source
of pollution only recently attracted the attention of this Committee. We
will have more to say on this subject in the final report which we hope
to make next year. In the meantime we will caution railroads against the
very serious possibility of polluting reservoirs or wells by storing coal ad-
jacent to the water supply.

This brings us up to the last subject (8), "Specifications for Sub-
Structures of Wood and Steel for Water Tanks." The final report on
this subject will be found in Appendix F, page 431. The preparation of
these specifications and the typical plans is the work of the Sub-Committee
of which Mr. Knowles is Chairman ; in fact, the work is practically the
personal effort of Mr. Knowles. There is so wide a variation in designing
tank towers on American railroads that the Committee feels the adoption
of these standards and these specifications is very timely. Many of the
details in use in tank towers all over the country are very uneconomical,
and without much justification.

I would like to call attention to the omission of the word "typical" in
the second line of the paragraph under sub-head "general" on pages 434
and 435. On both pages it should read: "As shown on attached typical
plan."

These specifications and typical plans are offered as a final report
with the recommendation that they be placed in the Manual, and I will
ask Mr. Knowles to read the report.

(Mr. Knowles abstracted Appendix F.)

Chairman Dorley: — Mr. President, I move that specifications for steel
sub-structures for water tanks, on page 434, and specifications for timber
sub-structures for water tanks, on page 435, and the typical plans appear-
ing on pages 436 to 441, inclusive, be adopted and published in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Dorley : — Before being dismissed, Mr. President, I would
like to call attention to No. 5 of the suggested subjects for next year's
study and report.

(Mr. Dorley read the subject referred to.)

The pitting of boiler tubes is something that is becoming a very
serious problem on American railroads, and the effect of this pitting

1022 Economics of Railway Labor.

represents one of the very large items in the expense of locomotive main-
tenance to-day. At first thought it might appear that the problem is one
that the mechanical department should handle, but the Water Service
Engineer is vitally interested, for the reason that pitting is generally
ascribed to water conditions. The most disquieting thing about the whole
problem is that it is beginning to show up on districts where years ago
it did not appear, districts where the water is either naturally good, or
where the water is now being treated.

It is the recommendation of this Committee that an arrangement be
made to have a committee of the Mechanical Division of the American
Railway Association and possibly a committee of the American Society
for Testing Materials cooperate with this Committee in the handling of
this subject. We think that it is about the most important problem that
the Water Service Engineer has confronting him at the present time.

DISCUSSION ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY LABOR

(For report, see pp. 235-242.)

Mr. C. E. Johnston (Kansas City Southern) : — What the Committee
on Economics of Railway Labor has to offer may be found beginning on
page 235 of Bulletin 231.

The activities of the Committee during the past year have been as-
sembling information as a foundation upon which we might reach con-
clusions. The subjects assigned are, we think, so important, that we
must go into all the details very carefully and endeavor to find some
solution or arrive at some real honest-to-goodness recommendation in
the handling of our maintenance labor, and what we have shown here in
the report is to be taken as information ; and, as I have said, it is assem-
bled with the idea of laying a foundation for our further study of the
particular subject. As to item (3), the Committee feels that no progress
has been made on that subject during the year. We felt that items (1)
and (2) should be studied first and disposed of in a manner,, at least.

As I said to you, we have gathered a great deal of information with
respect to maintenance of way labor, and I will have to admit it is a very
hard or difficult thing to find a beginning point. We find that most lines
have their own way of handling labor, and our questionnaires are giving
us a very good line on the practices over the different parts of the coun-
try. In order to get the benefit of the views of the rnembership, we would
like to invite discussion of these items, so first I will call upon Mr. Ford
to read what we have said here with respect to the first subject.

Mr. R. H. Ford (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — Replies were
received from fully 85 per cent, of the roads interrogated, which, when
studied carefully, thoroughly indicate that no plan for recruiting railway
labor could be reported that would apply equally to all sections of the
country. This problem presents many angles and has developed some

Discussion. 1023

very serious aspects; among these being: the misuse of free transportation
for laborers, as well as corrupt practice and flagrant evils in engaging
men, especially by labor agents and labor scalpers. In comparison with
other lines of industry, there is an unduly excessive turnover with its re-
sultant wasteful methods and disastrous effect on organized effort, and
while these appear to be appreciated to a more or less extent, it is evident
from the replies that the matter has not been given the thought that the
subject demands.

It is earnestly recommended to this Association that serious study
be given to this subject so that the Committee may have the benefit during
the year of constructive suggestions. Certainly no one has been able to
oflfer any practical remedy that is susceptible of general or regional ap-
phcation. The Committee earnestly invites criticisms and suggestions from
the floor of this convention in order that they may have some additional
light on this subject in their consideration of the matter during the year.
As the Chairman has stated, some aspects are very complex and it is the
desire of the Committee to ultimately report a conclusion that will not
only provide a remedy for these evils but will permit of constructive
advances for the future.

Chairman Johnston: — In connection with that matter, I am glad to
call upon Mr. Backes to state his views.

Mr. W. J. Backes (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : — Your
Committee sent out a questionnaire and you have noted how well it has
been answered. It would indicate that the majority of the railroads of
the country have a divisional form of organization — that is, 75 per cent,
divisional and 25 per cent, departmental. On the other hand, even
though they have a divisional organization, the majority of the Division
Engineers and Roadmasters are Engineers; that is, 72 per cent, of the
replies had Engineers in charge of their maintenance of way departments ;
65 per cent, of the Division Engineers and 50 per cent, of the Roadmasters
and Track Supervisors were men with an engineering training. In the
East the tendency is to develop young men with an engineering training,
because we have a good many more of them available, and where the rail-
roads take the time to give the men the training and establish a good line
of promotion, they are able to attract some very promising young men
into their service and give them a thorough training in the maintenance
work, as well as in the engineering side of railroading. All of us who
have had to do with maintenance appreciate the value of the combination
of a man who has had the practical experience of handling men, and at
the same time has the foundation of an engineering training.

The territory covered by Roadmasters and track supervisors generally
averages about 110 miles of main track and 75 miles of side-track. That
is pretty close to the average on the Eastern railroads and with the longer
sections in the West, that average is somewhat greater. The average age
of Roadmasters and track supervisors is 45 years. On railroads where

1024 Economics of Railway Labor.

they, are training young Engineers you will find the average age probably
nearer 35.

The length of track sections under section foremen is 6.7 miles of
main track and 3.1 miles of side-track. That, 1 think, averages pretty well
over the country, with the possible exception of where they have long
motor car sections. Motor cars are now used on approximately 69 per
cent, of the mileage, and I believe there is a tendency for those who have
had long motor car sections to shorten them.

The questionnaire also indicated that 99 per cent, of our track fore-
men arc selected from common labor. It has been very difficult to get
young men to take positions as section foremen, although it has been
possible on some of the lines to get young men to take positions as gen-
eral foremen.

The percentage of different classes of men employed indicate 40 per
cent, native white; 17 per cent, negro; 10 per cent. Mexican, and 33 per
cent, foreign labor. That, of course, is the average for the country. I
think you will find in the East, where there is a very large foreign popu-
lation, that the number of men who are of foreign birth would show a
higher percentage.

The subject is a very important one, and I do not believe there is any-
thing that we can do to strengthen our maintenance organization more
than to attract young men into our service who have had an engineering
training. That is the foundation of our work, and if we are going to
develop the highest degree of efficiency, we must have men who have the
power to analyze the costs of their work and improve the methods of
doing the work. Those railroads who have been doing experimental work
and using labor-saving devices are beginning to find out that material
economies can be obtained through their use. We cannot expect men to
use various mechanical labor-saving devices intelligently without giving
them proper instruction and supervision in their use.

Your Committee has spent much time on the question this last year,
but I believe that in another year we will be able to give you information
that will be more conclusive.

Chairman Johnston: — The more we go into the subject, the more we
feel that it needs attention. We devote a great deal of thought and time
and money to specifications for rails, ties, and all other material, and we
overlook to a considerable extent proper attention to labor and selecting
the men to develop foremen and other supervising positions in the future.
There seems to be a lack of uniformity all over the country — some do it
one way, some do it another, some do not do it at all. Most of us do
not do it at all, and I think that at the present time we are impressed with
the importance of giving this entire subject a great deal more thought
than we have in the past. I, as Chairman of the Committee, have given
it quite a little thought this year, have reached some conclusions and
backed off of them. The balance of the Committee T think are in the
same position. I generally get back to the one thing after thinking over

Discussion. 1025

it and studying the different conditions, that we must get closer to the
human side of it. Personal contact probably will give us more results
than anything else. Just how that can be brought- about I am unable to
say. I think each and every one of us have a pretty good idea of what we
need on our own railroads. We have a little organization down on the
line that I am with called the "Maintenance of Way Association."

We have monthly meetings of our foremen and discuss things of in-
terest— kind of handshaking proposition — but at the same time we can
notice a big improvement in feeling, in the fact that we are acquainted
with the men. As Dean Potter said this morning with respect to the
engineering students, I think the time has come when our maintenance
men must be sorted and tested out. I think the time has come when our
track laborers must be sorted and tested out, if we are going to go along
with the procession.

As I have said, the Committee is very anxious for suggestions. Maybe
some of you can spring something on us that will give us a lead to a
solution of these problems. We would like very much for you to start
something, and during the year the Committee has outlined its work so
that we think we will be able to show some results at the next meeting.

Mr. Earl Stimson (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I hesitate to criticize a com-
mittee, because we assume that the committee represents the best thought
on the subject that is in hand. I particularly hesitate to criticize in this
case, because my criticism is going to be rather severe. In my opinion
the Committee has the cart before the horse. They have the thing turned
around, they are not following the proper sequence. No. (3), the subject
which they say depends upon the determination of (1) and (2), is really
the essential one, and the one that should come first.

I think you will all agree that the first thing to dn, when we under-
take an enterprise, is to establish what we are going to do and how we are
going to do it. Then we get together our organization, the supervising
force that is going to handle the work, and train and instruct them. The
third and last thing to do is to assemble the men that are actually going
to do the work. We are then prepared to handle it. The Committee has
gone just the other way around.

To my mind the first thing that the Committee should take up is
this subject No. (3), "Study and report on standard methods for perform-
ing maintenance of way work, with the view of establishing units of
measure of work performed." I think it is a mistake to report on elabo-
rate preparations to get men and care for them without first providing
methods for economically directing them at their work. We have some
men all the time. We do not have to organize a labor department, and
build elaborate camps to get and keep them. We have plenty of men
already to start in with and handle in accordance with any plan for the
economic conduct of work the Committee may formulate.

Sometime ago I undertook an assignment which called for a review
of what has been done on "Economics of Railway Labor." I thought

1026 Economics of Railway Labor.

that would be an easy thinp to do because all I would have to do would
be to look up the reports of this Committee on "Economics of Railway
Labor," which has been- in existence some three or four years. When I
looked over their reports I found there had not been one single conclusion
or one single recommendation put up to the Association by the Com-
mittee, and that this particular subject, which is the backbone of the whole
thing, had been ignored. It is my suggestion to the Committee that they
pass over subjects Nos. (1) and (2), and buckle down to work on No. (3).
When they come to a conclusion next year on the subject I hope it will
not be to blandly indulge in the ancient and honorable American pastime
of "passing the buck," by suggesting "that the railroads take immediate
individual action to improve their labor situation and put forth organized
effort to increase labor efficiency."

I think it is the duty of the Committee to point the way and not leave
it to the individual effort, because the individual effort has been put forth
on railroads for nearly a hundred years, and we have not gotten anywhere
yet. The Committee has been in existence four years and they have not
gotten anywhere yet.

Chairman Johnston: — It is not proper to consider subject No. (3),
the study and report on standard methods for performing maintenance of
way work, with a view of establishing a measure of work performed, and
say that is what we want first. It is true we are seeking that end, and
we will get to it in time. If we had experienced a plentiful supply of men
in the past, it would seem proper, at this time, to consider the measure of
work, but the inadequate supply the past few years seems to impress
upon us that first consideration should be given to the supply and training
with later consideration of a measure of work performed. Suggestions are
what your Committee desires, and if the memijership present has anything
in their system, please let us have it.

Mr. W. M. Camp (Railway Review) : — I served on this Committee
for a couple of years, and I want to say that in some ways I sympathize
with the Committee and in other ways I am more impressed with what
Mr. Stimson has said. I agree with the Chairman that it is a hard nut
to crack. There is no use in handling the question with gloves and we
might as well speak the plain truth.

The Committee has done some good work in determining what the
composition of our maintenance forces is. They tell us that we have
40 per cent, native white ; that is, American-born. How much of that is
American-bred we do not know. All the American-born people are not
necessarily American-bred. Then we have negroes 17 per cent., Mexicans
10 per cent., and other foreigners 33 per cent.

I do not think that any permanent results will be accomplished with
foreigners simply by feeding them extra well. I believe in sanitary sur-
roundings and all that, as does everyone else, and in many cases the rail-
roads must furnish quarters and arrange for boarding accommodations,
but they can not hold that class of labor permanently. There is no way

Discussion. 1027

of making progress in the quality of maintenance of way labor without
inculcating into it what may, perhaps, be high sounding here, and that is
an esprit de corps.

You have got to get men who will take pride in their work, who have
something to look forward to, not necessarily promotion, but, for one
thing, steady labor the year round. But how can one condemn a man for
losing interest in his job when his work is only intermittent? Track labor
has been the cat that has been slung by the tail. You know that.

This is not a new proposal, that track and bridge labor and other main-
tenance of way forces should be regularly employed the year around.
That is one thing that can be done for them, and unless you can do that
you are not going to secure and hold a desirable class of labor.

As you know, only part of maintenance of way labor is now organ-
ized. Trade unionism may not be an acceptable question to discuss in a
body like this, perhaps, but if you wait until all of the maintenance forces
are organized you will not be able to get into the sympathies of these men.

It seems to me that the class of labor that is worth an effort to im-
prove is the native-born American, white and black; and skilled workmen
rather than the so-called "common labor" is the end that should be striven
for. As a class the labor from southern Europe is inefficient. The old
American or Irish trackman will do as much as three of them.

The question of wages is another thing. In pre-war days that was
a matter which received very little attention. At the present time it is
recognized that maintenance of way labor is being paid very well. My
opinion is that in pre-war days efficient track labor was not paid enough,
either the laborers or the foremen.

I think the Committee has some ground to go to work on, and I do
not think they should hesitate to recommend what they believe is going
to produce results, notwithstanding that all they may say may not strike
the management of the roads in exactly a pleasing way.

Mr. Ford: — From the remarks of the last two speakers it would
seem that either they have not grasped what the Committee has tried to
express in this report or perhaps they have not read the report at all.
This Committee is desirous of obtaining suggestions or criticisms from
this convention. To our mind the first step will be for the members to read
the report as presented and then give the benefit of their suggestions.
During the past three years that this Committee has been in existence, it
has been endeavoring to keep in touch and deal with conditions which,
within this short period, has covered the most abnormal fluctuation in
the entire history of railroading. This has been primarily due to four
causes which may be stated generally as follows :

(1) The increase in business throughout the country;

(2) A reaction from the paralysis caused by the sudden termina-

tion of the war;

(3) Industrial intoxication prevalent in all lines of industrial

endeavor ;

1028 Economics of Railway Labor.

(4) The greatest labor demoralization that the world has ever
known.

So far as maintenance of way labor is concerned, it started with a
volunteer adjustment in wages and to some extent in working conditions
during the early stages of Federal administration ; later revolutionized by
General Order No. 27, followed up by National Agreements for working
conditions, classifying men and creating a condition completely new for
track labor.

It would be idle to expect this Committee to report anything of con-
structive value during this chaotic period which would have been out
of date before the ink was dry on the paper. The first speaker in this
discussion is no more desirous than the individual members of this Com-
mittee to work out some definite plan for obtaining higher efficiency and
economy in labor for maintenance of way, as well as to develop practical
units by which maintenance of way and structure work may be gauged,
but during the life of this Committee conditions have been too hectic to
permit anything more than the collection of information looking towards
a time when an approach to more nearly normal conditions would permit
a solution as a result of the experiences in past years and the lessons
learned during the war, including therein the probable changes that the
new Transportation Act must, of necessity, cause in the general problem
of railway maintenance and operation.

Mr. Camp: — I do not think the Committee can discover any question
that is new to work on. If the Committee felt that intermittent labor
was not the proper thing, why did it not make a conclusion to that effect
and put it in the report?

Mr. J. E. Willoughby (Atlantic Coast Line) :— On the Atlantic Coast
Line we have laid out our maintenance of way work so that the same
number of men are employed throughout the year ; that is, we do not in-
crease or decrease the labor allowance on account of weather conditions.
Our labor is principally negro labor and we put on the foreman in charge
of the gang the duty of recruiting that labor. It is as much a part of the
foreman's duty to secure his labor as it is to accomplish ef^cient work.
We hold the foreman responsible for the work accomplished.

So far as the negro labor is concerned, the suggestion of the Com-
mittee should be that the foreman ought to be made responsible, and then
measure the work accomplished by the force. Hold the foreman respon-
sible for the class of labor he employs and for the results accomplished.

Mr. Stimson : — The real pity of it is that Mr. Ford has committed
the same error with which he charged me, that is, he has shot wide of
the mark.

The whole thing is this — that it makes no difference whether labor
is intermittent or not, whether you have ten men in January and one hun-
dred men in July — that the Committee on Economics of Railway Labor is
to formulate some plan whereby you can economically direct the force
you have. You can do this by standardizing methods of work and then

Discussion. 1029

setting up standards of performance by those methods as the measure
for actual performance. This is the whole thing in a nutshell. You can
then determine whether your labor is performing according to the standard
or not.

The Committee has asked for help and I gladly make the offer of
mine.

In the last seven or eight years I have given a great deal of thought
to this subject. I was permitted by my company to develop and put in
practice a system which had for its purpose the "Economics of Railway
Labor." The practical application of this system has been established. I
think we owe the Association some results along this line and if the Com-
mittee is sincere in its desire for those results, it can accept my services
and have at its disposal the use of my experience.

Chairman Johnston : — We will accept the offer of that service without
further question. The Committee had the benefit of the advice of a gen-
tleman from Mr. Stimson's road on that question when we formulated this
report and we thought we had his system pretty well in mind, but we
probably are mistaken about that.

Mr. Stein of the Central Railroad of New Jersey has some remarks
to make on the subject.

Mr. C. H. Stein (Central of Jersey) : — I feel that it would be little
short of an act of cowardice on my part if I did not make some reply
to the statement of Mr. Stimson and narrate the history of the propo-
sition.

One would be led to believe by what Mr. Stimson has said in regard
to subject No. 3, that this was a new question for the Committee on
Economics of Railway Labor to solve. As a matter of fact, it is not a
new subject. It is simply an old subject dressed up in a new suit of
clothes. The old term by which it was known was "Equated track sections
or equated mileage." The same subject under the latter name on previous
occasions had been assigned to other committees for consideration. I was
a member of a committee that for four years had this subject under con-
sideration. We secured copious data from about twenty to twenty-five
different railroads, having each railroad prepare for us a statement of
hours consumed on different classes of railroad work, for each of four
typical sections on said railroads. These reports were furnished monthly
for nearly two years.

The data in the meantime was being tabulated and compiled. At the
conclusion of this compilation, and when we had reached the point where
the accumulation of further data seemed to be unnecessary, we made an
effort to group it in some synthetic form so that legitimate and proper
conclusions could be drawn. The chart on which this statistical data was
recorded was about as long as this table. After it had been grouped in
as complete a manner as was possible, we endeavored to arrive at some
substantial and satisfactory conclusions in order to establish certain
principles. The size of the map, the crisscrossing of it, and the groupings

1030 Economics of Railway Labor.

were so complicated that it looked like the map of Europe, and the vary-
ing conditions shown thereon were just as impossible of reconciliation.
Our final conclusion was that it was utterly impossible to focus this mat-
ter in such a manner as to make any definite recommendations and the
entire information, therefore, was discarded.

During the consideration of the subject we had before us plans that
were in effect on the various railroads throughout the country, including
the Grand Trunk, the Erie, and the bonus system of the Baltimore & Ohio.
After studying these various schemes, we concluded that we were not
prepared to recommend any one of them. We felt certain that if we did
we would not get a single approving vote of any recommendation that
we might make unless we recommended the Baltimore & Ohio scheme,
when we might have gotten Mr. Stimson's approval. It resulted in an ut-
terly impossible problem so far as we could determine from the data at
hand, and the subject therefore was temporarily withdrawn. Within the
last several years this same subject was turned over to the Committee on
Economics of Railway Labor.

In confirmation of our conclusion to the effect that we could not reach
any point where we would be justified in making any definite and satis-
factory recommendations, and that would obtain the approval of even a
reasonable number of the members of this Association, only last evening
I was talking with one of the authors of a system of equating track mile-
age. He was a representative of one of the largest systems in the country.
He told me that they had ultimately discarded their scheme of equating
mileage because they had reached the conclusion that the proposition was
one for a hard-headed, hard-fisted track supervisor or Roadmaster, who
knew actually what the needs of any particular section of track were, and
that they could not accomplish anything of a practical nature by the ex-
pounding of theories and action thereon that were so constantly open to the
objections of practical conditions and considerations.

Therefore, I feel that I am justified in saying that the cart has not
been put before the horse, and that the horse was in its proper position
five or six years ago when this same question was considered by another
committee, which reached practically the same conclusion that we have
reached here.

I furthermore want to make clear in this particular instance, that there
was no failure on our part to go actively into the discussion of this par-
ticular subject. This Committee has not been indolent, and it has not
neglected the most important and essential one of the subjects assigned
to it. Mr. Stimson says, "You want to look at your work, formulate
your program, and know what you want to do." I want to say, however,
that above and beyond that, as a matter of primary consideration you
want to know what you want to do your work with, and that is the man
element.

It was during 1915 and 1916, as I remember, that this proposition of
equating track sections was first considered, and we reached the con-

Discussion. 1031

elusion that we could not at that time do anything with it; that the state
of the art or science, as you are pleased to call it, had not advanced to the
point where we could in a mathematical form express conclusions that
would be substantial and effective, if applied, in producing the results that
this convention desired. All of the subjects assigned to this Committee
have been subjects for grave consideration by previous committees. The
labor situation is not a new one, and committees of this organization have
spent much thought upon it before. Engineers of Maintenance of Way and
other supervisory forces of the Track Department have been striving for
a great many years to improve the competency and efficiency of the labor
employed under them, and prior to 1915 they had reached a point where
they were within speaking acquaintance of the one-hundred-per-cent-effi-
ciency man. Everybody knows what the experience of 1915 to 1920 has
been. There never has been, in all the history of this country, a state of
unrest among our laboring classes such as we have had to contend with
during that period, and particularly during the years of 1918, 1919 and
1920. Every man in this room knows but too well what actuating forces
were responsible for these restless conditions that had affected our labor
situation generally. They know into what a turbulent state our entire
labor structure had been brought by the effects of Government control.
The results of it were that the managements of the railroads had prac-
tically no control over their men. Inefficiency ran rampant. They know,
too, how the discipline on the railroads of the country was completely
demoralized and how the men, because of the scarcity of labor and be-
cause of the pinnacle that they had been placed upon by Government
control, felt themselves greater and more powerful than the managing
officers who were trying to direct them into paths of efficiency and ac-
complishment. As Grover Cleveland said, "This is not a theory, but a
condition that confronts us." During that period every railroad man-
ager used his utmost endeavors and exercised his ability to the limit to
correct the existing situation, or at least hold it in suspense, hoping that
as we emerged from the period of Federal control we would be able to
save something, at least, from the wreck, and upon the foundation of effort
that we were putting forth we would be able to do something sooner or
later that would make it possible for us to restore the oldtime morale of
our forces.

These men, who have been spoiled by unbridled license, are the ones
that we must use to accomplish our programs of work, and, therefore, I
contend that before we can map out and determine upon definite programs
for doing work we must restore the aforetime efficiency and morale of the
workers; that their present condition is the problem that immediately
confronts us, and it was the problem that the Committee was trying to
solve. I quite agree with one of the preceding speakers that this has
become not only a financial and economic problem but it has become
more and more, as it was tending to become in 1914 to 1916, a psychological
problem. We must get nearer to our men. We must be the guideposts

1032 Economics of Railway Labor.

and point out the way to them that will lead to their own peace and hap-
piness, as well as to the success of the railroads and the prosperity of the
Nation. It is a well-established fact, and there is no use of our closing
our eyes to it, that we need not expect the labor leaders to point that way.
They have been responsible for much of the present unrest. We were
getting close to the men. It was the sentiment and feeling of every man-
aging officer that he wanted to know his men. This knowledge of the
individual was the potent force of Napoleon in the war in the early part
of the nineteenth century. He was near to his men and he knew them ;
he called many of the privates in the ranks by their names, and this
familiarity did not breed contempt, but gave him power. This was the
dominant thought with managing officers during the period from 1900 to
1915; that we had to get close to the men and study the human element;
that we had to know them as Napoleon knew his men. We recognized it
as an asset in our organization. Unfortunately, we were distracted from
these things during the turbulent period that we have just passed through.
We must now turn back and study this subject again from a psychologi-
cal standpoint, taking up the program where we left off in 1914, and im-
prove on what we were only able to do in a perfunctory manner during
the past five years. We must make our men know that we are interested
in their work, and that there is a common bond between us.

The Kansas City Southern, as Mr. Johnston has just explained, is
making this very effort to get close to their men. Other railroads have
followed a similar practice but perhaps not to the extent his road has. I
hope it may be pardonable for me to make a personal allusion to a practice
I followed as long as fifteen years ago. It was our custom to call a meet-
ing of all the maintenance of way foremen. We did this about once every
three months, and we talked over the things that concerned them, the things
that were their problems, the things that were their work-a-day life. We
sometimes talked about their personal matters, and it had the effect of
wonderfully improving the morale of these men. If you can improve the
morale of the foremen, its influence will spread out from them as a
nucleus, and affect the men working under them, and, sooner or later the
efforts thus put forth are worked out into achievable and successful
results.

We have these two propositions before us as they are embodied in
subjects (1) and (2) assigned this Committee, and it is not putting the
cart before the horse when the most earnest and emphatic consideration
is given these subjects first. The third subject can follow after you have
been successful in restoring the equilibrium of your forces, and this
equilibrium can only be established by having approximately one-hundred
per cent men. When you have reached that status in the situation, then
you can prepare your schedule and program, and have some hope of ar-
riving at a conclusion with regard to the equation of track sections that
will be productive of efficient and satisfactory results.

Mr. Camp : — What Mr. Stein has said, I think, provokes still further
discussion, although I agree with him in much that he has said. I think

Discussion. 1033

he has been somewhat unfair towards Mr. Stimson, in that he has given
him credit for working out only the equation of track mileage. That is
only a minor feature of Mr. Stimson's system.

Mr. Stimson has, in addition, worked out unit costs of labor and ap-
plied them to his track sections, and with that he has a bonus system. In
fact, Mr. Stimson has done what I have never known anyone else to do
before him — he has virtually applied a piece work system to track labor.
When the railroads went under Government control, two large systems,
the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania, had that system in force, al-
though the Pennsylvania not as long as the Baltimore & Ohio. As used
on the Pennsylvania the system was rather experimental.

I want to say a word about the question of equating track mileage.
I believe that if the Committee on Economics of Railway Labor had not
tried to split hairs, it could have made some effective recommendations
on that matter. I was on the Committee when that subject was being con-
sidered, and while we found that one road was equating mileage in one
way and another in another way, yet the Committee should have found
some way of getting at the fundamental ideas and proposed workable
principles. If one insists on rules that are hard and fast, he will not ac-
complish satisfactory results, but I believe workable principles can be
applied to equated track mileage in a way to work out a satisfactory
plan.

I believe Mr. Stimson's system of unit costs and paying a bonus to
section laborers in accordance with what they accomplish over and above
a desirable average of results, is working toward the right object and It
appeals to the human element.

To be frank and honest with ourselves, the American people do not
want to do manual labor and most of us are trying to get away from it.
Country people are running away from the farms, and the wise heads
who have so much to say about welfare work and sociology, are trying
to devise means of holding people on the farms ; and so they are propos-
ing motion pictures, ice cream parlors and various forms of entertain-
ment in the country to get the people back and hold them there. We have
housing problems in the large cities, and what does it mean ? That we
have had a sudden expansion of population during the war and that there
are too many people for the houses we have? No, it means that the
people from the country have been overcrowding the cities. In the
country there are plenty of vacant houses. We have a similar situation
on the track — laborers want to shun it. In order to keep the people in
the country it is felt that country life must be made more attractive for
them.

I am not in entire sympathy with all the plans that have been pro-
posed to make work attractive to the track forces, but I believe Mr. Stim-
son's system will make track labor more efficient and more attractive to
American-born or American-bred men, and I will conclude with this
suggestion to the Committee — when you find a good thing, recommend it

1034 Economics of Railway Labor.

to the Association and propose that it be placed in the Manual. It is not
to be presumed that you can arrive at a system of employing and educating
labor in the maintenance of way forces of the companies, full and com-
plete, in one year, but if you find a single principle worthy of recommenda-
tion let the Association have the benefit of it.

This Committee has had a life of four years, and some have- sug-
gested that it might work on four years more before arriving at con-
clusions in complete form, and that even then they might not be com-
plete. But why not solve the problem a little at a time? If this matter
of encouraging steady labor is a good thing, then recommend it. It has
been discussed enough on this floor in past years and talked over until
there is nothing further to be said. Let us get that down for one thing
and hold to it.

I am not aware that the Committee has investigated the unit cost
system that was worked out on the Baltimore & Ohio. I know it has
investigated the equating of track mileage, but that is not the distinctive
feature of the B. & O. system. I would like to see the Committee investi-
gate the workings of that system on the Baltimore & Ohio and on the
Pennsylvania and report on it as a progress report if it could not arrive
at any conclusions, but let us have that to begin with.

Mr. R. G. Kenly (Minneapolis & St. Louis) : — Some of our friends
come up into Minneapolis or St. Paul and come back and say they spent
part of the winter up there, and when they are asked how long they were
there they say nine months. There are at least six months of the year in
Western Minnesota and the Dakotas when we operate with a section
foreman on a six-mile division.

There is so little track work to be done during a large part of the year
that it would be difficult to arrive at a method of dividing that work
throughout the year so as to maintain our section force. This Committee
does not need the sympathy of any man in the Northwest where our
labor is highly organized. Some of our Northwestern friends may smile
at that, but they are highly organized not to do any work they can help
doing, and are highly organized, again, to get all the transportation out of
the railroad they possibly can get. I think last year four or five of the
Northwestern lines sent seventy-five per cent, more men out on the line
by passes than reported on the job and went to work. We had three or
four gangs authorized, to work fifty men, and they were sent out daily
in batches of fifteen and twenty, before we were able to keep the extra
gangs up to twelve or fifteen men. If the Baltimore & Ohio can work
out some unit system by which we can do piece work under those condi-
tions we would very much like to have it done.

We certainly owe Mr. Stimson and the Baltimore & Ohio many
thanks for the effort they have made to organize their maintenance of
way labor to do some of it by the piece-work system. Without desiring
to draw particular attention to myself I will say that I equated the mile-
age on the Lehigh Valley Railroad in 1902 and 1903 on the basis of

Discnssion. 1035

switches, turnouts, passenger tracks, etc. That was simply a question of
equating it so as to place a uniform number of men on the sections. We
have a problem in the Northwest that evidently Mr. Stimson does not
know anything about at all and this Committee apparently does. I say
again, they do not need my sympathy.

Mr. C. A. Morse (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — I think we all
realize that the work of this Committee is something that can do the
railroads a lot of good at the present time. We are up against a labor
proposition, you can begin at one end or the other or the middle, and there
is trouble. I know the work a good many of the members of the Com-
mittee are doing and I know they will get something out of it.

I have been at quite a few labor meetings in the last few months
where the representative of each railroad had ideas of his own, and no
progress was made, because there were as many ideas as individuals. What
we need to do is to give the Committee the benefits of any ideas we have,
something they can work on and in time solve the question.

There is one point I will refer to. One of the subjects is in regard to
training men. On a railroad we have a lot of individual organizations —
we have the bridge gangs, water service gangs, track gangs, building g;;ngs
and signal gangs, and one of the things the Committee should give con-
sideration to is to try to get the men in charge of these gangs into a uabit
of planning their work. I have always been impressed with the idea
when I see a section gang get on their car that about four out of five
when they started had no more idea of what they were going to do than
I had. I believe one of the first things to do is to try to get a program
for the season's work outside of the ordinary maintenance work, try to get
the Roadmaster to plan with the section foreman, and see if you cannot
get the section foremen, the bridge foreman and the foreman of each
gang which has a regular assigned territory, to have the season's work
planned out, so that when they start out on Monday morning, in addition
to the regular work, they will accomplish something on that program. 1
believe we realize that the Roadmaster, section foreman, and Division
Engineer as well, who plans his work, gets more out of the amount of
material and the expense which he incurs than the man who does not
plan. The man who spends his money hit or miss cannot get the results
that a man does who plans his work.

We are up against the wage proposition and in all these years of
railroading in this country we have considered every man working on the
section gang as a common laborer. The man who has been with the road
for ten or fifteen years gets the same wages as the Mexican or Italian
who is brought in and does not know the name of anything he is to work
with. The men who have been with the company a longer time have to do
the instructing of these new men.

In this period of reconstruction it would be a great thing if we could
recognize the fact that there is such a thing as a skilled trackman, and
rate part of our gang as skilled men, and the balance as common labor, at

1036 Economics of Railway Labor.

common labor prices, and the men we rate as sliilled men, should have
higher prices.

My idea is that at least half of the ordinary section gang should be
skilled trackmen and the filling in, which is done seasonally, should be
done with common labor. In the case of extra gangs probably one-third
should be skilled men and the rest common labor. A trackman is as human
as the rest of us, and the man that you recognize as more than a common
laborer will have greater self-respect and take more interest in his work,
when recognized by the company he is working for, as a man that knows
something, and is entitled to better than common laborers' pay. One of the
ways we will get more interest and greater efficiency in our work is to
recognize a certain portion of our trackmen as skilled labor.

Mr. Maurice Coburn (Pennsylvania System) : — I think Mr. Morse's
last suggestion is one of the most important we could have and that the
Committee should give it very careful ^attention. Mr. Stein says that the
labor leaders are responsible for a good deal of the trouble we have had
in the last year or two — they may have been responsible for part of it,
but not all of it — we ourselves are responsible for a good deal of the
trouble. It has been our practice to hire and fire our men and use them
like ties and rails. We must get a different idea if we are to be successful.

There are some other industries that are doing better than we are
doing with reference to subject No. (2). Our conditions are such that
we ordinarily do not have the courage to inaugurate these things. Mr.
Stimson deserves great credit in what he has done, he was a pioneer — we
do not agree with all he did, but we are indebted to him for starting some-
thing and doing something a little different. Some of the other indus-
tries are doing some of these things. Last year we had printed in the
Proceedings a few comments by one man who had been doing some of
these things very successfully.

For a good many years I asked for the appointment of a Labor
Committee and we finally got one. I have felt at times that the Labor
Committee might do more than they were doing; perhaps I did not ap-
preciate what they were up against. It is a really encouragin*? thing to
have such an extended discussion, as we have had at this time on this
subject.

Mr. Stein: — I wish to say just one word more in explanation. If I
was understood to have condemned Mr. Stimson's scheme on the Talti-
more & Ohio, I want to disclaim any intention of doing so. What I tried
to make clear was that in the study of his bonus system made by the
Committee of which I was a member, it was impossible for us to come
to the conclusion that if we recommended this system or any similar to
it, it would receive the endorsement of the Association. That is the exact
point I wanted to make.

In regard to the welfare work referred to by Mr. Coburn and the
recognition of the human element, I was much interested in vhat Mr.
Morse had to say. I felt that it was exactly in harmony with what I

Discussion. 1037

had attempted to say. I wish to say further, in explanation of the state-
ment I made that the labor leaders are responsible for the condition of
unrest that exists among our labor element, I have had quite a varied ex-
perience in dealing with labor and have been very vitally interested in
the labor proposition for the last three and a half years, and have spent
most of my time in close association with it. It was upon the basis of
this experience that I felt I was justified in making that statement. As a
confirmation of the fact that welfare work will not alone hold men loyal
to a business organization, I point to the many diversions of welfare work
that the United States Steel Corporation has provided for the benefit of
its men. All of these beneficial agencies along welfare lines nevertheless
failed to have sufficient influence to off^set the underground work that the
radical labor leaders were doing, and the result was the gigantic steel
strike. If these radical labor leaders had not gotten under the skins of
the men, this strike would not have occurred, as the rank and file of labor
is all right at heart.

When I had my close associations with the men that I was employing
from 1907 to 1915, I felt that I was getting along admirably toward pro-
ducing a state of harmony where I need have no fear as lo the results, but
in 1916 all of the work that I had done during the preceding years went
for naught. It was simply due to the fact that an organizer had gotten
into our ranks and disturbed the minds of our men to the point where we
could no longer control them, and that they would not listen to us for
counsel and advice.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — Speaking of the
human element in this problem, and I believe it is the heart of the prob-
lem, Mexican labor is probably as unstable as any other of that class. We
are dependent on it for the major part of roadway work and there is
still much instability of it. During the past fifteen years we have boen
improving the living conditions of the Mexican laborers and are getting
gc^d results therefrom. There are still some tie shacks on our road, but
they are being replaced at a satisfactory rate with good buildings and im-
proved living conditions. In this time there has been improvement in the
stability and quahty of much of that labor and in its family life. More
of the men are remaining with us. In thus giving attention to the human
element we have not considered ourselves philanthropists. We did not
approach the matter from that standpoint, but we have realized that with
the condition of Mexican life as it existed when I went to El Paso, 33
years ago, and as it still exists among the masses in Mexico, we could not
hope to have such track labor as we ought to have.

We have developed a number of good Mexican section foremen .ind
it has repeatedly happened that, under the annual inspection, the wives
of some of these foremen have won the prize for the best kept section
house on the road. We give a variety of prizes in which they are inter-
ested, and for which they compete with spirit and benefit. It is not cost-
ing us much to do this except the investment in the better class of build-
ings, which we find fully justified by the results.

1038 Economics of Railway Labor.

Mr. Ford: — The Committee has in previous reports called attention
to the defective principle involved and the wasteful practices cf inter-
mittent labor, but so far it has not been able to develop a practical remedy
or plan that would warrant a definite recommendation to this Association.

From the remarks of one of the speakers in this discussion it is pos-
sible that the impression may be conveyed that this Committee is not in
favor of equating track sections. If so, this is erroneous. The Com-
mittee believes it to be a necessary index, although perhaps not as a con-
clusive measure, for track maintenance.

Mr. Stimson : — I do not want to be misunderstood in this ma;ter.
What I advocate is a system like our own of handling maintenance of way
work. It takes the practices which have been used in shop management
for a great many years and applies them to track labor. I believe we have
demonstrated it can be done successfully. After you have done that you
have some way of handling your work so it can be done economically and
you will know what you are doing.

I wish to apologize to Mr. Coburn for not answering his letter and
to thank Mr. Stein for his kind words. As to Mr. Kenly, -ny friend from
the Northwest, I feel sorry for him.

Mr. Mott Sawyer (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) :— I l.ielicve Mr.
Stimson and Mr. Willoughby have a different position and a different
point of view from men on other lines. Mr. Stimson says he has plenty
of men all the time, but about the heaviest burdens that have been put on
many maintenance of way officers during the past few years has been to
get men enough to do the absolutely necessary things. We do not need a
better system of reports or statistics to tell us that the men we are em-
ploying do not come within hailing distance of doing a fair day's v. crk
and doing it decently. Since we cannot get men enough to do what needs
to be done, many of us in the West think that what the railroads have
got to do is to attract a better class of men in the maintenance of way
department — whether that will be done by a system of bonuses, or by some
other system which will tend to gage men's compensation by their pro-
duction, or come through what Mr. Stimson smilingly calls "welfare
work," or by stabilizing labor, is a problem. Many roads cannot do sec-
tion work throughout the year, and the determination of what can be done
to improve the labor situation and get us men enough to do the work
efficiently and economically is a very serious matter, and I want to take
the opportunity of suggesting that this Committee in putting stress on
means of recruiting and retaining labor is doing a very valuable work.

Chairman Johnston : — For the Committee I wish to say, in conclusion,
that we have not anything further to offer, and our desire has been
achieved in having had this very lengthy discussion. We are especially
thankful to Mr. Morse, Mr. Coburn, Mr. Stimson and others for the
really constructive suggestions. Also the Committee is endeavoring to
become familiar with the conditions in the Northwest, Southwest, South,
East, Middle West and New England. We have now a great amount of

Discussion. 1039

data and will get some more. We are soft-pedaling on a recommenda-
tion, because we think the subject is so important we do not want to get
very far from shore until we know we are right. We are not at all dis-
couraged, and this coming year we hope we will be able to prepare a re-
port that will be of real interest next year.

Vice-President Downs : — As the report has no definite recommenda-
tions it will be received as information. I want to say that some of the
best reports of this Association were not gotten up in one year. The
Committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.

DISCUSSION ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY
OPERATION

(For report, see pp. 723-792.)

Mr. L. S. Rose (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — The
subjects referred to the Committee are outlined on page 723, Bulletin
234. Mr. Howson will present the matter on subject (1), which will be
found in Appendix A.

(Mr. Howson then abstracted the matter in Appendix A, and said) :

Mr. E. T. Howson (Railway Age) : — The report is one of progress,
as we have only just nicely entered upon the subject.

Chairman Rose : — Mr. Brooke will present Appendix B, covering
subject (2).

Mr. G. D. Brooke (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The report of this Sub-
Committee is also one of progress, and while it is really only a beginning
of the study of the subject, the Sub-Committee feels that the work can
be made some use of by railroad officers in considering problems of in-
creasing the capacity of a railroad.

The report consists of two subjects or parts, the first, shown on
page 733, a study of railroad operation with a view of increasing its ca-
pacity with its existing facilities. The Sub-Committee has taken the view
that the first thing to determine is — "Can the capacity of the railroad be
increased without any large expenditure of money for facilities," and in
this study an attempt has been made to point out a method of examination
along these lines.

The second part of the report entitled, "Notes on the Determination
of the Traffic Capacity of Single and Multiple Track Railways," is a
discussion of the theoretical capacity of the railroad and it is thought
that it has a field of quite practical application. It is the intention of the
Sub-Committee to secure data on the operation of various engine dis-
tricts and apply the methods here outlined with a view to developing them
further and develop the scheme which has been started in this report.

Chairman Rose : — The third subject on Track Maintenance will be
presented by Prof. C. C. Williams. This subject was divided into three

1040 Economics of Railway Operation

parts. The main subject is, "The Effect of Speed of Trains on Cost of
Operation," divided into three parts — part 1, Maintenance; part 2, Cost of
Transportation, and part 3, Cost of Motive Power Expenses. Two of
the subjects have been reported on by the Committee. We have had
some difficulty in finding the right sort of information in connection with
the third subject, and we propose finishing it up next year. Prof.
Williams will speak about Track Maintenance.

Prof. C. C. Williams (University of Kansas) : — There have been
many scientific observations on the behavior of track under traffic, and it
was the purpose of this Sub-Committee to bring the results of these ob-
servations to bear on solving this problem, and to focus upon it whatever
light existed in securing quantitative results. There has been a good
deal of discussion at the Association meetings and in the press concerning
the factors which enter into this problem, and it has been extremely dif-
ficult to secure quantitative results.

(Prof. Williams then read the matter on page 760, beginning "Two
distinct points of view," etc., down to paragraph at head of page 763.
Also abstracts of matter under "Observation of Joint Deformation and
Tie Cutting at High and at Low Speed Points.")

Unfortunately the results were too' meager to indicate any definite
■conclusions.

A third method of going at the problem was an analysis of the
factors which enter into maintenance and a study of the observations
which have been made by various persons concerning the behavior of
track under traffic to show what the effect of speed is.

(Prof. Williams then abstracted the matter "Indices of the Effect of
Speed on Maintenance," on page 766.)

These tests have been corroborated to a greater or less extent by other
observer^. These observations were taken as a measure of the tendency
of rails to break, and then other observations were made by the Penn-
sylvania Railroad on the pressures on tie plates, and observations v have
been made on the lateral thrust on rails, etc.

I may say that the data on which the figures on page 772 were made
were of a general nature and consequently should be modified for the
greatest usefulness to fit the conditions for the particular road using
them.

Chairman Rose: — Mr. Teal will present the report on "The Effect
of Speed of Trains on the Cost of Operation," beginning on page IIZ.

Mr. J. E. Teal (Baltimore & Ohio) : — This is also a progress report
and I will briefly describe the general methods of attack.

(Mr. Teal abstracted the report.)

Chairman Rose : — 'We expect to hand most of this back in the form
of recommendations, and the Committee would like suggestions and
criticisms of these reports in order that we can be sure we are on the
right track and go ahead.

Discussion. 10^1

The President: — Is there any discussion of the report? This report
does not require action for adoption in the Manual, but is before you
for discussion. The Chair desires to commend this report to the mem-
bership for careful study and cooperative work with the Committee for
the coming year. They have undertaken to develop a number of ex-
ceedingly important subjects which are going to increase in value as time
goes on, especially in connection with the consideration of maintenance
programs and the measure of maintenance performance. I hope the good
work which this Committee has done will be appreciated and such ap-
preciation shown by an active interest in the subject. It is a matter
which interests nearly all of us.

Mr. Maurice Coburn (Pennsylvania) : — The first subject is an import-
ant contribution to the labor subject we have just been discussing and
gives the rank and file some of the fun we have been trying to keep to
ourselves.

DISCUSSION ON ECONOMICS OF RAILWAY
LOCATION

(For report, see pp. 565-584.)

Mr. C. P. Howard (Interstate Commerce Commission) : — The report
on revision of the Manual will be presented by Mr. Beahan.

Mr. Willard Beahan (New York Central) : — I rise to make report on
the revision of the Manual, in the absence of the Chairman of the Sub-
Committee, Mr. Lavis.

Your Sub-Committee thought it best to recommend definitions which
were simplified as much as possible ; these will be found on page 567.
In connection with the first proposed definition, we felt that in the
problem of location, to take up the question of fuel cost and power and
interest was perhaps unwise, and might better be omitted from the Manual.
Then, as to the probable cost of operation, consideration should be given
to the various and mounting character of traffic, and emphasis should be
put on that rather than on cost of fuel.

In the second section we thought it best to define better what we
consider the matter of the ruling gradient, especially where starting out
of a siding, and the only idea we express is that the gradient should be
such that the engine can start its train from any point of departure from
that siding.

We also propose to change the words "grade" and "grades" to
"gradient" and "gradients," the idea being that a grade may mean the em-
bankment or the cut, and that was somewhat confusing, especially to the
younger men ; so instead of speaking of the grades, we will speak of the
gradient, as being a better engineering term.

1042 Economics of Railway Location.

We have also recommended that the matter in the Manual coming
under the chapter of Location be given a series of sub-headings, and
believe it would be better and more comprehensive if shown in that man-
ner.

We also recommend a new formula. This is in addition to the mat-
ter now in the Manual and is not a correction.

Chairman Howard : — I move the adoption and insertion in the Manual
of the text under Appendix A.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Howard; — Appendix B is a report on "Resistance of Trains
Running Between 35 and 75 Miles per Hour." The conclusions recom-
mended for adoption are found on page 577. I move their adoption.

Mr. L. E. Dale (Pennsylvania System) : — I inquire if that applies to
resistance on straight and level track — the change of resistance with vary-
ing speed. That would apply to level track, and would not apply to grade
resistance, if I understand it correctly. Could not the conclusions be
amended to state that it is straight and level track that is referred to?

Chairman Howard : — The Committee will accept that.

(Mr. Howard's motion was put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Howard : — Mr. Going will present Appendix C, "Economics
of Location as Affected by Introduction of Electric Locomotives."

Mr. A. S. Going (Grand Trunk) : — Your Committee was supposed to
report on the economics of this subject, but the Sub-Committee felt that
we should devote most of our attention to the operating features, and
you will notice on pages 578, 579 and 580 and part of 581, that we show
the advantages and disadvantages of the electrification of our steam rail-
roads, and especially as compared with the modern locomotive, and under
the heading "General," on page 581, especially at the top of page 582, I
would specially call attention to what we think is fair, where we say,
"Steam railroads will generally consider electrification," etc.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) :— In Appendix
C, in referring to the economics of location as affected by electrical
operation, on page 580, the Committee says : "Two or more electric en-
gines coupled together may be operated by a single crew. This possibility
of double heading without additional engine crews results in a considerable
saving."

Later, under sub-heading, "Rate of Grade," on page 583, the following
statement is made : "In heavy service, and especially on mountain grades,
the economic value of electric operation may be quite high, as it is pos-
sible to add engine units without adding engine crews."

I know of no electric operation where it would be possible or, at least,
where it is the practice to double-head freight trains with two electric
locomotives with one engine crew, and I doubt the correctness of the con-
clusions of the Committee.

Is it not possible that the Committee had in mind that many electric
locomotives are built in two half-units, each of which may be arranged

Discussion. 1043

so as to be operated independently if desired? Three half units are
primaril}' intended to be operated as a unit with one engine crew. An
additional unit, however, would certainly require an additional engine
crew.

Mr. Going: — Personally I am not able to tell you, but this informa-
tion is taken from some of the data that is issued by the General Electric
Company; in fact, most of the data that we have used in compiling this
was information we gleaned from different reports by men connected
with the General Electric Company, and these Pittsburgh people.

Mr. Edwin B. Katte (New York Central) : — I read the title of this
report and it did not occur to me that a report on railway location would
contain a dissertation on the relative advantages of steam and electric
operation, therefore I regret I have not read it. I find a great deal, at
this first glance, to criticize. The explanation from the Chairman of the
Sub-Committee that the report is a compilation of information supplied
by the General Electric Company might lead to the belief that perhaps the
manufacturers of steam locomotives supplied some of the other data, as
for instance the statement on page 581. (Mr. Katte read at the top of
page 581, commencing with "The breaking of an insulator," and ending
with "Section is tied up.")

I do not think such a delay ever occurred, except perhaps on an
obscure trolley road. In fourteen years of electric operation on the New
York Central there have been broken many insulators, but never has the
whole railroad been tied up because of the breaking of one insulator. It
might cause a delay of four or five minutes on one track to locate that
particular insulator and isolate that feeder or third rail, but no general
delay would occur. No railroad depends upon one feeder for its entire
system. A little further on the same page I notice a reference to electric
operation being more apt to be interfered with by the vagaries of the
weather, that lightning is apt to interrupt it. Lightning seldom if ever in-
terrupts electric railways nowadays, and other climatic conditions affect
electric operation far less than they do steam operation. The record of the
New York Central Electric Division during storms is far better than that
of the adjacent steam-operated divisions.

Mr. G. D. Brooke (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I have one point that I would
like to have cleared up. On page 578 it says : (Mr. Brooke read from
the second paragraph on page 578, commencing with "When properly de-
signed" and ending with "under single control.") On page 582 it says:
(Mr. Brooke read under Distance on page 582, commencing with "Track
Maintenance" and ending with "Electric Motors.") These are two dia-
metrically opposed statements. I would like to know which is correct.

Mr. Going: — In regard to the statement on page 582 I might say that
I got that from Mr. McHenry as the result of his experience on the New
Haven. Mr. McHenry wrote that sentence himself.

Mr. Brooks: — Can you tell me who wrote the other sentence?

1044 Shops and Locomotive Terminals.

Mr. Going: — I must confess I am a steam railroad Engineer and I do
not profess to know very much about electrification. Mr. McHenry
assisted me on the economics, for the other part I have used the "Signal
Engineer," "Electric Railway Journal," "Railway Age," and all the in-
formation I could compile for the last five or six years.

Mr. Katte : — May I suggest that you call upon the Committee on
Electricity for such electrical data as you will need for your next report?
On the Committee on Electricity there are Engineers who have spent
many years in the design, construction and operation of electric railroads
and they are entirely at your service and will be glad to cooperate with
you.

DISCUSSION ON SHOPS AND LOCOMOTIVE TER-
MINALS

(For report, see pp. 585-602.)

Mr. F. E. Morrow (Chicago & Western Indiana) : — Your Committee
has only had this year for the study of the subjects assigned to it. It has
been actively engaged in collecting information as to prevailing practice
on these subjects, but does not at this time present any definite conclu-
sions as to recommended practice. The Committee have not felt that
they have had sufficient time to present mature conclusions.

In Appendix A there is a discussion of the subject, "Design of car
shops," it being limited to freight car repair shops, with certain tentative
conclusions, and then a series of cuts showing the construction of various
shops throughout the country on various railroads.

In Exhibit B we have shown a compilation of certain cuts of the
various types and varieties of ash-pits. The Committee is further work-
ing on subject (2). This work is progressing, but has not yet reached
the stage of compiling a report.

The Committee submits the information shown in appendices A
and B simply as information.

The President: — This is the first report of this newly-created Com-
mittee, and I think they are to be congratulated for having brought to-
gether a great deal of good basic information, which will be built on in
coming months. It is a class of work upon which I think we should
place a great deal of importance, because it correlates the problems of
the Mechanical Department with the Engineering Department. This
Committee is cooperating with a similar committee in the Mechanical
Division. I am sure they will appreciate constructive suggestions during
the coming year in the furtherance of their ambitions.

Discussion. 1045

DISCUSSION ON BUILDINGS

(For report, see pp. S43-888.)

Mr. W. T. Dorrance (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : — The
subjects assigned to the Committee on Buildings this year were five. A
study of the Manual was made, but the Committee has no recommenda-
tions to make involving the subject-matter of the Manual. We do, how-
ever, expect, when the new Manual is printed, to have the subject-matter
arranged in a slightly different form so as to make it more readily avail-
able. The Committee has no changes to suggest and the conclusion on
this subject merely refers to the editing and rearrangement of the subject-
matter now published.

Subject (2), Classification of Buildings, was given considerable study,
and the Committee presents as information on this subject the matter
contained in Appendix A. There are no conclusions; it is presented as
information.

The Committee was not able to do very much work this year in con-
nection with subject (3), devoting most of its time to subjects (2) and
(5). In fact, subjects (3) and (4) were not given careful consideration,
which enabled us to put most of our time on subject (5), which we felt
had to be considered pretty thoroughly in order to get a real start on that
subject.

Subject (5) is to report on specifications for buildings for railroad
purposes. The Committee secured specifications from various railroads
and made a careful study and analysis of the ones they were able to secure
and from the data and information collected felt that the proper form
for a general specification of this sort was in what might be termed the
loose-leaf form, whereby each general subject was given a specification by
itself, so as to make possible the combining of any number of these into
one specification for such buildings as might be under discussion. We
selected sixteen different subjects and were able to prepare specifications
for eight of these.

The Committee would like to have the approval of the Association
for this general method of the work and would like to submit the eight
specifications which we have prepared for discussion, expecting them to
lay over for a year before they are offered as final conclusions for in-
sertion in the Manual.

The President : — Do I understand the Committee wants formal ex-
pression at this time of the general methods you are following in the
preparation of the specifications?

Chairman Dorrance : — The Committee does not ask for any formal
action, unless the convention thinks we are on the wrong track. We have
gone ahead on our theory of loose-leaf form.

Mr. O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : —
I notice that in Section 6, Carpentry and Millwork are associated to-
gether. I have found that the practice in actual work is to separate

1046 M a s on r y . •

these two subjects distinctly; the millwork is sublet usually and is a dis-
tinct classification. The carpentry work includes rough lumber and the
placing of the millwork; the millwork includes all work that is dressed
or framed in the mill before going to the site. I think it will facilitate
letting mill contracts if these two subjects are specified separately, and it
can be known distinctly in the case of each building just what is included
in the term millwork.

The President: — I want to ask, on behalf of the Committee, for a
great deal of constructive criticism during the year on this subject. This
is a particularly important matter, and the Committee is making an
earnest eflFort and has a good start. Its progress can be helped a great
deal if the membership will give constructive criticism by correspondence
if not in discussion on the floor.

Chairman Dorrance : — The Committee is presenting no formal con-
clusions for adoption for this year. I want to add for the Committee
to what the President has said. We are very anxious, indeed, to get sug-
gestions on this subject from all the members. It is an exceedingly hard
thing to get a specification that will satisfy everyone, and we want to
get just as many suggestions as we possibly can.

DISCUSSION ON MASONRY

(For report, see pp. 543-564.)

Mr. J. J. Yates (Central of New Jersey) : — The work of the Masonry
Committee this year has been largely confined to the work of the "Joint
Committee on Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete," and
many of its reports are deferred pending the results of the final specifica-
tion that is to be issued by that committee. I am pleased to announce
that in accordance with the instructions to the Joint Committee, it is
proposed to issue a tentative specification to the societies represented on
the Joint Committee about May of this year, and I understand it will
probably be published in July in our Bulletin. Under the rules of or-
ganization discussion is to be open one year, and then it goes back to the
Joint Committee for further consideration and preparation of the final
specification. We hope that there will be written discussions and when
it gets to the floor of the convention, oral discussions on the subject. Our
instructions were to conform to the best practice and we are trying to do
it, but there are some new things that will be introduced.

The Masonry Committee reports on two subjects, one a progress re-
port, and one for insertion in the Manual. The first report for insertion
in the Manual is the "Report on Disintegration of Concrete and Cor-
rosion of Reinforcing Materials in Connection with the Use of Concrete
in Sea Water." This subject has been before the Committee for several
years and there have been several progress reports made. I will ask Mr.
Schall, Chairman of the Sub-Committee, to present the report.

Discussion. 1047

Mr. F. E. Schall (Lehigh Valley) : — In presenting this report of Sub-
Committee (2) of the Masonry Committee, it is well to state that we
have found it difficult to find a common ground on account of the diversity
of results obtained in the use of concrete in sea water.

The Committee presents a number of conclusions, which may be con-
sidered a compromise among the whole Masonry Committee.

The precautionary notes in the report were thought necessary for con-
structing concrete to be used in sea water. The ordinary concrete of
to-day, if used in sea water, will not prove satisfactory. It requires the
most careful attention to select and prepare the aggregates, grading them
to proper sizes. The mixing of the concrete and placing and working it
into place must also receive the closest attention, so as to obtain a dense
impermeable product.

The report has been printed ; there is no reason for going into it any
farther, but I will read the conclusions as printed on page 549, Bulletin
233.

(Mr. Schall read the conclusions 1 to 6 on page 549 and said) :

These conclusions should be included in the Manual to take the place
of those published on page 294 of the 1915 Manual.

Mr. Chairman, I move that these six conclusions be adopted by the
Association and published in the Manual.

(Motion put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Yates: — One other special subject was assigned to the Ma-
sonry Committee, that is, "Specification for Concrete Pipe." I am pleased
to advise that the tests have been completed by a joint committee and the
work of checking the observations will be completed this summer. The
report will be presented in time for discussion at the next convention.

The next subject we want to present as information and we would
hke to have discussion. It is the very important subject, covering in-
vestigations of the consistency of concrete. You have before you a leaflet,
which I am going to ask Mr. Freeman, the Chairman of the Sub-Com-
mittee, to discuss. I might say that I know there has been a heavy demand
for this leaflet from many railroads, and I am sure that the Portland
Cement Association, who prepared it from a large number of observations
and tests, would be pleased to send the leaflet on request.

Mr. J. E. Freeman (Portland Cement Association) : — Mr. President,
as this leaflet states, the effect of the quantity of mixing water upon the
strength and other properties of the concrete is a matter which has been
brought out most forcefully by recent investigations.

The chart which is at the top of the leaflet illustrates the effect upon
the strength, indicating how, as the quantity of water in the mixture in-
creases beyond that which has been shown as producing the maximum
strength possible, so the strength of the concrete produced decreases. In
many cases in ordinary construction, the quantity of water that is used
today is probably anywhere from, I should say, 30 to 50 per cent, in excess
of the quantity needed for maximum strength.

1048 M a s on r y .

Now, of course, it is true that a concrete giving the maximum strength
indicated on the chart would be rather too stiff to work readily in placing
the concrete in structures, but at the same time a great deal can be done
towards decreasing the quantity of water, and still have a plastic workable
mixture that can be placed in forms without extra effort. As the chart
shows, where 30 to 50 per cent, excess of water is used, the potential
strength of the concrete is only realized to the extent of 50 per cent. ; by
reducing the amount of water, which would bring the quantity figure up
along the curve to a point between 110 and, say, 125, a strength of the
concrete can be realized, which will be 70 to 90 per cent, of the maximum
possible.

The use of an excess quantity of water is bad from two standpoints.
In the one case it means waste of good concrete material, and in the other
case it means a reduced factor of safety in the concrete that goes into the
work. For example, we generally count on a 1 :2 :4 concrete *to produce
2,000-pound compressive strength at the end of 28 days, and yet if that
concrete is placed in the work with an excess of water, we may not get
and generally do not get more than 800 or 1,000-pound compressive
strength.

The excess water also means that other properties of the concrete are
reduced in somewhat like proportion, for example, the resistance to wear
or abrasion. It has been found that where an excess of water is used
which is sufficient to reduce the strength of the concrete 50 per cent., the
same effect has been produced upon its resistance to wear ; in other words,
it has half of the resistance to wear which it otherwise would have. It
has often seemed to me that if we were required to pay for the quantity
of water that was used in the same proportion as we pay for other ma-
terials that go into the concrete, we would secure a much better quality
of concrete.

However, it is possible to control the quantity of water by means
of a simple test which has been developed, called the slump test. That is
referred to in Appendix B on page 553. The slump test can be used as a
means of determining the slump of concrete that is produced with a given
consistency, selected on the basis of the mixture chosen for the work and
the aggregates used as the proper consistency for that particular class of
work, and then this slump factor can be transferred to the job and used
as a control test for the maximum slump permissible. It is not neces-
sarily an exact test. There are naturally some variations in the slump
from different samples of concrete, but at the same time it is a good
check where we have none at the present time beyond general observation,
to see that the quantity of water or that the consistency which has been
selected for that particular job is not being exceeded by the use of more
water than is really necessary.

This whole matter can be summed up in a few words — put the excess
of water on the concrete while it is hardening, rather than in the mixture.

A report which was presented in connection with Masonry Committee
report for 1919 showed the results of some tests on the effect of moisture

Discussion. 1049

applied to the concrete while hardening and upon the compressive strength
and the resistance to abrasion. Some of the tests now presented with this
report as information carry this on further, covering a period from one
year to seven years. The prior tests reported covered only a period from
three days up to four months, but the same result is evident, that the
application of moisture to the concrete while hardening has a tremendous
effect upon its strength and other properties.

There is a need for further information on other points connected
with the manufacture of concrete. We have developed this point as to
the effect of quantity of mixing water and the point as to the effect of
water applied to the concrete while hardening, but there is also the feature
of the actual mixing of the concrete, that needs to be studied more fully —
just how the material should be placed together, and the possible effect of
certain types of mixers, etc. It is to be hoped that a great deal of in-
vestigation will be carried out along that line within the next year or two.

Chairman Yates : — This is offered as information. The Committee
has nothing further to present, but would like discussion on this subject.

Mr. A. F. Robinson (Santa Fe) : — I am one of the unfortunates who
is not willing to accept the so-called slump test. It may be all right, and
it doubtless is, but it is like some of those peculiar things which we can
make mean almost anything.

I feel a good deal as though the investigations thus far made, and
while they were made on proper lines, have at the present time resulted
in clouding the results. At the present time we do not know where we
are getting, we do not know what we want. It does not seem to me that
we ought to arrange our rules for making concrete in such a way that
we have got to have a so-called concrete expert on every division of the
road. We ought to be able to make our rules so that they are very clear
and simple, and so that we can put them into the hands of any intelligent
gang foreman and have the work carried out properly and get fine results.

I feel further that insufficient attention has been given the time the
mixer is to be run. Some of our friends have started investigations on
this subject, but have got switched off onto other lines. They went off on
the subject of water and in a certain way discounted the results of the
time of running the mixer.

There is another important feature, however, which it does not seem to
me the Committee has even touched and that is the care the concrete re-
ceived after it has been placed. In this section of the country and east
of here there is usually a sufficient amount of moisture in the atmosphere
to keep and help the cure properly. When we go west of a north and
south line, say through Dodge City, Kansas, the quantity of moisture in the
atmosphere is much reduced and I doubt if more than 70 per cent, of the
concrete built west of that line is near so good as it ought to be, nor so
good as we should expect from the materials and workmanship used, pro-
vided we could keep the concrete thoroughly wet after the same has been

1050 M a s on r y . '

poured and forms removed. This feature is one of the troublesome ones
I have to contend with.

I am trying to find a method when making concrete units for pile and
slab bridges and for abutments and piers by which when the concrete has
been placed in the pier or in the work and the forms removed we can
coat it with something that is going to absolutely hold in all the moisture
that has been put into the concrete in mixing, thus permitting complete
hydration of the cement.

If you look over the concrete in the Western territory you will al-
most invariably find that it is veined or crazed more or less. The concrete
is in such condition that it will not last as long as it ought to and we must
find some means of keeping the moisture that belongs in the concrete
right through the seasoning process.

I have had several unfortunate cases where we had failures of rein-
forced concrete girders. When we put in the steel beams to take the
load and cut out pieces of the concrete, you could break the chunks off
at the corners just like you would a piece of half-dried clay. Afterwards
these samples were put into water and left there for a week and we got
a fine ring to the pieces. In other words, the hydration of the cement
was again started, even after it had stopped for several years. It seems
to me the committees could investigate these phases of the matter as
A^ell as the others.

Gentlemen, please do not understand from my remarks that I am
attempting to ridicule or belittle this slump test and the test submitted
by the Bureau of Standards. That is not my purpose. I am with you
heart and soul in every kind of an investigation that can make and pro-
duce better concrete.

Chairman Yates : — I can submit one experience which will illustrate
this matter. We had a structure in sea water, where we wanted the best
concrete, and we secured a contractor to do the work in whom we had
a good deal of confidence. When the contract was put up to him we told
him we wanted every precaution taken and specified that there would be
a slump test, and that he was to make the best of concrete. The com-
parative results were that 6-in. cubes of concrete taken as samples of
1-2-4 concrete as we mix it in ordinary work showed strengths below
2,000 lb., the concrete being made up of the best gravel and sand in our
vicinity (washed cowbay gravel and sand). The slump was about 9 in.
After a little experimenting we got the slump down to an inch, although
we only wanted to keep the slump not to exceed 2 in., the slump test
being used as a control test. After the concrete was deposited, cube sam-
ples were taken and when tested at the end of 28 days showed strengths of
from 3,700 lb. to 4,375 lb. per sq. in.

Now, we found another thing. The weight of the test sample of the
wetter concrete was low, 142 lb., and the weight of the dryer concrete
of the same material and same mixture was 154 lb. per cu. ft.

Discussion. 1051

As to the mixing time, there has been considerable investigation on
that point, but I agree with Mr. Robinson there is much to be learned
on this subject. We hope to cooperate with the Concrete Institute in
their investigations of mixers this coming year. We do not know enough
about mixers.

As for the care of concrete after seasoning, we had some reports
last year, but they were not satisfactory. The general care of freshly
deposited concrete is a live subject, and we are going ahead and getting
further information and hope to have something more definite, but we are
not entirely satisfied with the information now before the Joint Com-
mittee, and if any of the membership have reliable information as to cer-
tain failures of concrete which may be due to improper seasoning, and
they will send a written discussion on the subject, we will be only too
pleased to put it before the Joint Committee.

DISCUSSION ON ROADWAY

(For report, see pp. 695-722.)

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals) :— There were seven
subjects assigned to the Committee, which were handled by sub-commit-
tees. This is one of your committees, Mr. President, that believes in
standardization, and where there are two or more ways of doing things,
we believe that the A.R.E.A. way is the way it should be done.

In the absence of Mr. J. G. Little, the Chairman of the Sub-Com-
mittee on the revision of the Manual, I will present that part of the re-
port. We wish, in the first place, to standardize the spelling of the word
"Berm," at least for this Association. There is considerable difference
in the pronunciation of the next word, "Subsidence." We propose the ac-
cent be placed on the "si."

The definition for shrinkage was criticized somewhat by Mr. Wendt
last year, and through the efforts of Mr. McVay's Committee on Sub-
sidence and Shrinkage, this new definition was formulated. The definition
for "settlement" is entirely new, and we wish to delete the table on page
28 of the Manual in connection with the allowance for shrinkage, as it
differs somewhat from Mr. McVay's report, which will follow. I move,
sir, that this part of the report be approved.

Mr. -J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) :— I would like an
explanation of the reason for the redefinition of the word "shrinkage."
It seems rather remarkable.

Chairman Ambrose : — The old definition is perfectly true, but the
Committee feels in connection with certain work now in progress it needed
to be elaborated somewhat and I will ask Mr. McVay to explain that
situation.

Mr. C. M. McVay (Kanawha & Michigan) : — In the work which was
done by this Sub-Committee on instBUctions (2) and (3) on "subsidence

(A)

1052 Roadway.

and shrinkage," we found quite a confusion in the use of these words.
For instance, the word "shrink" would be used when what was really
referred to was "settlement," and we thought it best to outline the
shrinkage as applied to materials, so that in this committee-work we
could come to some definite comparisons in reaching conclusions.

You will notice in this definition it says "shrinkage as applied to
grading material," and that is practically the only way it has been used
in this connection.

Mr. Campbell: — The definition as proposed reads as follows (reads
definition). Stopping after the word "equilibrium," the definition would
not do because the volume of rock excavation in embankment is always
greater than it was in excavation, so the words "negative shrinkage is
known as swell" are added. The definition as it now stands covers two
ideas, the antithesis of each other. It seems to me that it is a violent
construction of the word. I raise the question of the necessity for defin-
ing so simple a word which always has only one meaning, namely, decrease
of volume. This is not true of the word "settlement," which has a
variety of meanings. If I were defining shrinkage, I would say shrinkage
means decrease of volume.

Chairman Ambrose : — That is perfectly true, Mr. Campbell, but I do
not believe that you can apply that definition to the exact purposes to
which this is intended to apply. This is shrinkage in connection with
grading work, and is precisely what our definition covers. It is true it is
contraction of material, but contraction of material is not broad enough
to explain exactly what we mean by shrinkage in the construction of an
embankment.

As to your criticism regarding the last part of that definition, I feel
we might make a separate definition for negative shrinkage. As a mat-
ter of fact, that is self-explanatory. If it is a minus condition, we know
it is swell. The first part of the definition would hold good even though
we had not added that last clause "negative shrinkage is known as swell."

It might be advisable to have a definition for "expansion" in addition
to this definition for "shrinkage."

Mr. C. W. Baldridge (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : — I had a good
deal the idea Mr. Campbell has in regard to the definitions, and I want
to call further attention to the definition of "settlement" given by the
Committee ; it says : "The term 'settlement' as applied to grading material
is the reduction in height of an embankment caused by shrinkage or
subsidence."

Then on page 705, at the end of the paragraph carried over from
page 704, the Committee states : "Settlement may occur without there
being either shrinkage or subsidence, but there can be no shrinkage or
subsidence, as herein defined, without settlement." Their statement in
this case does not agree with their definition. I believe that we can
adopt a better definition than the Committee is offering. I suggest that
this be carried over and the Committee ask for further suggestions.

Discussion. 1053

Chairman Ambrose : — The definition for "settlement," I believe, as
given here, is absolutely correct. You cannot have either subsidence or
shrinkage without settlement. Settlement is simply the reduction in eleva-
tion of any kind of an embankment. The Committee, of course, welcomes
this criticism. We would like some suggestion as to what the definition
should be.

Mr. Baldridge : — I would offer the following as amendments to these
definitions :
Shrinkage. — Shrinkage is a decrease in the volume of an embankment

due to the disintegration of the coarser pieces of material placed in

the fill, with a consequent filling up of voids, and compacting of the

material in the new location.
Swell. — Swell is the increase in the volume of material as shown by its

measurement before excavation and its measurement in embankment

after it has reached a state of equilibrium.
Subsidence. — Subsidence is the decrease in the height of an embankment

due to the compression or displacement of the material upon which

the embankment was placed.
Settlement. — Settlement is a general term covering decrease in height

or volume of an embankment due either to shrinkage or subsidence.

Chairman Ambrose : — Mr. President, the Committee did not desire
to write a treatise on the subject. The suggestion has been made by our
worthy President, that the heading of this definition should be "shrinkage
or expansion," then the definition would apply, except we would delete the
last sentence.

The President : — We have an unwritten rule that we will not take up
the time of the convention in discussing definitions, punctuation, and
matters of that kind. The Chair does not want to restrict proper dis-
cussion of a matter of this kind, but feels that we should make progress.
As the matter stands now, there is a motion before the house, approving
this definition as it stands. Bear in mind that if the wording is such
that there cannot be anj^ confusion, the question of the exact wording of
the definition can be easily disposed of.

(The motion was put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Ambrose: — The second subject is "Subsidence and Shrink-
age of Embankments." That was handled by Mr. McVay.

Mr. McVay: — On page 704 there is a mistake in printing. The para-
graph next to the bottom of that page, the fourth sentence, the word
"settlement" should be changed to "shrink."

On page 705, in the last paragraph in the second line,' the word
"shrinkage" should be changed to "settlement."

The Sub-Committee and the Committee in general has put in con-
siderable time in going over the information that was received, and sub-
mits the conclusions found on page 700.

"Shrinkage" was taken up, and the conclusions are to be found on
page 706.

1054 Roadway.

Chairman Ambrose: — I move, sir, that the conclusions be approved
and incorporated in the Manual.

Mr. Geo. A. Mountain (Canadian Railway Commission) : — I would
like to ask the Committee how they come to the conclusion of figuring
shrinkage of 10 per cent on earth moved from excavation to embankment?

Mr. McVay: — We had cases cited where the shrinkage would run as
high as 40 to 60 per cent; some cases where the shrinkage was 2 and 3
per cent, and in the first place it was necessary to get some definite
standard to compare these things, and practically the only comparison
that could be made was the quantity in the excavation and the same
quantity in the embankment. Quite a lot of the data that is available
does not carry that out far enough to give much information, but we
found that ten per cent was what would be used generally all over the
country in ordinary earth excavation by practically all Engineers in an-
ticipating shrinkage, and we also found that the average of figures taken
after the jobs were completed, where the figures were prepared in any-
thing like shape so we could use them, was very close to ten per cent.
I am free to say that that appears to be the general practice. Almost
every railroad that we got a reply from stated that they were allowing
10 per cent shrinkage.

Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — I will ask the Committee if
they will accept an amendment to conclusion (1), inserting "of quantities
measured in excavation" after "per cent," making it read : "Figure a
shrinkage of 10 per cent of quantities measured in excavation on earth
removed from excavation to embarikment."

The reason I suggest this is that the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission, where it has been applying a shrinkage of 10 per cent had been
adding 10 per cent to the shrunken embankment quantities in order to
ascertain the quantity of excavation, which results in a shrinkage of 9
per cent instead of 10 per cent.

The President : — Is that a suggestion, or offered in the form of a mo-
tion?

Mr. Jenkins: — If it is so desired, I will offer it, but I thought that
the Chairman of the Committee could ask the Committee to accede to the
amendment.

Mr. McVay : — There has been, as I understand, some discussion about
the way this is to be applied, as to whether this yardage is from the
source or in the opposite way. We found that in some cases it was applied
one way, and in other cases in another, different instances that were
brought to. our attention, but we did not feel like saying that it mu.st be
applied from the source or that it must be applied from the final location.
The percentage, I believe, runs about 9.1 one way and approximately 11
the other way. The way it is written here It implies excavation, and
that is, I think, the way that it is generally applied by the Chief Engineers
of the roads from whom we got replies.

Mr. Jenkins : — I am aware that it was customarily applied to excava-
tion quantities in engineering work in making estimates, but I call atten-

Discussion. 1055

tion to the application in the opposite direction, introducing an entirely
new custom.

Mr. H. H. Harsh (Baltimore & Ohio) : — By looking at the definition
that has already been accepted by the Association, I would infer that the
application would apply to the original excavation.

Mr. A. M. VanAuken (Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville) : — I do not
know as the experience of the rest of you has been the same as mine.
There seems to have arisen a serious question as to shrinkage, or what is
really a diflferent matter, from loss of material in transporting from the
excavation to the embankment. In whatever way it is transported there
is a loss. In some methods it is very much greater than in others, and I
wondered if it would be desirable to have a clause here following the one
under discussion, that this did not include loss in transportation. I do
not know whether this is worth while, but with us that has caused quite
an argument.

Chairman Ambrose : — The Committee is very glad to have this dis-
cussion, and as a matter of fact it was anticipated. If Mr. Jenkins so
desires, I will be glad to have him put that in the form of a motion, so it
can come before the house officially.

Mr. Jenkins : — Mr. President, I move that the words "of quantities
measured in excavation" be inserted after "per cent."

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — I move to amend conclusion
(1), on page 700, by including the words "in general" after the word "is,"
so the last sentence will read: "The percentage of subsidence is in gen-
eral greater under small fills than under larger ones."

My reason for that is that in certain sections of the country, prin-
cipally along the Coast and Southeast, as far as my experience goes, large
swampy sections are overlaid with a heavy mat of decayed or partially
decayed marine growth and other vegetation which acts as a raft to a low
fill, and we sometimes find a case where this raft is strong enough or has
floating power enough to carry not only your fill, but your track and
your road. In other cases, of course, it does not do that ; but cases some-
times happen where high fills on that same condition will subside 40, 50
and 100 per cent, and I have known of 200 to 300 per cent of normal, and
therefore it seems to me worth while to admit that such cases do occur,
and simply insert those words.

The President : — The Committee will accept that suggestion.

Chairman Ambrose : — The next subject is "Corrugated Metal Cul-
verts." Mr. Penfield, Chairman of that Sub-Committee, was called away
suddenly last night. Although the Committee collected considerable data
regarding the use of corrugated metal culverts, they are not recommending
the use of them for permanent work, but only as a temporary medium.
On page 708 of the Bulletin you see a table showing the results of the
use of metal culverts on one of the Southern roads ; and then they
present a tentative specification. In preparing this they worked in con-

1056 Roadway.

junction with the Bureau of Public Roads. They are just putting this
up for discussion. They arc not recommending it this year, and they
wish to have the subject returned to them next year, when they expect
to have a finished specification.

"Sealing Bad Cracks in Rock Cuts with a Cement Gun." Mr. C. W.
Brown found it impossible to get here. In justice to all the memters
of the Committee I will say that we have had nearly a full attendance,
but several of the members were called away last night on account of labor
troubles. Mr. Gilcreast is here representing Mr. Brown, and I will ask
him to present the report, Appendix D.

Mr. F. W. Gilcreast (Lehigh & New England) : — I will say that we
have received considerable information on this subject from a number
of roads, and we are also doing some of this work on the road which I
represent. It is not far enough along yet to furnish any definite con-
clusions. About four years ago in a tunnel about 3,900 ft. long, with
about 400 ft. of brick arching in different sections, we sealed up all
cracks that had accumulated in twenty years' service with cement gun,
and that has been absolutely tight ever since then, both to water and af-
fecting causes. Now we are trying to seal up three or four bad places
where the water percolates and keeps the track bad — almost impossible
to keep a good running track. We simply offer this as information, with
the conclusion on page 711 (reading conclusion).

Chairman Ambrose : — This subject is presented to you as information,
and the conclusion below is presented to the Committee on Outline of
Work for their action.

"Standing Water in Borrow Pits," Appendix E. This subject was
handled by Mr. W. C. Curd, Chairman of that Sub-Committee, who will
present the report.

Mr. W. C. Curd (Consulting Engineer) -.—Mr. Presiden':, the Com-
mittee regrets that it has nothing to present this year. We received a very
large number of replies to circulars which were sent out for information,
but they contained only opinions and no facts upon which we could base
conclusions. There seems to be a confusion existing between the effect
of standing water in borrow pits and the water retained in embankm_ents,
and we have not been successful yet in getting data on specific locations
from ivhich we could report anything definite. We have seme informa-
tion from the Government in regard to the movement of soil moisture,
which indicates that it might be brought down to a question of character
of soil, and the Bureau of Public Roads is carrying on tests new. We
hope to collect further information this coming year and would like to
have a little more support from the members of the Association to assist
us in coming to some conclusion.

Mr. Mountain: — It seems to me that this question goes further ;han
the stability of an embankment. That, of course, is a very important mat-
ter. I note here: "Instances are known where greater benefits have been
derived by reinforcing embankments with wider crowns and flatter

D-i s c u s s i o n . 1057

slopes than by borrow pits drainage." That means, if I get the inten-
tion, to leave the borrow pit full of water. That has a deteri<jrating effect
on adjoining land, saturates it and and brings on lawsuits, and is a con-
stant source of worry to Canadian railroads from farmers because of
their land being saturated. It seems to me that borrow pits should be
drained, both for the stability of the embankment and for the interest
of the community at large.

Mr. Curd: — The question of borrow pit drainage is covered in the
Manual. The question was presented to the Committee to decide as to
the effect of standing water in borrow pits on the stability of embank-
ments. I don't think that anyone denies the fact that troubles have re-
sulted to adjoining land, but the Committee felt that that question was
settled, and it could not act upon it. The same suggestion was m.ade, I
think, in a reply from some one of the Canadian members.

Chairman Ambrose : — In connection with standing water in b. rrow
pits, I might say that the Committee makes an appeal to you at this time,
if the subject is continued, to supply Mr. Curd with the information he
asks for. There seems to have been an indifference to the questionnaire
which was sent out.

"Drainage of Larger Cuts," which is the last subject. Appendix F,
will be presented by Mr. R. B. Robinson, Chairman of that Sub-Committee.

Mr. R. B. Robinson (Union Pacific) : — Mr. President, the Sub-Com.-
mittee on this subject has thought that the drainage requirements for
long soft cuts offered a condition which should be avoided in any reason-
able way possible, in the first place by not laying the line into such soft-
locations if it is reasonably possible to avoid it. After it may have been
found necessary to lay a line into a condition of that kind, various meth-
ods have been used to carry off the water, and the illustrations we have
shown, pp. 718 to 722 inclusive, are offered as information, showing? how
several different railroad lines have worked out their local problems.

We are not attempting to say that any one of these plans shown, or
any other one plan would solve every local condition that could arise.
The following conclusions, shown on pp. 716 and 717, were arrived at
through meetings and correspondence, and are as follows :

(Mr. Robinson read conclusions one, two and three on pp. 716 and
717.)

Chairman Ambrose : — Mr. President, I move that these conclusions
one, two and three, be adopted and placed in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

DISCUSSION ON WOOD PRESERVATION

(For report, see pp. 443-480.)

Mr. C. M. Taylor (Central of New Jersey) : — The report on Wood
Preservation this year is full of information, witnout any definite recom-
mendations for the Manual. A part of the report that should appeal

1058 Wood Preservation.

to each and every Maintenance Engineer is given in Appendix A, on page
446 of Bulletin 233, on Service Test Records. These records have resulted
from experimental tracks in most cases, on the Rock Island, St. Louis-
San Francisco, Baltimore & Ohio, Santa Fe, the Monon, and the Big Four.
In all cases except the Big Four the results are obtained through the
insertion of experimental track sections. The first report will be the
results obtained on the Rock Island, which will be presented to you by
Mr. Ford.

Mr. C. F. Ford (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) : — We have selected
one section on each Operating Division, which is representative of con-
ditions on the Division, and keep a record of all ties inserted and removed.
The ties used on these sections are of the average run and are not selected,
as it is desired to keep the conditions as near as possible to the average
actual practice. These test sections are checked in the field by a repre-
sentative of this Department. The service record of treated ties inserted
in test sections from 1908 to 1914 will be found on pages 447 to 452 of
Bulletin 233.

Chairman Taylor: — Are there any comments to be made on the re-
sult of the tests on the Rock Island? You will note that they cover three
different treatments, and are giving very satisfactory records.

Mr. Steinmayer, who represents the Frisco on the Committee, is not
present. I will call your attention to the report of the Frisco on pages
453 and 454. It is very interesting to note that the white oak, the basis
for comparison in most tie work, does not show up as well as a great
many people think it .should.

The results of the tests on the Baltimore & Ohio will be explained
to you by Mr. Angier.

Mr. F. J. Angier (Baltimore & Ohio) : — The tie tests on the Baltimore
& Ohio are confined to test tracks. We are not trying to keep a record
of several mile lengths of ties, as they are doing on some of the other
railroads. Our test tracks are confined to lengths of from 1,000 to S.CKK)
ties, and we have eight or ten of these. The most interesting test track
we have is located at Herring Run, Md., about six miles east of Baltimore.
In this track we placed 3,300 red oak ties out of face. They were put in
under the same ballast conditions, using screw spikes and tie plates, 300
being untreated and the balance treated in ten different ways. The treat-
ments used were zinc chloride, sodium fluoride, water-gas-tar, coal-tar
creosote, and mixtures of coal-tar creosote, water-gas-tar and zinc chloride.

The statement on page 456 of the report may give a wrong under-
standing. It shows the percentage of ties removed for all causes, and in
this test track at Herring Run it shows that 42 per cent of the ties have
been removed from a lot of 300 treated with zinc chloride. It is true that
42 per cent have been removed, but not a single tie has been removed for
decay. They were removed account of putting in a switch and account
of a derailment that occurred on this track within a few months after
the ties were installed. I would much prefer to use two columns in these

Discussion. 1059

reports, one of them showing the number of ties taken out account of
decay and the other for ties taken out account of other causes.

Chairman Taylor : — I might ask Mr. Angier whether the results of
the test so far give a definite indication as to the future policy of his road.

Mr. Angier : — This test shows that 63 per cent of the untreated ties
have been taken out for all causes, of which 60 per cent were taken out
for decay alone, while not a single treated tie of any kind has been taken
out. This shows very clearly what a wonderful saving it is in treating our
cross-ties.

Chairman Taylor : — The result of the Santa Fe test will be given by
Mr. Belcher.

Mr. R. S. Belcher (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : — We have tried
to make our test sections on the Santa Fe as nearly representative of the
ordinary sections as was possible. In other words, the ties are spotted in,
and the only difference between these sections and the ordinary sections
is that an individual record of each tie is kept. However, we have some
special tests where ties were put in out of face, which are carried on in
connection with the A.R.E.A., and annual report made to this Association.
Our oldest test of this kind and possibly the most remarkable is that
shown on page 459 under the heading "Ottawa Cutoff." This represents
about 24,000 ties that were put in in 1906, ordinary hewn pine, loblolly,
which, as this report shows, were treated with creosote, and although
these ties have, been in more than fourteen years, only 357 have come
out to date, and none of them have come out on account of decay. The
principal reason for those 357 coming out is derailments, and the con-
sequent breakage of the ties.

Chairman Taylor: — The report of the Monon appears on page 464.
I will ask Dr. von Schrenk to explain that report.

Dr. Hermann von Schrenk : — I believe that the Monon report speaks
for itself. It is simply a progress report of tie insertion, particularly the
second table showing the number of ties inserted in the track, and the
conditions under which they are being used. There are but few detail
figures available.

Chairman Taylor : — The next report will be the Big Four, which is
along entirely different lines. It is a history of their treated tie work
from the time they started until the end of 1919. In other words, it is
the whole story, and I will ask Dr. von Schrenk to explain the report.

(Dr. von Schrenk read page 465, Bulletin 233, and said) :

There is a slight correction I wish to call attention to on page 467.
There should be a heading inserted in the table on that page, "Removed for
Causes Other than Decay," to correspond to the title, "Removed on Ac-
count of Decay" on the previous page.

Without going into the details of the interesting phases which have
developed through a recent study of the tie record, and the point I wish
to call particular attention to, that these figures represent as nearly as
possible an actual count of every tie, both treated and untreated, inserted

1060 Wood Preservation.

in the Big Four System since 1905. The Big Four adopted the practice
of putting a date nail into both treated and untreated ties, the date nail
being applied to the ties at the treating plant. As careful a record as
possible has been kept of all removals by years, and we hope during the
coming year to give further details showing the results of removal by
years. You will note that the tie insertions shown on page 465 for the
System, have dropped from 365 ties to the mile to 201 in 1919, or a re-
duction of 164 ties to the mile. I would like to add this additional figure,
that for the division on which the highest percentage of treated ties was
inserted they dropped down for 1919 181 per cent, in other words, during
the year 1919 on the Michigan Central only 181 ties were inserted, making
a striking contrast with the previous experience. This record shows in
a startling and striking way that the probable life that we are attaining
from these early ties, many of which were probably not treated as well
as we are doing now, give every indication that every tie in the railroad
should be a treated tie.

Chairman Taylor :■ — That completes the section on Service Test Rec-
ords. The next portion of the report is shown in Appendix B, "Merits
of Water-Gas as a Preservative." This portion of the report will be
presented by Mr. Angier.

(Mr. Angier then presented Appendix B.)

Chairman Taylor: — The next subject reported on is "Availability and
Use of Sodium Fluoride as a Preservative for Cross-Ties."

(Chairman Taylor then presented this section of the report and said) :

Sodium fluoride has certain apparent advantages in the treatment
of cross-ties, and the Committee suggests that any railroad maintaining
experimental tracks should install a certain number of ties treated with
sodium fluoride and maintain records from which conclusions may be
drawn ; in other words, sodium fluoride presents itself as a possible
preservative for cross-ties, and any railroad having experimental tracks
would do well to install a thousand or two with sodium fluoride for study.

In the absence of Mr. Ilsley, the Chairman of the Sub-Committee on
the subject of the "Protection of Piles in Water Infested by Marine Bor-
ers," I will present the Appendix.

The idea in view in this section of the Committee's work was, first,
the protecting of those stringers which have been put in untreated, and
whose present condition are such that they are threatened with destruction
due to the activities of these borers, and, secondly, to devise some method
of protection of these structures which were treated with preservative!
and which were not as carefully treated as the conditions since would in-
dicate they should have been treated, and, thirdly, those conditions which
would indicate that due to the very intense activity of the marine borers,
the oil used possibly was not strong enough in its toxic qualities to render
the piles permanently immune from attack.

Consequently there are three different cases shown of mechanical
protection. The one on page 474 is the cast-iron protection on the Louis-

Discussion. 1061

ville & Nashville, with which you are all familiar and which has been
reported on before. The second is shown on page 475, the vitrified pipe
casing, which is a much cheaper method and seems to be a fairly good
protection under certain circumstances. The third case is shown on page
476, and brings up the question of reinforced concrete casings, which can
be installed after the piles are in service.

This Sub-Committee reports certain other studies which have been
made for the same purpose, covered by gunite and explained on page 478.
The Sub-Committee has three definite conclusions given on page 479,
which they would like to have approved. They are not for insertion in
the Manual, but are conclusions they have arrived at through a study
this year.

On subject 8, "Comparative Values of Grades 1, 2 and 3, Creosote
Oil and Creosote Coal-Tar Solution," the Committee feels that the report
as given last year covers the situation as well as it is able to put in
writing, and in connection with subject 9, Accelerated Tests of Grades
1, 2 and 3, Creosote Oil and Creosote Coal-Tar Solution, the Committee
has not been able to develop any reliable methods for making any such
accelerated tests.

With reference to the conclusions on page 445, Conclusion 2, the
Committee felt that the data they have in hand at the present time does
not enable them to give you something you can put in the Manual. The
Committee does feel, however, as time goes on as a result of these ex-
perimental track sections they may have something on the comparative
values of Grades 1, 2 and 3, but they also wish to say it is not something
that can be decided offhand, because it is interwoven with so many other
problems, that it is difficult for the Committee to formulate any definite
conclusion that we would dare ask to be put in the Manual. The Committee
feels that this subject is one that all future committees should consider,
and if at some time they are able to give you something that is worthy of
insertion in the Manual, they feel that such will be done.

(In connection with Conclusion No. 3, Chairman Taylor said) :

In other words, it was our thought that this Committee could develop
something that would determine this matter very quickly, and they sug-
gested accelerated tests to show this dififerentiation in values, and the
.Committee is very frank in saying that that is an absolute impossibility,
and for that reason they recommend that no further consideration be
given to the subject. It is one of those things which cannot be done
quickly. It is not like the case of a cement where you can make your
quick tests as a preliminary. The Committee suggests these conclusions
this year.

The President: — Is there any further discussion of these suggestions?
These recommendations do not require endorsing action. They are
suggestions which are to be placed before the Committee on Outline of
Work.

1062 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

DISCUSSION ON WOODEN BRIDGES AND
TRESTLES

(For report, see pp. 481-542.)

Mr. W. H. Hoyt (Duluth, Missabe & Northern) :— The first subject,
revision of Manual, was in charge of Mr. Ridgway, but in his absence Mr.
Austin will present the matter.

(Mr. Austin presented the matter under "Revision of Manual.")

Chairman Hoyt : — I move that the recommended changes of the Com-
mittee be adopted and incorporated in the Manual.

Mr. G. A. Mountain (Canadian Railway Commission) : — There is a
term used by the Committee in (2) under "Use of guard rails and guard
timbers for wooden bridges and trestles." It is recommended that the in-
ner guard rail, when used, shall be so spaced, etc. I think it is common
practice to use an inner guard rail, and this expression would seem to con-
vey the idea that the Committee does not recommend it entirely.

Chairman Hoyt : — That is in the present Manual, and the question is
pptional with the Designing Engineer as to whether to use guard timber
or not. I am informed that this matter was up at a previous meeting, and
a motion to make it standard practice to use an inner guard rail was not
approved, and that is the reason the Committee left the clause "when
used" in there. Of course, it is possible to bring the matter up at the
present time and decide whether it shall remain or not.

Mr. Mountain :— In our practice in Canada it is standard; it has got
to be placed.

Chairman Hoyt : — The practice is nearly so in the United States, but
there may be a number of cases where it is not so.

(Mr. Hoyt's motion was put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Hoyt: — The second subject assigned to the Committee ap-
pears on page 494 in Appendix B, "Specifications and Classification and
Grading Rules for Lumber and Timber to be used in the Construction and
Maintenance of Way Departments of Railroads." This subject has been
before the Committee for the past three years and was submitted kst
year as information, and this year has been again gone over and a num-
ber of revisions and improvements made and is now submitted with a
view to final approval for printing as recommended practice. I do not
want to take the time to read this all through.

Mr. O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — Is it
the intention to insert in the specifications for use these illustrations of
defects? It occurs to me that these illustrations are valuable for pur-
poses of instruction, but it hardly is practicable to use them in a commer-
cial specification.

Chairman Hoyt: — It is the intention of the Committee to publish the
illustrations. Of course, they cannot be used in a commercial .specifica-
tion, but they are instructive as showing and presentiiicr clearly ihe defects

Discussion. 1063

covered by them. It is the opinion of the Committee that the publication
of these illustrations is well worth while.

(Chairman Hoyt then outlined the matter on pp. 504-509, and in rela-
tion to "Density Rule for Southern Yellow Pine," on page 509, said) :

We have placed in these specifications the density rules as developed
by the last specifications of the American Society, for Testing Materials,
and as further followed out and tested and undoubtedly to be recom-
mended by the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison. This particular
feature of the report has been given considerable attention and probably
caused more detail work than any other feature of the specifications. We
tried to decide on a density clause giving the proportions of summer .vood
and springwood that would be allowed in the different timbers.

(Chairman Hoyt then abstracted pp. 510-513.)

The President: — On this question of ties, something was said yester-
day about the correlation between the recommendations of various com-
mittees as to ties and those of the Tie Committee.

Chairman Hoyt: — As we have taken up the question of ties, we only
cover ties for wooden bridges and trestles. We do not deal with track
ties as such.

The President: — Is there not some conflict, as a matter of fact, be-
tween the item "ties and guard rails" on page 513 and any recommenda-
tion the Tie Committee has made?

Chairman Ho3-t : — The only possible conflict would be on page 527,
oak switch ties, and we will reach that in a moment.

(Chairman Hoyt then read the matter on pp. 514-527.)

The question arises as to Switch Ties sawed. It was intended that this
clause would apply only to structural oak for bridge purposes. If there
seems to be any conflict with the report of the Tie Committee, ihat par-
ticular paragraph can be omitted, but I see no reason why it should be.

Mr. F. R. Layng (Bessemer & Lake Erie) : — I think that should be
done. These specifications cover wooden bridges and trestles, and should
not conflict with the specifications of the Tie Committee. I do not under-
stand why this Committee should bring in specifications on materials ap-
plied largely to buildings and other railroad structures, and why they do
not confine their specifications strictly to the subject assigned to them

Chairman Hoyt: — I will read the subject assigned to us, "Continue
study and report on general specifications and classification and grading
rules for timber and lumber for railroad purposes."

Mr. Layng: — I suggest the Board has been a little liberal in their
assignment to this particular Committee.

Chairman Hoyt :— I would like that matter to be brought up before
the Board.

The President : — I think that is true ; it is a matter to be handled by
the Board. This suggestion is noted and the Committee on Outline of
Work will take cognizance of that.

1064 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

Chairman Hoyt : — As to the specifications for oak switch ties, if any
member wishes to make a motion covering that paragraph, it coukl be
acted on.

The President: — I hardly think that is necessary, unless there is
something in the particular paragraph that is objectionable in its text or
principle. The question that has been raised in discussion is one for the
Board to act on without action on the part of the convention.

(Chairman Hoyt read the matter on pages 527 to 534.)

Mr. Selby: — I am asking for information, because I have not read
the specifications thoroughly. I would like to know to what extent the
separate specifications for construction oak, for hemlock, and for cypress
and for other timbers are independent, and whether they could be taken
out and used independently, and to what extent the preliminary definitions
and specifications must be taken along with the specifications for the dif-
ferent kinds of timber. Also, are there any heartwood requirements in
any of these specifications, except for the No. 1 structural grade yellow
pine and Douglas fir?

Chairman Hoyt: — Answering your first question, of course, the Com-
mittee, in drawing up these general specifications, found there were certain
timbers the manufacture and use of which were so radically different fhat
they could not be included in the general specification and classification of
grading rules, principally oak, cypress and hemlock, and that is why a
special specification covering these particular timbers was placed in ibis
report. In making up a specification covering any of these t'.mbers, there
are certain general clauses that can be taken and so headed in the general
specification that they can be applied in a general way, but in getting down
to the details concerning oak, cypress and hemlock, it seems necessary to
adopt certain specifications covering these particular timbers. As T under-
stand it, your question relates to the matter of drawing up specifications
covering particular timbers.

Mr. Selby: — What I want to get at is; in presenting to a manufac-
turer a specification for structural oak, of course he is not interested in a
specification for other kinds of timber. I want to know what pa.agraphs
in this specification, in addition to the one which begins on page 526, for
instance, should be given him in order to get in all the requirements.

Chairman Hoyt : — These paragraphs are headed generally in the stand-
ard specifications : "Defects of m'anufacture, applicable to all timber and
lumber," and that covers the clauses up to the point where we take up
the standard sizes and up to the point where we consider the question of
structural grades for bridge and trestle timbers. The Southern yellow
pine and Douglas fir specifications are given on page 509. The question
of heart requirements is covered practically only in the structural part of
the specification under the density rules.

(Chairman Hoyt then read the matter on pp. 536-542 and said) :

These specifications are entirely too long to study here in detail.

Discussion. 1065

As I have said, they are the work of the Committee for three years,
and we submit them for publication in the Manual as recommended
practice.

I move the adoption of the specifications and publication in the
Manual as recommended practice.

Mr. Selby: — I ask for information — is the table of Working
Stresses Permissible for Structural Timbers, shown on page 542, included
in the recommendation for recommended practice?

Chairman Hoyt : — Yes, it is intended to be included. We have a table
in the old Manual, and there are only some slight changes in this table
from the old table, but it was thought better with these specifications to
revise this table to that extent, and I think the only revision is in the
structural fir. No. 1, in allowable stress in extreme fiber.

There has been considerable discussion in the Committee on this table,
and there has been some criticism, but after it was all boiled down we were
unable to come to any conclusion as to how we could improve it at the
present time, except with the very few changes we made in the old table,
and this table is submitted for publication with the general report.

Mr. J. B. Jenkins (Baltimore & Ohio) : — Is the table of unit stresses
intended to be part of the specifications?

Chairman Hoyt : — They are not part of the specifications, but part of
the report of the Sub-Committee.

Mr. Jenkins : — Are the definitions and description of defects intended
to be a part of the specifications?

Chairman Hoyt: — They are a part of the report on specifications and
classification of grading rules. Of course, this specification takes in
classification and grading rules as well as the specifications covering the
timber. In a detail specification all these definitions would not be used,
but are a part of the report as elucidating and clearing up the terms used
in the specification.

Mr. Jenkins : — Would it not be better to remove the title from the top
of page 494 and transfer it to the top of page 504?

Chairman Hoyt : — That might be done.

The President : — That can be considered as a suggestion to the Com-
mittee on Manual when the Manual is put in final shape for printing.

Mr. Selby: — It seems to me that it is essential that the definitions of
defects, knots and practically all the definitions beginning on page 494
should be included in the specifications. There is no use in prescribing
certain things in the definition unless it is definitely known what these
things mean.

Chairman Hoyt : — It is my opinion that it is a matter for the indi-
vidual choice of the Engineer in drawing up his specifications. These
specifications are not to be clipped out with a pair of scissors and bound
together and be made a specification, but they are a basis from which can
be selected and arranged a specification covering the class of timber that
it is desired to purchase for use.

1066 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

I agree with Mr. Selby that you certainly need a clear understanding
of the terms in your specification, to have a satisfactory result in the
use of it.

Mr. E. A. Frink (Seaboard Air Line) : — This Committee has evi-
dently done a great deal of very valuable work. It seems ungracious to
throw stones at it, but there are some things about this specification that
do not seem to me to be right.

In the first place, it does not seem to me. that the table of sizes
belong in the specification. They are information, and not properly a
part of the specification, and the specification could be largely reduced
in bulk if these sizes were printed as information in accordance with our
previous practice.

The second point is the density rule for Douglas Fir. That is a new
one, and as we adopted the density rule for yellow pine only after
thorough consideration and investigation, I can only assume that the Com-
mittee has made such an investigation in regard to fir and are satisfied
that the rule is equally equitable.

This specification seems to me to be unwieldy and cumbersome. I do
not think it should be in one part. I do not see why we should write a
specification for oak and fir combined any more than we would write
a specification for bridge steel and rail steel combined, and none of us
would think of doing that. Why are not the two subjects sufficiently
dissimilar to require two separate specifications?

Another thing — why should not the specification for the timber for
different kinds of work be approved by the proper committee having that
kind of work in charge? While this Committee has done a great deal of
constructive work, because I understand this specification is in accordance
with the rules of, and practically approved by, the National Lumber-
men's Association, and therefore we are reasonably sure we can get what
is specified, nevertheless this Committee has written a specification for
lumber for buildings and shops and ties, and for other things, over which
they have no jurisdiction, and it seems to me that the specifications for
lumber for these purposes should be referred to the committees having
these subjects under their jurisdiction.

Another point to find fault with is the specification for timber for ties
to be treated., I had the honor some four or five years ago of presenting
a long treatise on that matter and do not want to burden you with it
again, but I think a specification for lumber for treating ought to bring
out in unmistakable terms the possibilities of the use of lower grade tim-
ber. One of the chief justifications for treating is the ability it gives you
to use a cheaper grade of timber and secure equally long life, and some-
times greater life, compared 'with the more expensive grade.

On the Seaboard Air Line we have at present something over fifteen
miles of creosoted trestle timber, over half of which is loblolly pine. All
of the stringers and caps are creosoted loblolly pine. We have been
carrying on the trestles 12.5-ft. span axle loads as high as 55,000 and

Discussion. 1061

some- hundred. A recent inspection has not disclosed a single case of a
failed cap or split cap or crushed cap or a single failure of any stringer
or a single case of deterioration of a stringer, and we have not spent a
dollar on these stringers since we applied them in 1910. I think that is
good evidence that loblolly pine is good material for that class of work.

These specifications permit the use of loblolly pine, but they do not
accentuate it and the natural inference of anyone reading the two short
paragraphs in this paper referring to timber for treating, would suppose
the proper thing to do would be to order dense pine or fir, all naturally
good, for that purpose, and I think we should bring out the point it pays
and is economical to use a cheaper grade of timber for treatment.

It would be my recommendation that the report be referred back to
the Committee for separation into its component parts in cooperation with
the various committees which handle the matters to which the specification
applies.

Chairman Hoyt:— There are several points which Mr. Frink brought
out which are very interesting, and of course would perhaps require a
long discussion to make them clear.

The first subject is the question of sizes. I do not know of a more
trouble-causing clause in any of our specifications than the lack of a clear
understanding of size. All of us have been up against that problem of
buying flooring and ceiling and drop siding, and expect to get a certain
size and we found we got something different, depending on the particu-
lar mill or the purchasing agent getting the material from the place where
he could get it cheapest and then the trouble started.

The lumber dealers have realized that condition the same as we have,
and they are working towards standardizing their materials, so there
will be a clear understanding of what is meant by siding or ceiling or
flooring, especially when certain dimensions are given, and they have
considered it very important that any classification should state exactly
what was wanted in the matter of sizes, and personally I feel that there
is nothing in the specifications that is of more importance than establish-
ing clearly what is intended to be purchased under a certain name, by
giving it a definite size. That is my answer on the question of sizes.

As to the density rule for fir, it is true that we have submitted this
rule after a study of the rule adopted by the American Society for Testing
Materials at its meeting last year. It is their recommendation and has
been approved by the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., and
has been submitted to the Lumber Manufacturers' Association, and I un-
derstand verbally that it is satisfactory to them. While it is new, it is
being adopted and we have submitted it in our recommendations for form
of specification.

Now, as to the question whether the Committee went outside of its
jurisdiction in submitting these specifications. God knows they did not
intend to do it, because it has been too much work, and right there we
get to the root of this question of bulky specifications. Are we to submit

1068 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

separate specifications for every class of timber or lumber to be used on
a railroad?

If so, we will run into several volumes of specifications, very similar
in their nature to the publications of the American Society for Testing
Materials. You can easily see that if we are to draw up detail specifica-
tions for tank stock, for bridges, for first, second and third class timber
for trestles, and for the various other structures on a railroad, we will
run into an almost unlimited number of specifications, all complete in
themselves, which it is true you can turn to, and have a guide for use
in purchasing material, but if you are going to do that, gentlemen, we
will have, as I say, a very large volume of specifications, and in my
opinion it is going to load up our publications with an unnecessarily large
amount of matter. The idea of the Board in assigning this topic to the
Committee was to condense these specifications into one compact body,
from which could be taken and drawn specifications covering the various
items they desired. That is what we have attempted to do. If it is the
desire of the Association that separate specifications should be submitted
for all the various uses to which timber and lumber is to be put, then I
would recommend that such specifications be drawn up by the committee
which had charge of that particular item, or at the best a special committee
be arranged to draw up such specifications.

As to the question of wood treatment, I will ask Mr. Hansen to dis-
cuss that, as he is in charge of that part of the work.

Mr. H. J. Hansen (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) :— Mr. Frink
has objected to the specification for timber to be treated, principally on
account of the fact that he does not think these specifications bring out
the fact that we can use a lower grade of timber if the timber is to be
treated.

In drawing up these specifications the Committee got all the informa-
tion we were able to get on this subject, and discussed it from various
angles, and at first drew up only the first paragraph, page 514, but recog-
nizing Mr. Frink's stand in the matter we added the second paragraph
reading, "Many varieties of timber can be used, if treated, that would not
be satisfactory to use in the untreated state on account of being subject
to rapid decay if they are not treated."

That was presented last year for information. There is room for
discussion whether we should use lower grades of timber or not in
trestles. On our road it has been the experience where we use loblolly
pine the caps and stringers crush under our loads, starting at seven or
eight years, and in fourteen or fifteen years these members are destroyed
because the timbers are not strong enough. They do not rot, but they
have to be replaced. I think it is up to the judgment of the Engineers
using the timber to say whether it is good enough or not. So far as the
decaying part goes the deterioration of the timber can be protected against
by treatment.

Mr. J. R. W. Ambrose (Toronto Terminals Railway) : — I think the
Committee deserves a great deal of credit for the wealth of material and

Discussion. 1069

information they have given us in the report, but it must not be forgotten
that the object of this Association is to prepare specifications and so-called
standards of such a character that the roads can make use of them, and
we want them used universally, but these specifications as they stand are
so voluminous that I doubt very much if a road would print these as
their standard specification, and cover such a large field when they perhaps
only want to use it in connection with one sub-division.

As I see it, it is quite possible for the Committee to take the in-
formation, which is very complete, and sub-divide it into general condi-
tions which apply more or less to all the sub-divisions, and then amplify
the condition by a short specification, which will take care of each indi-
vidual subject, and I agree with Mr. Frink that they would be more
acceptable in that form than in such a voluminous form as that in which
they are now given.

Mr. Selby : — The Big Four has had in use for a good many years
specifications for timbers and lumber for the Maintenance of Way De-
partment that are fully as voluminous — possibly more so — as the one pre-
sented by this Committee. They are published in a pamphlet form, and
all kinds of timber are covered, and timbers for all uses in that depart-
ment are specified. The specifications are numbered, and in making
requisition and orders for timber and lumber we simply refer to the
specification number. The general instructions and definitions are all
included and at the top of each page in the specification there is a refer-
ence to the fact that the general instructions and definitions must be
considered in connection with the particular specification. That has
worked out nicely and there has been no trouble on account of the vol-
uminous nature of the specifications.

Mr. Ambrose : — I am glad that Mr. Selby has spoken as he has, be-
cause he has supported exactly what I recommended. It is a volume of
separate specifications. Each one is individual in itself, and the general
conditions which precede these specific specifications are also what I have
in mind. That does not apply to the specifications we have here.

; Chairman Hoyt: — It is true that this^ question which is being dis-
cussed is really basic. This report is not made to cover a detail specifica-
tion that can be taken and printed in book form to cover the purchase
of all forms of timber and material, but is a basis from which such
specifications can be drawn.

You will find if we reduce it to comply with your requests we will
arrive at this condition that this report will be considered very brief, and
that the specifications as suggested by the last gentleman will require a
very large amount of material to cover. There will be twice or three
times as much material as in the present report. This set of specifications
has been brought up to date and it is intended to be basic, from which
can be built just such specifications as Mr. Selby stated he is using, and
it seems to me as a recommendation of this Association specifications of
this kind should be basic, for each individual company undoubtedly has

1070 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

certain conditions which they may require to be complied with, certain tim-
bers in their districts and certain timbers for bridges and other structures,
and it will be, in my opinion, very hard for this Association to publish
specifications which could be taken and used verbatim by all the railroads
in the United States on account of the variations in local conditions, and
this specification was laid out to be basic for use in drawing up detail
specifications as required.

Mr. J. L. Campbell (El Paso & Southwestern) : — These specifications
cover the subject quite completely and put the whole matter in condensed
form, and inasmuch as the Manual is going to be reprinted at an early
date, if these specifications are referred back for the revisions suggested,
the specifications subsequently so produced would not appear in the new
edition of the Manual, and would appear in one of the supplements, and
it would perhaps be another five years before we had the subject as ad-
mirably set forth in the Manual as this report presents it.

I would therefore be in favor of adopting the recommendation of
the Committee and letting these specifications covering the whole subject-
matter appear in the Manual, and then the sub-divisions can be worked
into the specifications, for different railroad uses, and is a matter which
can be taken care of later.

Mr. Frink: — I dislike to differ with Mr. Campbell, but I think he

gave a poor reason for putting the specifications in the Manual. I have

previously said, I think, that we have too many things in the Manual,

and do not see the philosophy in adding one more. I think that is a

reason against printing it in the Manual rather than in favor of it. I did

not mean to accuse the Committee of going outride their province. It

simply occured to me that the separate committees might better prepare

some specifications for the material which their work requires.

■ - ■y-
One word more. The specifications Mr. Selby spoke of seems to

be exactly in line with what I think we ought to I^ave — separate specifica-
tions for the different kinds of timber assembled, if you will, in one
publication, so that no one will. have any difficulty in knowing what you
require when you order material.

One word about Chairman Hoyt's reference to the. specifications. It
seems to me there may be some misunderstanding as to what is meant
by a specification. A Purchasing Agent's idea of a specification is a bill
of material, so many pieces and of such sizes. The same idea prevails
among the smaller manufacturers, and if you have- ever been in com-
mercial work, when you draw them a bill of material for a contract job,
it is referred to as a specification — so many pieces of hardware, and this,
that and the other thing. That is called a specification, but that is not
what we mean. What we mean by a specification is something that de-
scribes the quality of the products we want to get, and that is the reason
I said I do not think the bill of sizes applies in the specification.

Mr. H. A. Lloyd (Erie) : — I agree with Mr. Campbell for the reason
that we aH need a guide from which to make our specifications. We had

Discussion. 1071

an experience on the Erie in trying to coordinate a dozen or fifteen man-
ufacturers' associations specifications and had a hard time to do it, and in
fact we have not done it. We would like a specification to guide us.

Mr. Ambrose: — Regarding the idea of putting it in the Manual in
order to have the information, we will have all the information in the
Proceedings whether it goes in the Manual or not. I feel that this subject
is fully covered— all of the data is here, everything that is necessary. It is
no reflection on the work of the Committee should it not go into the
Manual at this time — as a matter of fact it is really a matter of collecting
and editing this information and sub-dividing it under its distinct heads.

Mr. Lloyd: — It makes all the difference in the world as to whether
it is in the Manual and recommended by the Association, as against being
placed in the Proceedings for information, as I see it.

Mr. W. E. Hawley (Duluth, Missabe & Northern) : — I would like to
offer one little comment in relation to the new material contained in this
report, with reference to the material that is already in the Manual. In
the Manual we have two sections, one under Committee VII — on Wooden
Bridges and Trestles, pages 219 to 236, or 17 pages of material. Under
another committee, which was a Special Committee on Grading of Lum-
ber, we have pages 591 to 652, or 61 pages, making a total in the old
Manual of 78 pages of material. This report which is being offered now
requires for printing in its present type size 47 pages; in other words, it
is a material reduction in the volume of material which will be put in the
Manual, if it is adopted for publication in the Manual as recommended.
Mr. Fritch tells me it will require a little heavier setting, which will prob-
ably increase it six pages or thereabouts in size, making about 53 pages
of material in the new Manual.

The Committee has worked, as far as I can understand it, under in-
structions of the Board of Direction that they were to work on the basis
of a composite specification rather than to bring in a series of specifica-
tions, and in this way bring about a reduction in the amount of material
which is to be put in the Manual. By adopting it at this time for insertion
in the Manual, we will secure the benefit in permanent form, with the
backing of the Association, and also will secure the benefit of having put
on record something that we can argue with the manufacturers of lumber,
and will give us a greater ability to purchase what we want in the way of
uniform material for bridge building.

Chairman Hoyt : — I simply want to say in closing my part of this
report, that the matter of uniform sizes, which was one of the hard nuts
to crack, that we have submitted here, received the endorsement of the
largest number of consumers that have ever gotten together in a particular
matter. They held a meeting in Chicago last year representing practically
all of the retail lumber dealers of the country. This question was thor-
oughly gone over, and they favored and approved standard uniform sizes.
To make anything of that kind effective it requires the backing of the,
consumers everywhere, and that is the reason that we inserted and are
in favor of definite uniform sizes for lumber.

1072 Wooden Bridges and Trestles.

I want to say if it is the desire of the Association at some future
time or at any time to develop individual specifications for individual or
particular pieces of v^'ork, this Committee is at hand to do any such work
willingly under any instructions that may be given it.

The President : — Before taking action on the motion, it is only fair
for the Chair to state that a ruling was called for from him this morning,
regarding the right to amend a motion, which would have the effect of re-
ferring this report back, and the ruling made may be subject to a different
interpretation. In the absence of the copy of the Rules of Order, I am
not able to give the interpretation correctly, but it is fair to say that if
there should be a majority of the opinion that that specification should be
revised, a negative vote puts the matter in that shape. An affirmative vote
adopts the specifications as they stand. If there should be a negative vote,
then it would be within the power of the Board of Direction to order
the Committee to reconsider and revise in any definite manner as to ar-
rangement that the Board might designate.

Mr. Ambrose: — Mr. President, I would like to ask the Chairman of
the Committee if he thinks it would be at all possible to select the indi-
vidual specifications immediately, so that they can go into the Manual as
such. There is no additional information needed. They have everything
that is necessary and it is simply a matter of editing.

Chairman Hoyt : — I would say in regard to that that if individual
specifications are to be drawn — take, for instance, tank stock, an individual
specification for tank stock should be drawn up under the Committee on
Water Service, and that would require probably three or four individual
specifications ; and while it would be within the province, perhaps, or the
ability of this Committee to develop such specifications, it would have to
be done in conjunction with the other committees handling or using that
particular class of material.

These specifications are basic. They are the basis upon which can
be drawn and built a specification for individual classes of lumber or
material for any class of railroad work.

Mr. B. H. Mann (Missouri Pacific) : — I think this is a very important
discussion as to useable material, but I do not like to see this Committee
singled out as a sample. It seems to me preparation work has got to be
done among the members of the Association very largely before we decide
just how we are to change our specifications to suit the consumers, and
put them in shape for the railroads so that the railroad will use them.

The Board of Direction and the Association membership really will
finally decide what form the specifications should take in the Manual.

(The: pending motion was put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Hoyt: — Mr. President, there is one other report that this
Committee offers for a progress report. This Sub-Committee's report is
submitted in Appendix A on page 485. I would ask Mr, VanAuken to
explain the features of the report as far as the work has progressed at
the present time.

Discussion. 1073

Mr. A. M. \'anAuken (Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville) : — Our re-
port, as you will see, is only a progress report. It is a composite report.
There were five members on our Sub-Committee, and there were five
opinions on nearly every subject that came up. We have tried to work
out some of the bigger questions in this problem, and we place the results
before you.

The first question raised by those replying to our questionnaire, or
by about one-third of them, was as to it being worth while to formulate
standard plans for wooden trestles, as wood suitable for trestle timber
would soon be unobtainable. Our figures on page 485 look to be a little
contradictory at first, but if you consider the basis of them they will
harmonize. The Forestry Bureau gives a quantity materially less than
that named by the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association. In the
matter of Douglas Fir this is due to the figures of the Forestry Bureau
being some three years more recent than the others and in yellow pine
the Forestry Bureau, beside being later figures, also exclude all except old
pine, never cut over.

On the question of stresses we find ourselves unable to design a
trestle in conformity with the table of stresses given in the Manual or
the one in Bulletin 225. We believe both these tables to be useless in
trestle design. In the matter of more concise definition of timber the
latter table is an improvement, but in the stresses permitted it appears
entirely too conservative. Referring to the tests which the Forestry
Bureau refer to as being the basis for the table we find there the
recommended safety factors, by the use of which factors we gain ap-
proximately the figures shown in the table in Bulletin 225.

These safety factors when compared with those in the Manual are
as follows :

Manual Forestry Bureau

Allowable stress in extreme fiber 6 5

Allowable horizontal shear stress 4 8

Allowable compression stress parallel to grain..... 4 3

Allowable compression stress across the grain...'.. 4 1^

It will be noted that the Forestry Bureau has reduced the safety factor
in all stresses save horizontal shear, where it has been exactly doubled.
We do not believe this is justified in railroad practice, especially in the
composite chords of two or more stringers. No designers follow this
extreme in practice. Data obtained from 34 railroads using yellow-pine
stringers and 28 railroads using Douglas fir stringers as well as the prac-
tice of the Highway Division of five states shows that the bending stress
in these tables is exceeded over 20 per cent, and the horizontal shear is
doubled.* Acting upon the theory that continued practice in actual service
is a safer guide than theoretical deductions from experimental tests, we
are submitting designs which violate both tables of stresses, and we ask
you to express your views on our acts.

*To make clear the point here made this data is added, which was
not read in the Convention. —

1074

Wooden Bridges and Trestles,

Ijoads in Pounds,
Per Square Inch.

Bending, allowable
stress in extreme
fiber-
Dense Pine

Douglas Fir

Cypress

Bending, longitudinal
shear —

Dense Pine

Douglas Fir

Cypress

Compression, "short
column" —

Dense Pine

Douglas Fir

Cypress

Compression, across
grain —

Dense Pine

Douglas Fir

Cypress

Table

Bulletin

No. 225.

1400
1400
1100

125
100
100

1100
1100
1100

250
250
250

Table

Manual.

1300

1200

900

120

1000
900
830

260
310

170

Highway Practice

Represented by

Specifications

Used by Five

States.

Osborn,
3 States.

1600
1500

200
160

1000
1000

350
350

Cooper,

Ameri-
can

Bridge
Co.,

1 each.

1200
1200

200
160

1000
1000

350
350

Railroad Practice
as Represented by Rail-
roads Reporting to
Committee, 34 Using
Yellow Pine and 28 Using
Douglas Fir Stringers.

Aver-
age.

1600
1600
1400

200
190
200

240
230
240

Maxi-
mum.

2000
2000

230
220

280
260

1300
1200

180
150

180
180

The two tables are submitted as information and are self-explanatory.
We invite discussion of each of them and suggestion on points brought out.

We also invite discussion upon the length of panel'we have assumed.
Our work will be more useful in just the degree that it is adaptable to vary-
ing conditions of different localities.

We should like to have discussion as to our proper loading of piles.
Also, our length of cap. Is our twelve feet in length necessary? Do we
recommend too long a cap?

In the recommendation for guard timbers we have simply taken the
6x8 timber and deducted the amount cut away in the dap.

We corresponded with the mills and the Forestry Bureau about sizes.
A good many of them did not give us very much of an answer, but the
Forestry Bureau sent us a pamphlet and gave the sizes of standing timber
in yellow pine, which indicates that 26-ft. stringers, 16 in. the largest size
which could be sawed out of a very considerable portion of the standing
yellow pine. Larger than that it does not seem to be available to any
considerable extent; and the manufacturers rather dodged any answer
about larger sticks than 16 in. for stringers.

To get a standard trestle, we found from the replies — I made a rough
estimate of the amount of wooden trestles on each of these roads, and we
found that a very considerable majority use yellow pine stringers as yet;
consequently it was necessary that we should consider conditions. We

Discussion. 1075

could not adopt a set of standard plans that would eliminate the larger
portion of the railroads.

As we were limited to a 16-in. stringer by the supplies available to
the larger portion, we attempted to agree on the loading. We had to
pass that up to the main Committee, with the result that you see on
page 485. We had a large number of plans sent to us, and they are ab-
stracted on pages 486 and 487. We were very much assisted in the work
by Mr. Hawley, who prepared the tables on the following two pages. Most
of the details of these tables are brought out in the text which follows.

The principal reason for adopting E-45 as the lightest loading was the
fact that practically every road is liable to haul over it two heavy coal
cars coupled, and that is practically an E-50 load, but due to conditions
we all understand is no more severe on a structure than an engine load
of E-45, and due to that we felt it was useless to consider less than E-45.
The following tables are a development of that: With a 16-in. stringer we
could not carry these loads on a longer span than 12 ft., or a very small
fraction over that, and the recommendations below fall in line with that.

With these introductory remarks, this subject is with you.

Chairman Hoyt : — This is offered for information and discussion. We
would appreciate having the membership study this matter during the
coming year, that they may offer us as much advice as possible. We have
already developed some plans in our studies, but it is going to require
more study'and perhaps will require revision of them to study out indi-
vidually by themselves.

Mr. Frink : — Mr. President, some of you may remember that I ob-
jected very strongly last year to the loading adopted, and I think there is
much more justification for the loading on trestles than there would be
on bridges, because the margin of overstrain is not nearly as large. It
does not seem to me, however, that we ought to use standard loading of
E-45, 55 and 65 for timber trestles used in the same track with steel
bridges, with a standard of E-60. It seems to me as though the loading of
the trestle ought to correspond with the bridge that has to carry the
same load. I think the Committee would do well to revise those loadings
to agree with steel bridge specifications.

I question the statement of the Committee on page 492 about paying
for even feet, for stringers are usuallly — in fact, I may say universally,
ordered in double panel lengths, so that there is no objection to buying
panel lengths in even feet. I do not say I advocate that. I am suggesting
it for the consideration of the Committee.

I also question the statement of the Committee about the use of 16-in.
stringers instead of perhaps 14. While it is perfectly possible to get
16-in. stringers from our Southern mills, yet it has been my experience
that you pay more per thousand feet for 16 in. than you do for 14 in., and
more for 14 in. than you do for 12 in. Therefore, I think some method
should be allowed to have the road use whatever size of stringers
best suits its practice, and which they can get to the best advantage. The
road I represent has used 14-in. stringers for years and is using them now.

1076 Yards and Terminals.

Chairman Hoyt : — The discussion that has been brought out by Mr.
Frink is just exactly what we want. The more data and the more in-
formation of that sort that we can get, the better we will be satisfied.

DISCUSSION ON YARDS AND TERMINALS

(For report, see pp. 8S9-900.)

Mr. B. H. Mann (Missouri Pacific) : — The report of this Committee
is in Bulletin 235, page 889. We will take it up as shown on page 890
under "Conclusions." The first two conclusions call for action by the
Association. The following conclusions are submitted as information.
On the first subject, there are no changes in the Manual, as recommended
last year by this Committee.

Conclusion (1) will be handled by Mr. Hastings, Chairman of the
Sub-Committee.

Mr, E. M. Hastings (Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac) : — Sub-
Committee (4) was charged with the work of making a final report, if
practicable, on typical situation plans for passenger stations, and the
methods of their operation. The Committee, however, feels that this is a
subject covering such large work, and a work which is constantly in the
process of development, that it was not thought advisable to make a final
report ; consequently we followed out the idea of reporting passenger
terminals of interest that have been recently constructed, which has been
the idea followed out by this Committee heretofore.

We present as information for your consideration this year the plans
of the Union Passenger Terminal at St. Paul, built by the St. Paul Union
Depot Company, and also the plans and photographs of the Richmond,
Va., Terminal, which was constructed a few years ago and has been in
operation about two years. We ask you to study these two situations, as
they present some very unique ideas, particularly that of the Richmond
Station, which is in the nature of a perfect loop, all trains moving through
the station in the same direction.

We present to the Association for approval and publication in the
Manual a typical track layout of a dead-end passenger station, which was
published in the Proceedings of the Association in 1911. This has been
slightly revised. Also a typical track layout for a through passenger sta-
tion published some time ago. These two plans, slightly revised, are now
presented to the Association for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.

Also types of ladders particularly applicable to passenger stations,
which ladders were originally prepared by Mr. S. S. Roberts, and were
presented to the Association and printed as information in 1917. These
types of ladders have been slightly revised, and we now present them
for inclusion in the Manual. They are type numbers 20 to 26, and they
have been printed in the Bulletin immediately following this Appendix B,
on page 898.

Discussion. 1077

Chairman Mann : — Mr. President, I move that these situation plans
be adopted and pubHshed in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Mann: — Conclusion (2), covering subject (8), Appendix A,
will be presented by Mr. D. B. Johnston.

Mr. D. B. Johnston (Pennsylvania System) : — Unfortunately the re-
port of the Sub-Committee does not appear in the Bulletin. It is not
long, and if it is satisfactory I will read it.

(Mr. Johnston read the report of the Sub-Committee.)

Chairman Mann : — I move the adoption of the conclusions for in-
sertion in the Manual.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Mann : — Subject (3) will be presented by Mr. H. T.
Douglas, Jr., Chairman of the Sub-Committee.

(Mr. Douglas presented Appendix A.)

Chairman Mann: — The next subject to be presented is the matter
found in Appendix C, which will be presented by Mr. J. B. Hunley in
the absence of Sub-Committee Chairman Baldwin, who is busy with
Board of Direction work.

Mr. J. B. Hunley (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : — The
Committee really did more work than might be imagined from reading
the report in Appendix C. We decided first that grain-weighing scales
could not be considered along with the others, and at that time we started
to adopt a specification for a portable type of scales, both of the self-
contained and built-in type, and the motor-truck scales. We found a good
many complications. In the first place the manufacturers, while they
manufacture railroad scales and many other classes of scales, the rail-
roads are small consumers. We realize we had better, if possible, recom-
mend certain sizes and capacity of scales which would meet practically
all conditions and a questionnaire was sent to all the railroads. We found
that they were using various sizes and capacities, and while we could have
adopted certain of these sizes and capacities, because the manufacturers
were making them at that time, we realized that the situation might bring
out different classes of scales, and the manufacturers naturally objected
to scrapping the old patterns and designs, so that that matter has taken
a good deal of time.

We found there was not very much information with regard to
motor-truck scales, that is, as to the weight of motor trucks, but a great
deal of information was collected. After we got the information we
found we sometimes could not always agree with the manufacturers, and
many times the Committee could not agree. We hope to have a tentative
specification to submit at the next convention. I understand that the
American Railway Association has adopted a specification for grain-
weighing scales recently.

Chairman Mann: — The next subject is instruction (2) and the Board
of Direction instructed that the Committee submit a complete report,

1078 Rules and Organizatio n^

but it has not been possible to do that. Mr. Montzheimer will give the
details.

Mr. A. Montzheimer (Elgin, Joliet & Eastern) : — Last year, it will
be remembered, that this Committee made a progress report on the unit
operation of railway terminals in large cities. It was hoped that we could
make a final report on that subject this year, as well as revise the catechism
on the operation of terminals as a statement of principles. On account
of the change from government operation to private operation, it was
impossible for us to make a final report on this subject, and we would
like to have the matter carried over another year, with the hope that
we can make the final report at that time.

DISCUSSION ON RULES AND ORGANIZATION

(For report, see pp. 793-841.)

Mr. W. C. Barrett (Lehigh Valley) : — The Committee was given four
subjects on which to make a study and report.

Inasmuch as the action to be taken on subjects (2) and (3) will
determine what action will be taken on subject (1), they will be presented
first. Mr. Harsh will outline the matter under subject (2).

(Mr. Harsh briefly outlined the matter in Appendix A.)

Chairman Barrett : — I move the adoption of conclusion 2, on page 795.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Barrett : — While I believe this is the first time subject (3)
has been presented formally to the Association for approval, it has been
before the Committee and the Association for a number of years, so that
in presenting the "Manual of Rules for the Guidance of Employees of the
Maintenance of Way Department," the Committee is not presenting an
entirely new subject. Mr. Barnhart will present this part of the report.

(Mr. Barnhart briefly abstracted Appendix B.)

Chairman Barrett : — I move the adoption of conclusion 3.

Mr. C. W. Baldridge (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) :— I believe I
will have to take exception to Rule No. 1 to start with. I do not believe
it should be the duty of any employee to provide himself with a book
of rules. The rules should be altered to read that the employing officer
shall provide each new employee with a book of rules and that the em-
ployee then should familiarize himself with the rules.

I also notice in reading over the report of this Committee, commenc-
ing on page 825, Conduct of Work, in a great many cases it duplicates the
work of other committees already in the Manual, and in a few cases con-
flicts with such work, and I will ofi^er a motion that this portion begin-
ning at the middle of page 825 to the bottom of page 837 be referred back
to the Committee, with instructions to coordinate the matter on the con-
duct of work with the work of the other committees, and that the report
be brought in next year. I believe we will find a good many conflicts in

Discussion. 1079

our Manual if we put this in without checking it up against the work of
other committees. I beHeve there is a serious conflict with the work of
the Committee on Ballast.

Mr. H. L. Ripley (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : — I second
the motion and endorse what Mr. Baldridge has said, without any intent
to criticize the work of the Committee. As he has already pointed out,
there is conflict in this section on conduct of work with the work of the
Ballast Committee, and the recommendations that were made and adopted
by the Association. I think these things should be reconciled in some
way by a conference of the two committees, or the acceptance by this
Association of the wording of the Ballast Committee or the acceptance
of the wording of this Committee, so that the matter should not cover
instructions relating to the same point different in character and perhaps
in conflict.

Chairman Barrett : — The Committee went very carefully over every-
thing that was in the Manual, and so far as we could ascertain, there was
no conflict with any other committee's report. We tried not to put any-
thing in our report which would conflict. I really believe that the matter
we have submitted here will not conflict with the work of the Ballast
Committee.

Mr. Ripley: — Am I to understand that you have compared the matter
you are presenting here with the matter presented the day before yesterday
by the Ballast Committee and there is no conflict?

Chairman Barrett : — I compared it as fully as I could, with the amount
of time at my disposal.

Mr. Ripley: — I do not care to contend the point at all, but it seems
to me, as a natural method of proceeding, that these rules should be ar-
ranged by a conference of the members of the different standing com-
mittees, so that there should be no conflict. I am sure as far as the Ballast
Committee is concerned, they will be glad to accept it as it is. H there
is no conflict there is nothing to say about it.

Chairman Barrett : — There was no conflict with the matter already
printed in the Manual, and, as I said, I went over the Ballast Committee
report as carefully as I could, and I do not think there is any conflict
sufficient to warrant any extended discussion. This Committee wants to
work in harmony with the Ballast Committee and any other committee,
and if this report were deferred until next year, it would not be possible,
of course, to compare the new work of every committee, and that is why,
as I explained before, we went over the Manual very carefully and made
our report agree with what was in the Manual.

Mr. Maurice Coburn (Pennsylvania System) : — I agree with Mr.
Baldridge's motion. There are one or two other portions which should
have some consideration. The instructions about "Line and Surface" seem
to me misleading. Under "joint bars" it reads "Rail joints should be as
simple and of as few parts as possible to be effective."

1080 Rules and Organization.

These instructions, as I understand it, are for the trackmen with
relation to the actual operation and are not for such items as that. I
rather believe there is some duplication about nutlocks. In the general
instructions, in the beginning, after our discussion about labor yesterday,
we might say something about the duties of the foremen and the minor
officers toward the employees, making it a little more human.

Mr. A. S. Baldwin (Illinois Central) : — I think it would be a mis-
take to refer these rules back to the Committee. A great deal of excellent
work has been done on them ; what they are intended for is to be used
as a general compendium of rules for maintenance of way departments.
It would not be possible for this Committee to get up a set of rules that
would agree with everything that might be done in the convention after
they came in. These rules will be adapted to the special conditions of
every railroad, and it will be understood that they are for general use
and will be very helpful. I do not think a time would ever come when
the Committee could get up a compendium of rules which would answer
for all companies and all conditions, or that would be acceptable to every
member of the convention in session. These rules, however, constitute
the groundwork that may be adapted to the use of any company.

I believe it should be the duty of the superior officer to supply the
men with a copy of the rules, but the employee should not be able to
offer as an excuse that he did not carry out the rules because he had not
been supplied with a copy of them. I think it should be one of the em-
ployee's first duties to supply himself with a copy of the rules, although
I believe it should likewise be the duty of the superior officer who is
responsible to see that he is so supplied.

The points these gentlemen have raised are good, but I believe we
want a set of rules in the Manual, and my belief is that a great deal of
work has been done, and very well done, on these rules, and they will
be very useful in general to the railroad companies.

Mr. J. B. Carothers (Baltimore & Ohio) :— On behalf of the Com-
mittee, I wish to say that the first question that was brought up about the
employee providing himself with a book of rules, that is not our thought,
we copied that from the American Railway Association Standard Code.
They have been practicing that for a good many years. I do not believe
it is necessary to raise that question at this time.

With reference to the other question, we were unfortunate in being
placed in the afternoon of the last day when all the other reports were
in. If we had been in first, the Ballast Committee might have had to
revise their report, but I have no objection to some of the questions that
are raised, in fact, there are not being as many stated as I expected.

I am very much in favor of having these rules adopted. T am the
Chairman of the Sub-Committee on the revision of the Manual, and next
year I may recommend a change in some of the words and items that
have been suggested here, but I think it should go into the Manual this
year, as we have been trying for twelve years to place a book of rules

^ Discussion. 1081

in the Manual for the guidance of employees of the Maintenance of Way
Department.

Mr. Ripley: — Having been very thoroughly answered, if it is per-
missible, I will withdraw my second to the substitute motion.

Mr. Coburn : — How would it do to publish these rules coupled with
the statement that these are a guide for the preparation of rules?

The President : — I think there is no middle ground — they must be
adopted for the Manual or must go into the Proceedings. Anything
going into the Proceedings as a progress report may be considered as a
tentative recommendation of good practice.

Mr. C. F. Loweth (Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul) : — These rules
appear to contain a good many duplications. For instance, on pages 818
and 819, the rules for Bridge and Building Foremen and Mason Foremen
are identical, and those for Painter Foremen are identical with those in
the preceding two groups, excepting Rule 168. It would seem that Rule
168 would be as applicable to Bridge and Building and Masonry Foremen
as to Painter Foremen. On many roads, Bridge and Building Foremen
are at times Painter Foremen and are in charge of water station and
other work for which there is a still further duplication of rules. A simi-
lar duplication of rules runs through the whole portion of this report.

It would seem desirable to recast these rules so as to avoid this, and
the result would be a more concise code of rules and instructions, more
readily referred to, thus making them more efficient for the purpose in-
tended.

Chairman Barrett : — The Committee was cognizant of the fact that
in preparing rules for these different foremen they would be more or less
the same in their reading. We thought it proper to make the rules cor-
respond to one another, so that they would of necessity be in somewhat
the same form, and while there is, perhaps, as indicated, some repetitions,
these rules were intended as the groundwork for perhaps very much
more extended rules that particular railroads would want, and we thought
each one should be complete in itself. For that reason the Committee
submitted the rules in the form in which they did.

Mr. Baldridge: — I will call attention to Rule 274 with reference to
broken rails. The rule is very good as far as it goes, but it does not go
quite far enough, in that a broken rail, under present-day conditions,
should be removed from the track as soon as possible. The Committee
has finished this rule by saying: "The broken ends of the rail should be
connected by joint bars, the rail drilled, and the joint bars full bolted,
after which the resumption of traffic may be permitted." But they do not
go on to say that the rail should be taken out of the track at the earliest
practical moment.

With transverse fissure failures of rails which are occurring all over
the country, this becomes important, because where one transverse fissure
occurs in a rail, there are almost always several others sufficiently devel-
oped to cause the rail to break again at any time.

1082 Records and Accounts.

We had a case of this kind on the Santa Fe, in which a broken rail
was reported and the Section Foreman went out to look after it. Be-
cause there was no rail at the immediate point, he proceeded to drill and
joint the rail. He then procured another rail and took it to the point
where the broken rail was in track, but as it was near quitting time, he
decided that he would wait until next morning to put the rail in track.
The defective rail broke again under a passenger train, before the section
gang reached the place the next morning, resulting in the train being
derailed.

I think we should add a little more to this rule, and provide that a
broken rail must not be left in track longer than is necessary.

Chairman Barrett : — The Committee accepts the criticism and will ask
permission to add to that paragraph to make it read like this : "After
which the resumption of traffic may be permitted with reduced speed.
The rail should, however, be removed from the track as quickly as pos-
sible."

Mr. Coburn: — Will the Committee be willing to omit paragraph 275?

Chairman Barrett : — We will eliminate Rule 275.

I move the adoption of the report as amended.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

I will ask Mr. Carrothers to present subject (1).

Mr. Carothers : — The revision of the Manual has been taken care
of by the adoption of the other portions of the report, and we have noth-
ing further to offer.

I move the adoption of conclusion (1) on page 795.

(Motion duly seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Barrett: — Subject (4) is covered in Appendix C. I am
sorry that Mr. Coombs is not here to present the report, but we are
fortunate in having Mr. Gaines, Vice-Chairman of the Sub-Committee,
and he will present the report.

(Mr. Gaines presented an abstract of the report.)

Chairman Barrett: — I move the adoption of conclusion 4.

Mr. Coburn: — It seems to me that paragraph 8 on page 839 — "There
must be interchange of ideas and information between all types of execu-
tives," should have added to it, "and with the rank and file as far as
possible," or something else to convey that idea. Many of the executives
do not interest themselves in working with the rank and file.

Chairman Barrett : — The Committee will accept that suggestion.

(Motion to adopt conclusion 4 put to vote and carried.)

DISCUSSION ON RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

(For report, see pp. 901-924.)

Mr. H. M. Stout (Northern Pacific) : — The work of the past year
has been handled without sub-committees, except one which was carried
over from last year's work. The Committee, on subject (2), Cost-keeping

Discussion. 1083

Methods and Statistical Records, continued its work, hut it has nt)t hccn
able to complete it.

Toward the end of the season's work we organized for carrying on
the new subjects assigned to the Committee. The first subject was carried
out by the whole Committee and you will find the changes on page 904.

This form which is being proposed now to be substituted for the one
previously submitted and published in the Manual follows the practice
which we have adopted of having forms as far as possible printed on one
side onh". Any descriptive matter of instructions to l)e sliown on the
face of the form.

I move the approval of the Committee's recommendations for changes
in the form and that the matter submitted in Appendix A he substituted
for similar matter now in the Manual.

(Motion seconded, put to vote and carried.)

Chairman Stout: — With reference to subject (2), as stated, tlie sub-
committee which has been handling this subject has continued its work,
but does not have the matter in shape for presentation at this time, so
that no conclusions are offered.

We will pass to subject (3). Last year you will recall there were
some eight or nine blanks submitted, some oi them directly in accordance
with the requirements of the Order itself, and some of them designed to
furnish supporting data. This year we are submitting three additional
forms, and these will be found on pages 910, 911 and 912.

Mr. H. L. Ripley (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : — Since the
first days of December I have been spending much ©f my time in connec-
tion with this matter, which has to do with the I.C.C. Order No. 3. Tt
may be the intention of the Committee to present these forms and collect
certain data, but I believe there will he a circular issued soon by the
I.C.C. to cover that subject. It may not be known to the Committee
that new forms have been prepared illustrating what is required under
that Order of the Commission. The joint standing committee composed
of three representatives of the carriers and two or three representatives of
the Bureau of \'aluation have been appointed to consider this matter, and
I would question the expediency and perhaps the propriety at this tinn-
of adopting this Appendix B for inclusion in the Manual.

Mr. O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati. Chicago & St. Louis) : —
I want to call attention to the Register of Authorities for Expenditure.
It carries under the third column a D.C.E. reference. That refers to
the period of Federal control and is not necessary now.

Chairman Stout : — The column carrying the D.C.E. reference is only
inserted there to carry projects which are not yet closed out. some of
which were initiated under government control. It is not the intenlioti to
perpetuate that. As soon as we get entirely .iwa\- from that period the
D.C.E. reference will automatically drop out.

In answer to Mr. Ripley's suggestion. We recognize that at this time
Order No. 3 may be considered as being in a somewhat tentative condi-

(A)

1084 Conservation of Natural Resources.

tion, but the order has been served and its terms must be complied with
until they arc amended. Wc feel that these forms meet the requirements
of Order No. 3, and since no limit as to the amount of information to be
shown on the set of forms was specified by the I.C.C, Bureau of Valua-
tion, considerable leeway is given for additional information. They specify
only the minimum amount of information required. Therefore we think
we are justified in presenting the forms at this time.

Mr. Ripley : — I really feel I would be embarrassed rather than helped by
the adoption of this Appendix B as it is presented; still what tlie Chairman
has said is true. There was prepared and handed to the Secretary of the
President's Conference Committee a new set of forms arrauged in con-
siderable detail and differing substantially from the old forms, and I may
say if it had not been for the intervention of the carrier's committee, these
forms would probably be before you in mandatory form. We asked for
an opportunity to suggest modifications in these forms. I do not know
how mucli consideration the Committee has given to it, but we spent
weeks on this thing, and these forms do not go far enough. I would
like to make the suggestion that this Appendix B be received as informa-
tion, rather than for adoption and printing in the Manual.

The President : — The Committee desires to change its recommenda-
tion and that this subject be continued; that neutralizes the motion made
for adoption. The motion for adoption has been withdrawn by the
mover.

Chairman Stout: — Subject (4) is under consideration and no con-
clusions are presented at this time. Suliject (5) is also under considera-
tion and definite conclusions have not been prepared. In Appendix C in
connection with that study will be found a very valuable bibliography
covering the subject assigned. This has been prepared in large part by
the Bureau of Railway Economics, and we feel we are fortunate in get-
ting their assistance in this manner.

This matter is presented as information.

DISCUSSION ON CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES

(For report, see pp. 925-940.)

Mr. W. F. Ogle (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific) :— The first sub-
ject, "Make thorough examination of the subject-matter in the Manual,
and submit definite recommendations for changes," your Committee had
no recommendations to make with regard to what had previously been
published in the Manual, as we consider it in very good form now. That
report, which was on the prevention of the spread of forest and field
fires, was gone into very thoroughly last year and a very complete report
made at that time. We are very glad to know that many of the roads
operating through the timbered countries had requested a great many
copies of these rules for distribution.

Discussion. 1085

Subject (2), "Reclamation of Materials." Under Appendix A \vc
have shown a few examples of how reclamation of materials can he prac-
ticed. I think it is needless to say that most Engineers to-day realize
that there is a great saving to be made through reclamation of materials,
but the field is so large that it is really up to the individual to practice it
in a manner best suited to his own railroad ; for instance, the reclaiming
of some article on one railroad may be a paying proposition while the
same article, reclaimed on another railroad, may not, due to local con-
ditions and volume reclaimed.

Subject (3), "Tree Planting and Reforestation." Under Appendix B
we have given a few remarks. This is such an old subject and has been
gone over so often that there is little left to be said. I think the thing that
we, as Engineers, should do is to encourage proper legislation regulating
tree planting and reforestation. There is such a long wait for the in-
dividual before he can realize any return that he is not interested, this
is also more or less true with railroads; it is, therefore, a suljject to lic
handled by either State or Federal Governments or both.

Subject (4), "Conservation of Human Life and Energy Aiiioni.; En-
gineering Employees." Under Appendix C we have attempted to show
under several headings a few of the methods which should be followed
in the conservation of human life and energy. This is also a large subject
and there are many ways in which human life and energ\- can be pro-
tected.

I think a great many of the railroads to-day are realizing the neces-
sit}' of better housing and living conditions for their employees. Here
we are overlapping somewhat the work of the Committee on Economics
of Railway Labor.

Subject (5), "Report on Progress of Conservation in Canada." Under
Appendix D we have shown some of the progress in reforestation and
conservation in Canada, which is very similar to conditions in the States.

I move you, Mr. President, the adoption of this report as progress.

Prof. S. N. Williams: — Mr. President, in the way of comment on
the report I would like to explain that in accordance with the fourth
direction of the Board, I attended the meeting of the Association of
Railway Surgeons ; their action, papers and discussions were entirely in
reference to the surgical side of the subject, and they did not take up
anything which would give us information of advantage to present at
this time.

I wish to express my profound regret over the death of Mr. Sattley,
a member of the previous Committee. With other members of this or-
ganization I attended the funeral out at Austin not man}' weeks ago, and
could riot but be impressed with the fact that had Mr. Sattley been al-
lowed to live or been able to live longer, it would have been a source of
great gratification to his children and grandchildren. I trust you will
excuse m}' perennial reference to the importance of the subject of the

1086 C o user vat ion of Natural Resources.

cjrcatcst possible care of \(>ur lualth, lite and oiiorgy for the sake of your
loved ones.

It is also a matter of extreme regret to me that during the past year
-Mr. L. J. Putnam, the Chief Engineer of the Chicago & Northwestern
Railway, was carried of¥ by death, which came in the effort to save his
own son from drowning.

There are many instances which might be mentioned that are oc-
curring all the time, which you read of in the papers and with which we
become familiar; and yet it seems to me that the conservation of life,
health and energy is one of those things which we should at all times
keep in mind, and try to assist in preventing the colossal destruction of
human life which is now in progress throughout the world.

INDEX

A r-age

Addresses, President's 33

—Dean A. A. Potter 53

— L. A. Downs, President-elect.. 62

— William Renwick Riddell 57

Anti-creepers, plans and specili-

cations for 687

Agreement form for industrial

site 25fi

Ashpits 621

Automatic train control 65

Bad-order cars, economic trans-
fer of :)00-a

Balance sheet, g'eneral 50

Ballast, report 75

— ballasting on an operated line,

instructions to govern 80

— characteristics of stone ballast SO

— choice of ballast 70

— comparative merit of material

for ballast 79

— definitions 78

— proper depth of ballast 80

— sections 86

— specifications for pit run gravel 81
— specifications for stone ballast

material 78

— specifications for washed gi-avel

ballast ■ OS

— standardization of ballast tools 100
Bibliography on track elevation

and depression in cities 303

Borrow pits, standing water in.. 712
Bridges, rules and unit stresses

for rating existing 370

Buildings, report 813

— classification of buildings on
the basis of "Specification
Types" and upon the use of
the "Cubic Foot," "Squaie
Foot' and "Bill of Particu-
lars" inethods for ascertain-
ing approximate cost of new
construction 845

108'

Pagf
— specifications for buildings for

railroad piuposes 853

Bureau of Standards, cooperation

with 113

Tar shops, design of 587

Clamped frog, plans for

classification of buildings 815

Concrete, disintegration of in sea

water 546

Concrete, effect upon sti-ength

and durability 550

— discussion 1051

— use of in sea water 546

Conservation of Natural Resour-
ces, report 025

— conservation of human life and

energy 03 1

— progress of conservation in Ca-
nada 037

— reclamation of material 027

— tree planting from railway

standpoint 030

Constitution

Contracting track maintenance

work 60 1

Cracks in rock cuts, sealing with

cement gun 711

Crossings, highway 286

Crossovers, typical plans of 676

Cross-ties, methods for obtaining
data and keeping records on

life of 336

— -specification for 328

— use of various classes and pre-
servative treatment 341

Culverts, corrugated metal 707

Deiailei-s, plans and specifica-
tions for 687

Diagrammatic form for report-

irg engineering data 013

1088

Index.

Page
Douglas Fir density rule 510

Diainage of large cuts 711

— discussion 1057

Drinking water on trains or
premises of railroads, federal
and state regulations relating
to 408

Ductility tests of rail 222

Economics of Railway Laboi', re-
port 235

— discussion 1022

— methods for training and edu-
cating employees in engineer-
ing and maintenance work.. 23!)

— plans and methods for obtain-
ing labor for railways 235

Economics of Railway Location,

report 565

— economics of location as effect-
ed by introduction of electric
locomotives 578

— resistance of trains rimning
between 35 and 75 iriiles per
hour 569

Economics of Railway Operation,

report 723

— effect of speed of trains on

cost of operation 760

— methods for increasing effici-
ency of employees by furnish-
ing them with repoi'ts 725

— methods for inci'easing the

traffic capacity of a railway 733

Electric locomotives, economics
of location as effected by in-
troduction of 578

Electricity, report 109

— Bureau of Standards, co-opera-
tion with 143

— electrical interfei-ence 128

— electrolysis and insulation .... 109

— railroad specifications for elec-
tric wires and cables 150

— railroad specifications for un-
derground conduit construc-
tion and power cables 177

— specifications for insulated

wires and cables 127

Page

— standards 144

— tungsten lamp standards-1920. 146

— water power 116

— underground conduit construc-
tion 140

Embankment, subsidence aad

shrinkage 698

Engineering field parties, in-
structions to 797

Financial statement 48

Flashing, drainage, reinforce-
ment and protection for
water - proofing purposes,
principles for detailed design

of 395

Freight houses, multiple-storied. 892

— car repair shop, proposed 596

— train resistance 570

Frog designs 660

Frogs, specifications for 654

Gages and flangeways for curved

crossings 679, 975

Galvanizing wire fencing 996

Grade crossing elimination, dis-
cussion 1000

Gi'aphic form for reporting engi-
neering data 913

Gravel ballast, washed, specifica-
tions for 98

Guard rails, specifications for. . 654

High carljon open-heailh steel

tie plates, specifications for.. 689

Highway crossings 286

Increasing efficiency of employ-
ees by furnishing them with
reports '725

— traffic capacity of a railway,
methods for 733

Incrustation in pipe lines, extent
and effect of 413

Instructions for guidance of en-
gineering field parties 797

Index.

1089

Page
Insulated wires and cables, spe-
cifications for 127

Iron and Steel Structures, report 375
— .flashing, drainage, reinforce-
ment and protection for
water - proofing purposes,
principles for detailed design

of 3y.-,

— rules and unit stresses for rat-
ing existing bridges 371)

Labor, for railways, plans and

methods for obtaining 23.5

Lease agreement for industrial

site 2.if;

License for wires, pipes, conduits
and drains on railroad pi'o-
perty 254

Locomotives, types and char-
acteristics 11 7

Lumber, grading rules for 404

Manganese steel frogs C64

Marine borers, protection of piles

in water infested by *. 472

Masonry, report 543

— disintegration of concrete and
corrosion of reinfoi'cing ma-
terial in connection with the
use of concrete in sea water 546
— effect upon the strength and
durability of concrete not
having a sufficiency of mois-
ture present throughout the

period of hardening 550

Mechanical handling of freight.. 894
Membership, report on 44

Obtaining labor for railways,

plans and methods for 235

Officers, election of 60

— installation 61

Organization, science of 838

— fundamentals of 839

p Page

Passenger stations 898

— train resistance 573

Piece work schedules for con-
tracting track maintenance

work 694

Piles, protection of in water in-
fested by marine borers.... 472
Pollution of well water supplies,

effect of local deposits on. . . . 429
Power cables, specifications foi- 177

Piivate crossing sign 997

President, introductory lemarks 33

— address 33

— installation of 61

Kail inclination and standard-
ization of track appliances on

railways of France 943

liail laying with locomotive
cranes as practiced on the

Lehigh Valley Railroad 949

Hail, report 197

— rail record forms 200

— relation of shattered steel in
fissured rails to the mill end

of the rail 21 fi

— residual ductility tests in the
bearing surface from failed

rails in service 222

— status of Rail committee's

work 979

Reclamation of material 927

Records and .\ccoimts, repoi't.. 901

— definitions 904

— recommended forms for re-
cording data for keeping up-
to-date valuation of property
of railways as reciuired by
Valuation Order No. 3.

Second Revised Issue 90S

—report on the feasibility of re-
porting engineering data in
diagrammatic or graphic
form, and submit recommen-
ded diagrams 913

—bibliography on graphic pre-
sentation of engineering data 913
— monthly track material report 906

1090

Index

I'ag.'
Resistance of trains iiiiiniiig 1>»'-
tween So aiid 75 iiiilos i)or

hour -ifiO

Resolutions:

— H. R. Saflfoid. President .")!i

—Hon. William Renwick lUdddl fiit

—John F. Wallace M

— David Kinley t>"

Roadway, report 6!'r>

— corrugated metal culverts.... 707

— drainage of large cuts 711

— sealing bad cracks in rock cuts

with cement gun 711

— standing water in borrow pits. 712
— subsidence and .shi'lnkagc of

embankment G!is

Rules and Organization, report 7lto
— Manual of instructions for the
guidance of engineering field

parties 7!i7

— Manual of rules for the guid-
ance of employees of the
maintenance of way depart-
ment SII2

—Science of oi'ganization S3S

Sand in washed gravel ballast.. 0,50

Science of Organization 838

Secretary, report of 43

Service test records of cross- ties 443

— discussion IO.tS

Shattered steel in fissured rail.
relation of to mill end of

rail 21 C

Shops and Locomotive Termin-
als, report .58.5

— ashpits fi21

— car shops, design of 587

Signals and Interlocking, report fi5

— automatic train control 70

— signals for the protection of

track workers, display of.... 72
—time releases applied to signal

or switch apparatus 73

Signs, Fences and Orossings. re-
port 2ti7

— bibliography on track elevation

and depression in cities .... 303

Pago

— Iiighwa.v crossings 286

— requirements and practice of
various States and Canada
pertaining to highway grade

crossings 288

—signs 276

.'^lip-switches, typical plans of. . 676
Sodium fluoride as a preserva-
tive, availability and use of 471

Specifications:

— ballast, stone 03

—ballast, tools 100

— ballast, washed gravel 08

— buildings for railroad ptnposes S53

— cross-ties 328

— corrugated metal culvei-ts 708

— electric wires and cables 150

— grading lules for Umiber and

timber 10 1

— high carbon open-hearth steel

tie plates tiSO

— insulated wires and cables.... 127
— sub-structures for water tanks
—50,000 and 100,000 gallons

capacity 435

— sub-structures for wood and

steel for water tanks 431

— switches, frogs, crossings and

guard rails (i5 1

— switch stands, switch lamps

and switch locks 686

— switch-ties 332

— typical water station layouts. 412
— tie plates, derailers and anti-
creepers 6S7

— undergroimd conduit construc-
tion for power cables 177

Standardization, report of Sp'--

cial Committee 243

— discussion 090

Standardization of ballast tools 100
Standing watei' in borrow pits... 712

— discussion 1 056

.Steel sub-structures for water

tanks 134

Stone ballast, specifications for. 03

.Stone conduits 060

.Stresses in Raili'oad Track, re-
port 1117

Index

1091

Pag.>
Subsidence and slirinkage of em-
bankment fi98

— discussion 1051

Substitute ties 363

Switches, specifications foi- 654

Switch lamps, plans and speci-
fications foi' 686

Switch locks, plain and specifica-
tions for 686

Switch-ties, specification foi-.... 332
Switch-stands, jslans and specifi-
cations for 686

— re<niisites for 67 1

T>-llers. report of 6n

Ties, report 315

— definitions 317

— economics of use of various
classes of cross- ties and vari-
ous kinds of preservative

treatment, report on 341

^records of test section for ob-
taining data on life of cross-
lies, methods of installing-
and keeping 336

— leferences to manufacture and

physical requirements 320

— specification for cross-ties 328

— specification for switch-ties... 332

—substitute ties 363

Tie plates, plans and specifica-
tions for 687

Time releases applied to signals 67

Timber, grading rules for 491

— discu.ssion 1062

— sub-structui-es for water tanks 435
Track elevation, bibliography.. 303

Track, report 649

— frog designs 660

— gages and Hangeways for

curved crossings 679

— plans and specifications for
switch stands, switch lamps,

and switch locks 686

— plans and specifications for tie
plates, derailers and anti-
creepers 687

I'agf'
— refpiisites for switcli stand.s,

including connecting rods... 671
— solid manganese steel frogs.. R6f
— specifications and piece woi'k
schedules for contracting
ti'ack maintenance work.... 6Iil
— specifications for high carbon
open-he.'irth steel tie plates

689

— specifications for switches,
frogs, crossings and guard

rails 65 1

— typical plans of turnouls, cioss-
overs, slip-switches, double
crossovers and railroad cross-
ings 676

Ti'aflic capacitN' of a r;ill\vn.\, in-
creasing 733

Train control devices, chissitica-

tion 70

Treated watoi'. after-piefipita-

tion from 4 111

Track workers, display of sig-
nals for protection of..'. 72

Treasurer, i-eport of 50

Tree planting 93h

Trestles, wooden, various types 4S5
Tungsten lamp standai'ds — 192(i 146

Turnouts, typical plans of 676

T\pical vvatei- station la.xouts,

plans and specifications for 112

I'ndergroimd conduit construc-
tion 110

I'nit stresses foi- rating e.xisting

l^ridges .379

— discussion 1008

I'niform General Conti-act Forms.

report 247

— form of lease agreement for in-
dustrial site 256

— license for wires, pipes, con-
duits and drains on laihoad
property 25 !

\'aluation Ordei- No. 3, forms foi-

recordinr data on 908

1092

Ind

Water-pas-tai' as a preservative,

merits of 440

Water power 116

Water Service, report 405

— after-precipitation from treat-
ed water, cause and preven-
tion 419

— cleaning watei- mains 421,

— effect of local deposits on pol-
lution of surface or shallow
well water supplies 42!(

— incrustation of pipe lines, ex-
tent and effect of 413

— methods of disposing of waste
water at water stations and
keeping track free of ice.... 427

— regulations of Federal or State
authorities relating to supply
of drinking water on trains
oi- premises of i-ailroads 40X

— specifications for steel sub-
structure foi' water tanks
—50,000 and 100,000 gallons
capacity 434

— specifications for- timl)er sub-
structures for water tanks
—50,000 and 100,000 gallons
caipacity .'.

— specifications for sub-struc-
tures for wood and steel for
water tanlis 431

Wooden Bridges and Trestles,

report 4S1

Page

—definitions 497

— si)ecifications and classification
and grading lules for lumber
and tirnber to be used in the
construction and mainte-
nance of way department of
railroads 494

— study of various types of
wood trestles with a view to
lecommending two or three
standards adaptable for
general railway use 485

— working stresses for structural

timbers 542

Wood I'leservation, report 443

— availability and use of sodium
fluoride as a preservative for
cross-ties 471

— merits of water-gas-tar as a
preservative 468

— piotection of piles in watei- in-
fested by marine boi-ei-s 472

— sei-vice tests records 446

Yaids and Terminals, report.... 889
— methods of economic transfer
of bad-order cars in large
terminals by mechanical

means or otherwise

— multiple-storied freight liouses 892
— passenger stations 898

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